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Eugne Delacroix'sLibertyLeading the People, 1830, aRomantic work of art

A Realist portrait of Otto vonBismarck

The dominant trends of industrialVictorian England, were alsoopposed, from about 1850, by theEnglish poets and painters thatconstituted the Pre-RaphaeliteBrotherhood, because of their"opposition to technical skill without

inspiration".[14]They were influencedby the writings of the art critic JohnRuskin (18191900), who had strongfeelings about the role of art in helpingto improve the lives of the urbanworking classes, in the rapidly

expanding industrial cities of Britain.[15]Art critic Clement Greenbergdescribes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists: "There the

proto-Modernists were, of all people, the pre-Raphaelites (and even before them, as proto-proto-Modernists,the German Nazarenes. The Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet (183283), with whom Modernistpainting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, holding

that its realism wasn't truthful enough".[16]Rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Sren

Kierkegaard (181355)[17]and later Friedrich Nietzsche (18441900), both of whom had significant influence

on existentialism.[18]

However, the Industrial Revolution continued. Influential innovations included steam-powered industrialization,

and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s,[19]and the subsequentadvancements in physics, engineering and architecture associated with this. A major 19th-century engineeringachievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for The GreatExhibition of 1851 in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of

major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station (1854)[20]and King's Cross Station (1852).[21]

These technological advances led to the building of later structures like the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and theEiffel Tower (1889). The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be. Theseengineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. The

human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of electric telegraph from 1837,[22]and theadoption of standard time by British railway companies from 1845, and in the rest of the world over the next

fifty years.[23]

But despite continuing technological advances, from the 1870s onward, the idea that history and civilizationwere inherently progressive, and that progress was always good, came under increasing attack. Argumentsarose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antitheticalto Progress, and could not move forward in its present form. The philosopher Schopenhauer (17881860) (TheWorld as Will and Idea, 1819) called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important

influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche.[24]Two of the most significant thinkers of the period werebiologist Charles Darwin (180982), author ofOn the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection(1859), and political scientist Karl Marx (181883), author ofDas Kapital(1867). Darwin's theory ofevolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness. In particular, the

notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as "lower animals" proved to be difficult to reconcilewith the idea of an ennobling spirituality.[25]Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within

the capitalist system, and that the workers were anything but free.[26]
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Henri Matisse,Le bonheur de vivre,1905-6, Barnes Foundation,Merion, PA. An early Fauvistmasterpiece

Pablo Picasso,Les Demoisellesd'Avignon(1907), is considered tohave re-invented the art of painting.Many of Picasso's friends and

colleagues, even fellow painters HenriMatisse and Georges Braque, wereupset when they saw this painting.

the other hand, emphasizedthe difference betweenscientific, clock time andthe direct, subjective,human experience of

time.[35]His work on timeand consciousness "had a

great influence ontwentieth-century novelists,"especially those modernistswho used the stream ofconsciousness technique,such as DorothyRichardson, James Joyce,and Virginia Woolf (1882

1941).[36]Also important in Bergson's philosophy was the idea oflan vital, the life force, which "brings about the creative evolution of

everything".[37]His philosophy also placed a high value on intuition,

though without rejecting the importance of the intellect.[37]

Important literary precursors of Modernism were: Fyodor

Dostoyevsky (182181) Crime and Punishment(1866), The Brothers Karamazov(1880);[38]WaltWhitman (181992) (Leaves of Grass) (185591); August Strindberg (18491912), especially his later plays,including, the trilogy To Damascus18981901,A Dream Play(1902), The Ghost Sonata(1907). Henry

James has also been suggested as a significant precursor, in a work as early asPortrait of a Lady(1881).[39]

Out of the collision of ideals derived from Romanticism, and an attempt to find a way for knowledge to explainthat which was as yet unknown, came the first wave of works in the first decade of the 20th century, which,while their authors considered them extensions of existing trends in art, broke the implicit contract with thegeneral public that artists were the interpreters and representatives of bourgeois culture and ideas. These"modernist" landmarks include the atonal ending of Arnold Schoenberg's Second String Quartet in 1908, theexpressionist paintings of Wassily Kandinsky starting in 1903, and culminating with his first abstract painting andthe founding of the Blue Rider group in Munich in 1911, and the rise of fauvism and the inventions of cubismfrom the studios of Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and others, in the years between 1900 and1910.

Explosion, early 20th century to 1930

Arguably one of the most important aspects of Modernism is how it relates to tradition through its adoption of

techniques like reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms.[8][9]

T. S. Eliot made significant comments on the relation of the artist to tradition, including:

"[W]e shall often find that not only the best, but the most individual parts of [a poet's] work, may

be those in which the dead poets, his ancestors, assert their immortality most vigorously."[40]

However, relationship of modernism with tradition was complex, as literary scholar Peter Childs indicates:

"There were paradoxical if not opposed trends towards revolutionary and reactionary positions,
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Pablo Picasso,Portrait ofDaniel-Henry Kahnweiler,

1910, The Art Institute ofChicago

Piet Mondrian, View from the Duneswith Beach and Piers, Domburg,oiland pencil on cardboard, 1909,Museum of Modern Art, New YorkCity

fear of the new and delight at the disappearance of the old, nihilism and fanatical enthusiasm,

creativity and despair."[10]

An example of how modernist art can be both revolutionary and yet be related to past tradition, is the music ofthe composer Arnold Schoenberg. On the one hand Schoenberg rejected traditional tonal harmony, thehierarchical system of organizing works of music that had guided music making for at least a century and a half.He believed he had discovered a wholly new way of organizing sound, based in the use of twelve-note rows.

Yet while this was indeed wholly new, its origins can be traced back in the work of earlier composers, such asFranz Lizst,[41]Richard Wagner, Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss and Max Reger.[42]Furthermore it must benoted that Schoenberg also wrote tonal music throughout his career.

In the world of art, in the firstdecade of the 20th century, youngpainters such as Pablo Picasso andHenri Matisse were causing a shockwith their rejection of traditional

perspective as the means ofstructuring paintings,[43]though theimpressionist Monet had alreadybeen innovative in his use of

perspective.[44]In 1907, as Picassowas paintingLes Demoisellesd'Avignon, Oskar Kokoschka waswritingMrder, Hoffnung derFrauen(Murderer, Hope ofWomen), the first Expressionist play

(produced with scandal in 1909),and Arnold Schoenberg was composing his String Quartet No.2 in F-sharpminor(1908), his first composition without a tonal centre.

A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of

Paul Czanne, which were displayed in a retrospective at the 1907 Salon d'Automne.[45]In Cubist artwork,objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form and instead of depicting objects fromone viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater

context.[46]Cubism was brought to the attention of the general public for the first time in 1911 at the Salon des

Indpendants in Paris (held 21 April 13 June). Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Henri Le Fauconnier, RobertDelaunay, Fernand Lger and Roger de La Fresnaye were shown together in Room 41, provoking a 'scandal'out of which Cubism emerged and spread throughout Paris and beyond. Also in 1911, Kandinsky paintedBild

mit Kreis(Picture With a Circle) which he later called the first abstract painting.[47]In 1912 Jean Metzingerand Albert Gleizes wrote the first (and only) major Cubist manifesto,Du "Cubisme", published in time for theSalon de la Section d'Or, the largest Cubist exhibition to date. In 1912 Metzinger painted and exhibited hisenchantingLa Femme au Cheval (Woman with a horse)andDanseuse au caf (Dancer in a caf). AlbertGleizes painted and exhibited hisLes Baigneuses (The Bathers)and his monumentalLe Dpiquage des

oissons (Harvest Threshing). This work, along withLa Ville de Paris(City of Paris) by Robert Delaunay,

is the largest and most ambitious Cubist painting undertaken during the pre-War Cubist period.[48]

In 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brcke (the Bridge) in thecity of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, thoughthey did not use the word itself. A few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der
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The Museo Nacional Centro de Arte

Reina Sofa (MNCARS) is the officialname of Spain's national museum of20th-century art, located in Madrid(informally shortened to the MuseoReina Sofa, Queen Sofia Museum).

The photo shows the old buildingwith the addition of the Elevator tothe exterior of the structure with theclose up of the modern art tower

Portrait of Eduard Kosmackby EgonSchiele

Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in Munich. The name came fromWassily Kandinsky's Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903. Among theirmembers were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and AugusteMacke. However, the term Expressionism did not firmly establish

itself until 1913.[49]Though initially mainly a German artistic

movement,[50]most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatrebetween 191030, most precursors of the movement were not

German. Furthermore there have been expressionist writers of prosefiction, as well as non-German speaking expressionist writers, and,while the movement had declined in Germany with the rise of AdolfHitler in the 1930s, there were subsequent expressionist works.

Expressionism isnotoriously difficult todefine, in part because it"overlapped with othermajor 'isms' of the

modernist period: withFuturism, Vorticism,Cubism, Surrealism and

Dada." [51]RichardMurphy also comments:"the search for an all-inclusive definition isproblematic to the extentthat the most challenging

expressionists" such as thenovelist Franz Kafka, poet Gottfried Benn, and novelist Alfred Dblin

were simultaneously the most vociferous anti-expressionists.[52]What, however, can be said, is that it was amovement that developed in the early twentieth-century mainly in Germany in reaction to the dehumanizing effectof industrialization and the growth of cities, and that "one of the central means by which expressionism identifiesitself as an avant-garde movement, and by which it marks its distance to traditions and the cultural institution as a

whole is through its relationship to realism and the dominant conventions of representation."[53]More explicitly:

that the expressionists rejected the ideology of realism.[54]

There was a concentrated Expressionist movement in early 20th century German theatre of which Georg Kaiserand Ernst Toller were the most famous playwrights. Other notable Expressionist dramatists included ReinhardSorge, Walter Hasenclever, Hans Henny Jahnn, and Arnolt Bronnen. They looked back to Swedish playwrightAugust Strindberg and German actor and dramatist Frank Wedekind as precursors of their dramaturgicalexperiments. Oskar Kokoschka'sMurderer, the Hope of Womenwas the first fully Expressionist work for the

theatre, which opened on 4 July 1909 in Vienna.[55]The extreme simplification of characters to mythic types,choral effects, declamatory dialogue and heightened intensity would become characteristic of later Expressionistplays. The first full-length Expressionist play was The Sonby Walter Hasenclever, which was published in 1914

and first performed in 1916.[56]

Futurism is yet another modernist movement and in 1909, the Parisian newspaperLe Figaropublished F.T.Marinetti's first manifesto. Soon afterwards a group of painters (Giacomo Balla, Umberto Boccioni, CarloCarr, Luigi Russolo, and Gino Severini) co-signed the Futurist Manifesto. Modeled on Marx and Engels'famous "Communist Manifesto" (1848), such manifestoes put forward ideas that were meant to provoke and to
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Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's SeagramBuilding in New York City

gather followers. However, arguments in favor of geometric or purely abstract painting were, at this time, largelyconfined to "little magazines" which had only tiny circulations. Modernist primitivism and pessimism werecontroversial, and the mainstream in the first decade of the 20th century was still inclined towards a faith inprogress and liberal optimism.

Abstract artists, taking as their examples the impressionists, as well as Paul Czanne (18391906) and EdvardMunch (18631944), began with the assumption that color and shape, not the depiction of the natural world,

formed the essential characteristics of art.[58]

Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle ofthe 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective and an attempt to reproduce an illusion of visiblereality. The arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways ofdescribing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a newkind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy.The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, and reflected the social

and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of Western culture at that time.[59]Wassily Kandinsky, PietMondrian, and Kazimir Malevich all believed in redefining art as thearrangement of pure color. The use of photography, which hadrendered much of the representational function of visual art obsolete,

strongly affected this aspect of modernism.[60]

Modernist architects and designers, such as Frank Lloyd Wright andLe Corbusier, believed that new technology rendered old styles ofbuilding obsolete. Le Corbusier thought that buildings should functionas "machines for living in", analogous to cars, which he saw as

machines for traveling in.[61]Just as cars had replaced the horse, somodernist design should reject the old styles and structures inheritedfrom Ancient Greece or from the Middle Ages. Following this

machine aesthetic, modernist designers typically rejected decorativemotifs in design, preferring to emphasize the materials used and pure

geometrical forms.[62]The skyscraper is the archetypal modernistbuilding and the Wainwright Building, a 10-story office building built1890-91, in St. Louis, Missouri, US, is among the first skyscrapers in

the world.[63]Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in NewYork (19561958) is often regarded as the pinnacle of this modernist

high-rise architecture.[64]Modernism reversed the 19th-centuryrelationship of public and private: in the 19th century, public buildings

were horizontally expansive for a variety of technical reasons, andprivate buildings emphasized verticality, so as to fit more private space on increasingly limited land. Conversely,in the 20th century, public buildings became vertically oriented and private buildings became organizedhorizontally. Many aspects of modernist design still persist within the mainstream of contemporary architecture,though previous dogmatism has given way to a more playful use of decoration, historical quotation, and spatialdrama.

In 1913which was the year of philosopher Edmund Husserl'sIdeas; physicist Niels Bohr's quantized atom;Ezra Pound's founding of imagism; the Armory Show in New York; and, in Saint Petersburg, the "first futuristopera", Mikhail Matyushin's Victory Over the Sunanother Russian composer, Igor Stravinsky, composed

The Rite of Spring, a ballet that depicts human sacrifice, and has a musical score full of dissonance andprimitive rhythm. This caused uproar on its first performance in Paris. At this time though Modernism was still"progressive", increasingly it saw traditional forms and traditional social arrangements as hindering progress, andwas recasting the artist as a revolutionary, engaged in overthrowing rather than enlightening society. Also in1913 a less violent event occurred in France with the publication of the first volume of Marcel Proust's important
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Jean Metzinger, 1913,En Canot,approximate dimensions 150 x 116.5cm (59 x 46 in), exhibited at ModerniUmeni, S.V.U. Mnes, Prague, 1914,acquired in 1916 by Georg Muche atthe Galerie Der Sturm, confiscated bythe Nazis circa 193637, displayed atthe Degenerate Art show in Munich,

and missing ever since.[57]

Andr Masson,Pedestal Table in theStudio1922, early example of

Surrealism

novel sequence la recherche du temps perdu(19131927) (In Search of Lost Time). This often presentedas an early example of a writer using the stream-of-consciousness technique, but Robert Humphrey commentsthat Proust "is concerned only with the reminiscent aspect of consciousness" and that he "was deliberatelyrecapturing the past for the purpose of communicating; hence he did not write a stream-of-consciousness

novel".[65]

Stream of consciousness was an important modernist literary innovationas, and it has been suggested that Arthur

Schnitzler (18621931), was the first to make full use it in his short story '"Leutnant Gustl" ("None but theBrave" ) (1900).[66]Dorothy Richardson was the first English writer to use it, in the early volumes of her novel

sequencePilgrimage(191567).[67]The other modernist novelists that are associated with the use of thisnarrative technique include James Joyce in Ulysses(1922), and Italo Svevo inLa coscienza di Zeno

(1923).[68]

However, with the comingof Great War of 1914-18,and the Russian Revolution

of 1917, the world wasdrastically changed anddoubt cast on the beliefsand institutions of the past.The failure of the previousstatus quo seemed self-evident to a generation thathad seen millions diefighting over scraps ofearth: prior to 1914 it had

been argued that no onewould fight such a war,since the cost was too high.The birth of a machine age which had made major changes in theconditions of daily life in the 19th century now had radically changedthe nature of warfare. The traumatic nature of recent experiencealtered basic assumptions, and realistic depiction of life in the artsseemed inadequate when faced with the fantastically surreal nature oftrench warfare, The view that mankind was making steady moralprogress now seemed ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter,

that was described in works such as Erich Maria Remarque's novelAll Quiet on the Western Front(1929). Therefore Modernism'sview of reality, which had been a minority taste before the war,became to more generally accepted in the 1920s.

In literature and visual art some modernists sought to defy expectations mainly in order to make their art morevivid, or to force the audience to take the trouble to question their own preconceptions. This aspect ofModernism has often seemed a reaction to consumer culture, which developed in Europe and North America inthe late 19th century. Whereas most manufacturers try to make products that will be marketable by appealing topreferences and prejudices, high modernists rejected such consumerist attitudes in order to undermine

conventional thinking. The art critic Clement Greenberg expounded this theory of Modernism in his essayvant-Garde and Kitsch.[69]Greenberg labelled the products of consumer culture "kitsch", because their

design aimed simply to have maximum appeal, with any difficult features removed. For Greenberg, Modernism
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thus formed a reaction against the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercialpopular music, Hollywood, and advertising. Greenberg associated this with the revolutionary rejection ofcapitalism.

Some modernists saw themselves as part of a revolutionary culture, that included political revolution. In Russiaafter the 1917 Revolution there was indeed initially a burgeoning of avant garde cultural activity, which includedRussian futurism. However others rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions, believing that arevolution of political consciousness had greater importance than a change in political structures. But manymodernists saw themselves as apolitical. Others, such as T. S. Eliot, rejected mass popular culture from aconservative position. Some even argue that Modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an elite culture

which excluded the majority of the population.[69]

Surrealism, which originated in the early 1920s, came to be regarded by the public as the most extreme form of

modernism, or "the avant-garde of modernism".[70]The wordsurrealistwas coined by Guillaume Apollinaireand first appeared in the preface to his playLes Mamelles de Tirsias, which was written in 1903 and first

performed in 1917. Major surrealists include Paul luard, Robert Desnos,[71]Max Ernst, Hans Arp, Antonin

Artaud, Raymond Queneau, Joan Mir, and Marcel Duchamp.

[72]

By 1930, Modernism won a place in the establishment, including the political and artistic establishment, althoughby this time Modernism itself had changed.

Modernism continues: 19301945

Modernism continued to evolve during the 1930s. Between 1930 and 1932 composer Arnold Schoenberg

worked onMoses und Aaronone of the first operas to make use of the twelfth note technique,[73]PabloPicasso painted in 1937 Guernica, his cubist condemnation of fascism, while in 1939 James Joyce pushed the

boundaries of the modern novel further withFinnegans Wake. Also by 1930 modernism began to influencemainstream culture, so that, for example, The New Yorkermagazine began publishing work, which was

influenced by modernism, by young writers and humorists like Dorothy Parker,[74]Robert Benchley, E. B.

White, S. J. Perelman, and James Thurber, amongst others.[75]Perelman is highly regarded for his humorousshort stories that he published in magazines in the 1930s and 1940s, most often in The New Yorker, which are

considered to be the first examples of surrealist humor in America.[76]Modern ideas in art also began to appearmore frequently in commercials and logos, an early example of which, from 1919, is the famous LondonUnderground logo designed by Edward Johnston.

One of the most visible changes of this period was the adoption of new technologies into daily life of ordinarypeople in Western Europe and North America. Electricity, the telephone, the radio, the automobileand theneed to work with them, repair them and live with themcreated social change. The kind of disruptive momentthat only a few knew in the 1880s became a common occurrence. For example, the speed of communicationreserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of family life, at least in middle class North America.Associated with urbanization and changing social mores also came smaller families and changed relationshipsbetween parents and their children.

Another strong influence at this time was Marxism. After the generally primitivistic/irrationalist aspect of pre-World War I Modernism, which for many modernists precluded any attachment to merely political solutions,

and the neoclassicism of the 1920s, as represented most famously by T. S. Eliot and Igor Stravinskywhichrejected popular solutions to modern problemsthe rise of Fascism, the Great Depression, and the march towar helped to radicalise a generation. Bertolt Brecht, W. H. Auden, Andr Breton, Louis Aragon and thephilosophers Antonio Gramsci and Walter Benjamin are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this modernist
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James Joyce. statueon North EarlStreet, Dublin, byMarjorie FitzGibbon

form of Marxism. There were, however, also Modernists explicitly of 'theright', including Salvador Dal, Wyndham Lewis, T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound,

the Dutch author Menno ter Braak and others.[77]

Significant modernist literary works continued to be created in the 1920sand 1930s, including further novels by Marcel Proust, Virginia Woolf,Robert Musil, and Dorothy Richardson. The American modernist dramatist

Eugene O'Neill's career began in 1914, but his major works appeared inthe 1920s and 1930s and early 1940s. Two other significant modernistdramatists writing in the 1920s and 1930s were Bertolt Brecht andFederico Garca Lorca. D. H. Lawrence'sLady Chatterley's Loverwas privately published in 1928, whileanother important landmark for the history of the modern novel came with the publication of William Faulkner'sThe Sound and the Furyin 1929. In the 1930s, in addition to further major works by Faulkner, SamuelBeckett's published his first major work, the novelMurphy(1938). Then in 1939 James Joyce'sFinnegansWakeappeared. This is written in a largely idiosyncratic language, consisting of a mixture of standard Englishlexical items and neologistic multilingual puns and portmanteau words, which attempts to recreate the experience

of sleep and dreams.[78]In poetry T. S. Eliot, E. E. Cummings, and Wallace Stevens were writing from the

1920s until the 1950s. While modernist poetry in English is often viewed as an American phenomenon, withleading exponents including Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams, H.D., andLouis Zukofsky, there were important British modernist poets, including David Jones, Hugh MacDiarmid, BasilBunting, and W. H. Auden. European modernist poets include Federico Garca Lorca, Anna Akhmatova,Constantine Cavafy, and Paul Valry.

The modernist movement continued during this period in Soviet Russia and in 1930composer Dimitri Shostakovich's (190675) opera The Nosewas premiered, inwhich he uses a montage of different styles, including folk music, popular song andatonality. Amongst his influences was Alban Berg's (19851935) opera Wozzeck

(1925), which "had made a tremendous impression on Shostakovich when it wasstaged in Leningrad".[79]However, from 1932 Socialist realism began to oust

modernism in the Soviet Union,[80]and in 1936 Shostakovich was attacked and

forced to withdraw his 4th Symphony.[81]Alban Berg wrote another significant,though incomplete, modernist opera,Lulu, which premiered in 1937. Berg's violinconcerto was first performed in 1935. Like Shostakovich other composers faceddifficulties in this period. In Germany Arnold Schoenberg (18741951) was forced toflee to the US when Hitler came to power in 1933, because of both his modernist

atonal-style, as well as his Jewish ancestry.

[82]

His major works from this period are aViolin Concerto, Op. 36 (1934/36), Piano Concerto, Op. 42 (1942). Schoenbergalso wrote tonal music in this period with the Suite for Strings in G major (1935), andthe Chamber Symphony No. 2 in Eminor, Op. 38 (begun in 1906, completed in

1939).[83]During this time Hungarian modernist Bla Bartk (18811945) produceda number of major works, includingMusic for Strings, Percussion and Celesta(1936) andDivertimento for String Orchestra BB 118(1939), String Quartet No. 5(1934), and No. 6 (his last, 1939). But he too left for the US in 1940, because of the

rise of fascism in Hungary.[84]Igor Stravinsky (18821971) continued writing in hisneoclassical style during the 1930s and 1940s, writing works like Symphony ofPsalms(1930), Symphony in C (1940) and Symphony in Three Movements(1945).

He also emigrated to the US because of World War II. Olivier Messiaen (19081992), however, served in the
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Pablo Picasso Guernica 1937, protest against Fascism

French army during the war and was imprisoned at Stalag VIII-A by the Germans, where he composed hisfamous Quatuor pour la fin du temps("Quartet for the End of Time"). The Quartet was first performed in

January 1941 to an audience of prisoners and prison guards.[85]

In painting, during the 1920s and the 1930s and the Great Depression, modernism is defined by Surrealism, lateCubism, the Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German Expressionism, Expressionism, and modernist and masterful colorpainters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard as well as the abstractions of artists like Piet Mondrian and

Wassily Kandinsky which characterized the European art scene. In Germany Max Beckmann, Otto Dix,George Grosz and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II. While inAmerica modernism is seen in the form of American Scene painting and the social realism and regionalismmovements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like Ben Shahn,Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, George Tooker, John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and others becameprominent. Modernism is defined in Latin America by painters Joaqun Torres Garca from Uruguay and RufinoTamayo from Mexico, while the muralist movement with Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, Jos Orozco, PedroNel Gmez and Santiago Martinez Delgado, and Symbolist paintings by Frida Kahlo, began a renaissance ofthe arts for the region, characterized by a freer use of color and an emphasis on political messages.

Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, "Man at the Crossroads", in thelobby of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center. When his patron Nelson Rockefeller discovered that themural included a portrait of Vladimir Lenin and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinishedwork was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff. Frida Kahlo (Rivera's wife's) works are oftencharacterized by their stark portrayals of pain. Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture,which is apparent in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism. Christian and Jewish themes are oftendepicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican traditionwhich wereoften bloody and violent. Frida Kahlo's Symbolist works relate strongly to Surrealism and to the Magic Realismmovement in literature.

Political activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside hisartistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the Mexican Revolution. The period from the 1920s to the 1950s isknown as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at onceMexican and universal. The young Jackson Pollock attended the workshop and helped build floats for theparade.

During the 1930s radical leftist politics characterized many of the artists connected to Surrealism, including

Pablo Picasso.[86]On 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the Basque town of Gernika was the sceneof the "Bombing of Gernika" by the Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to support theefforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government.

Pablo Picasso painted his mural sized Guernicato commemorate the horrors of the bombing.

During the Great Depression of the 1930s,through the years of World War II American artwas characterized by Social Realism andAmerican Scene Painting, in the work of GrantWood, Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, ThomasHart Benton, and several others.Nighthawks(1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper thatportrays people sitting in a downtown diner late

at night. It is not only Hopper's most famouspainting, but one of the most recognizable inAmerican art. The scene was inspired by a dinerin Greenwich Village. Hopper began painting it
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works from the 1930s until the 1980s, includingMolloy(1951),En attendant Godot(1953),Happy Days(1961),Rockaby(1981). The terms minimalist and post-modernist have also been applied to his later

works.[94]The poets Charles Olson (19101970) and J. H. Prynne (1936- ) are among the writers in the

second half of the 20th century who have been described as late modernists.[95]

More recently the term late modernism has been redefined by at least one critic and used to refer to workswritten after 1945, rather than 1930. With this usage goes the idea that the ideology of modernism was

significantly re-shaped by the events of World War II, especially the Holocaust and the dropping of the atombomb.[96]

The post-war period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval with an urgency to economically and physicallyrebuild and to politically regroup. In Paris (the former center of European culture and the former capital of theart world) the climate for art was a disaster. Important collectors, dealers, and modernist artists, writers, andpoets had fled Europe for New York and America. The surrealists and modern artists from every cultural centerof Europe had fled the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United States. Many of those who didn't fleeperished. A few artists, notably Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Pierre Bonnard, remained in France andsurvived.

The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, a modernist movementthat combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, surrealism, Joan Mir, cubism, Fauvism, andearly Modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham. American artistsbenefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Lger, Max Ernst and the Andr Breton group, PierreMatisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This Century, as well as other factors.

Theatre of the Absurd

The term Theatre of the Absurd is applied to plays written by primarily European playwrights, that express thebelief that human existence has no meaning or purpose and therefore all communication breaks down. Logical

construction and argument gives way to irrational and illogical speech and to its ultimate conclusion, silence.[97]

While there are significant precursors, including Alfred Jarry (18731907), the Theatre of the Absurd isgenerally seen as beginning in the 1950s with the plays of Samuel Beckett.

Critic Martin Esslin coined the term in his 1960 essay "Theatre of the Absurd." He related these plays based ona broad theme of the Absurd, similar to the way Albert Camus uses the term in his 1942 essay, "The Myth of

Sisyphus".[98]The Absurd in these plays takes the form of mans reaction to a world apparently withoutmeaning, and/or man as a puppet controlled or menaced by invisible outside forces. Though the term is applied

to a wide range of plays, some characteristics coincide in many of the plays: broad comedy, often similar toVaudeville, mixed with horrific or tragic images; characters caught in hopeless situations forced to do repetitiveor meaningless actions; dialogue full of clichs, wordplay, and nonsense; plots that are cyclical or absurdlyexpansive; either a parody or dismissal of realism and the concept of the "well-made play".

Playwrights commonly associated with the Theatre of the Absurd include Samuel Beckett (19061989), EugneIonesco (19091994), Jean Genet (19101986), Harold Pinter (19302008), Tom Stoppard (born 1937),Friedrich Drrenmatt (19211990), Alejandro Jodorowsky (born 1929), Fernando Arrabal (born 1932),Vclav Havel (19362011) and Edward Albee (born 1928).

Pollock and abstract influences
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Albeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Arrabalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandro_Jodorowskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_D%C3%BCrrenmatthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Stoppardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Pinterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Genethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ionescohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Becketthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-made_playhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaudevillehttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Myth_of_Sisyphushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Camushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Esslinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Becketthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Jarryhttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playwrighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_This_Centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy_Guggenheimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Matissehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Bretonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Ernsthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_L%C3%A9gerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piet_Mondrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Grahamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Hofmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauvismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Mir%C3%B3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_expressionismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Bonnardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Matissehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picassohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrealistshttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocausthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_modernismhttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._H._Prynnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Olsonhttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-modernisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimalisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockabyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Dayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En_attendant_Godothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molloy_(novel)


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Jackson Pollock,Blue Poles,1952, National Galleryof Australia

Barnett Newman, Who's Afraid ofRed, Yellow and Blue?, 1966.Typical of Newman's later work,with the use of pure and vibrantcolor

During the late 1940s Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for allcontemporary art that followed him. To some extent Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work ofart was as important as the work of art itself. Like Pablo Picasso's innovative reinventions of painting andsculpture in the early 20th century via cubism and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined the way art getsmade. His move away from easel painting andconventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of hisera and to all who came after. Artists realized that

Jackson Pollock's processplacing unstretched rawcanvas on the floor where it could be attacked from allfour sides using artistic and industrial materials; drippingand throwing linear skeins of paint; drawing, staining,and brushing; using imagery and non-imageryessentially blasted artmaking beyond any priorboundary. Abstract expressionism generally expandedand developed the definitions and possibilities availableto artists for the creation of new works of art.

The other abstract expressionists followed Pollock's breakthrough withnew breakthroughs of their own. In a sense the innovations of JacksonPollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston,Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, RobertMotherwell, Peter Voulkos and others opened the floodgates to thediversity and scope of all the art that followed them. Rereadings into

abstract art by art historians such as Linda Nochlin,[99]Griselda

Pollock[100]and Catherine de Zegher[101]critically show, however, thatpioneering women artists who produced major innovations in modern arthad been ignored by official accounts of its history.

International figures from British Art

Henry Moore (1898 1986) emerged after World War II as Britain'sleading sculptor. He was best known for his semi-abstract monumentalbronze sculptures which are located around the world as public works ofart. His forms are usually abstractions of the human figure, typicallydepicting mother-and-child or reclining figures, usually suggestive of thefemale body, apart from a phase in the 1950s when he sculpted family

groups. His forms are generally pierced or contain hollow spaces.

In the 1950s, Moore began to receive increasingly significantcommissions, including a reclining figurefor the UNESCO building in

Paris in 1958.[102]With many more public works of art, the scale of Moore's sculptures grew significantly. Thelast three decades of Moore's life continued in a similar vein with several major retrospectives took place aroundthe world, notably a very prominent exhibition in the summer of 1972 in the grounds of the Forte di Belvedereoverlooking Florence. By the end of the 1970s, there were some 40 exhibitions a year featuring his work. Onthe campus of the University of Chicago in December 1967, 25 years to the minute after the team of physicistsled by Enrico Fermi achieved the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, Moore'sNuclear

Energywas unveiled.[103]Also in Chicago Moore also commemorated science with a large bronze sundial,locally namedMan Enters the Cosmos(1980), which was commissioned to recognise the space exploration

program.[104]
http://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_explorationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_Enters_the_Cosmoshttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Energy_(sculpture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belvedere_(fort)http://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCOhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Moorehttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_de_Zegherhttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griselda_Pollockhttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_Nochlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Voulkoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Motherwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_Reinhardthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnett_Newmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clyfford_Stillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Hofmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Gustonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Rothkohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Klinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_de_Kooninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_expressionistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canvashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picassohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_Pollockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who%27s_Afraid_of_Red,_Yellow_and_Blue%3Fhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnett_Newmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Newman-Who%27s_Afraid_of_Red,_Yellow_and_Blue.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Poleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_Pollockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_Poles_(Jackson_Pollock_painting).jpg


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The cast in Westminster, London, 1962-1965, byHenry Moore.

The "London School" of figurative painters, including Francis Bacon (1909 1992), Lucian Freud (1922 2011), Frank Auerbach (born 1931), Leon Kossoff (born 1926), and Michael Andrews (1928 1995), have

received widespread international recognition.[105]

Francis Bacon was an Irish-born British figurative painter known for his bold, graphic and emotionally raw

imagery.[106]His painterly but abstracted figures typically appear isolated in glass or steel geometrical cages setagainst flat, nondescript backgrounds. Bacon began painting during his early 20s but worked only sporadically

until his mid-30s. His breakthrough came with the 1944 triptych Three Studies for Figures at the Base of aCrucifixionwhich sealed his reputation as a uniquely bleak chronicler of the human condition.[107]His outputcan be crudely drawn as consisting of sequences or variations on a single motif; beginning with the 1940s maleheads isolated in rooms, the early 1950s screaming popes, and mid to late 1950s animals and lone figuressuspended in geometric structures. These were followed by his early 1960s modern variations of the crucifixionin the triptych format. From the mid-1960s to early1970s, Bacon mainly produced strikingly compassionateportraits of friends. Following the suicide of his loverGeorge Dyer in 1971, his art became more personal,inward looking and preoccupied with themes and motifsof death. During his lifetime, Bacon was equally reviled

and acclaimed.[108]

According to William Grimes of the New York Times,

Lucien Freud and his contemporaries

transformed figure painting in the 20th

century. In paintings like Girl With a

White Dog(1951-52),[109]

Freud put thepictorial language of traditional European

painting in the service of an anti-romantic,

confrontational style of portraiture that stripped bare the sitters social facade. Ordinary people

many of them his friends stared wide-eyed from the canvas, vulnerable to the artists ruthless

inspection.[110]

Lucian Freud was a German-born British painter, known chiefly for his thickly impastoed portrait and figure

paintings, who was widely considered the pre-eminent British artist of his time.[111]His works are noted for theirpsychological penetration, and for their often discomforting examination of the relationship between artist and

model.[112]

In the 1960s after abstract expressionism

In abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions like hard-edge painting and other formsof geometric abstraction began to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles as a reaction againstthe subjectivism of abstract expressionism. Clement Greenberg became the voice of post-painterly Abstraction

when he curated an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout theUnited States in 1964. Color Field painting, hard-edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction[113]emerged as radicalnew directions.
http://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrical_Abstractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_Fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-painterly_Abstractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Greenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avant-gardehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_abstractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard-edge_paintinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_arthttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impastohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucian_Freudhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Timeshttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Studies_for_Figures_at_the_Base_of_a_Crucifixionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triptychhttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon_(artist)http://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Andrews_(artist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Kossoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Auerbachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucian_Freudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon_(painter)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Moorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HenryMoore_KnifeEdgeTwoPiece02b.jpg


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Smithson's "Spiral Jetty" from atopRozel Point, Utah, US, in mid-April2005. Created in 1970, it still existsalthough it has often been submergedby the fluctuating lake level. Itconsists of some 6500 tons of basalt,earth and salt.

minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in geometric abstraction of Kazimir

Malevich,[117]the Bauhaus and Piet Mondrian) that rejected the idea of relational and subjective painting, thecomplexity of abstract expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena ofaction painting. Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation neededin art. Minimalism is variously construed either as a precursor to postmodernism, or as a postmodern movementitself. In the latter perspective, early minimalism yielded advanced modernist works, but the movement partiallyabandoned this direction when some artists like Robert Morris changed direction in favor of the anti-form

movement. Hal Foster, in his essay The Crux of Minimalism,[118]examines the extent to which Donald Juddand Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian Modernism in their published definitions of

minimalism.[118]He argues that minimalism is not a "dead end" of modernism, but a "paradigm shift toward

postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today."[118]

The terms have expanded to encompass a movement in music that features such repetition and iteration as thoseof the compositions of La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and John Adams. Minimalistcompositions are sometimes known as systems music. The term "minimalist" often colloquially refers to anythingthat is spare or stripped to its essentials. It has also been used to describe the plays and novels of Samuel

Beckett, the films of Robert Bresson, the stories of Raymond Carver, and the automobile designs of ColinChapman.

Postminimalism

In the late 1960s Robert Pincus-Witten[114]coined the termpostminimalism to describe minimalist-derived art which had contentand contextual overtones that minimalism rejected. The term wasapplied by Pincus-Whitten to the work of Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier,

Richard Serra and new work by former minimalists Robert Smithson,Robert Morris, and Sol LeWitt, and Barry Le Va, and others. Otherminimalists including Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, AgnesMartin, John McCracken and others continued to produce latemodernist paintings and sculpture for the remainders of their careers.

In the 1960s the work of the avant-garde minimalist composers LaMonte Young, Philip Glass, Steve Reich, and Terry Riley alsoachieved prominence in the New York art world.

Since then, many artists have embraced minimal or postminimal stylesand the label "postmodern" has been attached to them.

Collage, assemblage, installations

Related to abstract expressionism was the emergence of combining manufactured items with artist materials,moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. The work of Robert Rauschenbergexemplifies this trend. His "combines" of the 1950s were forerunners of pop art and installation art, and usedassemblages of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photographs.Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine, and

Edward Kienholz were among important pioneers of both abstraction and pop art. Creating new conventions ofart-making, they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion in their works ofunlikely materials. Another pioneer of collage was Joseph Cornell, whose more intimately scaled works wereseen as radical because of both his personal iconography and his use of found objects.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Found_objectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Cornellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Kienholzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Dinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Segal_(artist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claes_Oldenburghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chamberlain_(sculptor)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Rivershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasper_Johnshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installation_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Rauschenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_expressionismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Rileyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Reichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Monte_Younghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McCrackenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnes_Martinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Andrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Flavinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Juddhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_LeWitthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morris_(artist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Smithsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Serrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Sonnierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eva_Hessehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postminimalismhttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Pincus-Wittenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Chapmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Carverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bressonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Becketthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_(theatre)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams_(composer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Reichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Rileyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Monte_Younghttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-form_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morris_(artist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_paintinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitgeisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_expressionisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piet_Mondrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bauhaushttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazimir_Malevichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_abstractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_Jettyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png


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Robert Rauschenberg, UntitledCombine,1963

Neo-Dada

In the early 20th century Marcel Duchamp exhibited a urinal as a sculpture. He professed his intent that peoplelook at the urinal as if it were a work of art because he said it was a work of art. He referred to his work as"readymades".Fountainwas a urinal signed with the pseudonym R. Mutt, the exhibition of which shocked theart world in 1917. This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as Dada. Duchamp can be seen as aprecursor to conceptual art, other famous examples being John Cage's 4'33", which is four minutes and thirty

three seconds of silence, and Rauschenberg'sErased de Kooning Drawing. Many conceptual works take theposition that art is the result of the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not of the intrinsic qualities of the workitself. Thus, becauseFountainwas exhibited, it was a sculpture.

Marcel Duchamp famously gave up "art" in favor of chess. Avant-garde composer David Tudor created a piece,Reunion(1968),written jointly with Lowell Cross, that features a chess game in whicheach move triggers a lighting effect or projection. Duchamp and Cage

played the game at the work's premier.[119]

Steven Best and Douglas Kellner identify Rauschenberg and JasperJohns as part of the transitional phase, influenced by MarcelDuchamp, between Modernism and postmodernism. Both usedimages of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work,while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high

modernism.[120]

Another trend in art associated with neo-Dada is the use of a numberof different media together. Intermedia, a term coined by Dick Higginsand meant to convey new art forms along the lines of Fluxus, concrete

poetry, found objects, performance art, and computer art. Higginswas publisher of the Something Else Press, a concrete poet, husbandof artist Alison Knowles and an admirer of Marcel Duchamp.

Performance and happenings

During the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide range of interestsbegan to push the boundaries of contemporary art. Yves Klein in France, and in New York City, CaroleeSchneemann, Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte Moorman and Yoko Ono and in Germany Joseph Beuys, Wolf Vostell

and Nam June Paik were pioneers of performance-based works of art. Groups like The Living Theater withJulian Beck and Judith Malina collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments, radically changingthe relationship between audience and performer especially in their pieceParadise Now. The Judson DanceTheater, located at the Judson Memorial Church, New York; and the Judson dancers, notably Yvonne Rainer,Trisha Brown, Elaine Summers, Sally Gross, Simonne Forti, Deborah Hay, Lucinda Childs, Steve Paxton andothers; collaborated with artists Robert Morris, Robert Whitman, John Cage, Robert Rauschenberg, andengineers like Billy Klver. Park Place Gallery was a center for musical performances by electronic composersSteve Reich, Philip Glass and other notable performance artists including Joan Jonas.

These performances were intended as works of a new art form combining sculpture, dance, and music or

sound, often with audience participation. They were characterized by the reductive philosophies of minimalismand the spontaneous improvisation and expressivity of abstract expressionism. Images of Schneeman'sperformances of pieces meant to shock are occasionally used to illustrate these kinds of art, and she is oftenseen photographed while performing her pieceInterior Scroll. However, the images of her performing thispiece are illustrating precisely what performance art is not. In performance art, the performance itself is the
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Yves Klein in France, andCarolee Schneemann(pictured), Yayoi Kusama,Charlotte Moorman, and

Yoko Ono in New YorkCity were pioneers ofperformance based worksof art, that often entailed

nudity.[121]

medium. Other media cannot illustrate performance art. Performance art isperformed, not captured. By its nature performance is momentary andevanescent, which is part of the point of the medium as art. Representations ofperformance art in other media, whether by image, video, narrative orotherwise, select certain points of view in space or time or otherwise involve theinherent limitations of each medium, and which therefore cannot truly illustratethe medium of performance as art.

During the same period, various avant-garde artists created Happenings.Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatheringsof artists and their friends and relatives in various specified locations, oftenincorporating exercises in absurdity, physicality, costuming, spontaneous nudity,and various random or seemingly disconnected acts. Notable creators of

happenings included Allan Kaprowwho first used the term in 1958,[122]

Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, Red Grooms, and Robert Whitman.[123]

Intermedia, multi-media

Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is theuse of a number of different media together. Intermedia, a term coined by DickHiggins and meant to convey new art forms along the lines of Fluxus, concretepoetry, found objects, performance art, and computer art. Higgins was thepublisher of the Something Else Press, a concrete poet married to artist Alison

Knowles and an admirer of Marcel Duchamp. Ihab Hassan includes, "Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the

confusion of realms," in his list of the characteristics of postmodern art.[124]One of the most common forms of"multi-media art" is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termed video art. While the theory of combining

multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often incombination with performance art, where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specificstatements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action.

Fluxus

Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by George Maciunas (193178), a Lithuanian-born Americanartist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to John Cage's 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at the NewSchool for Social Research in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media withlittle or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding members Jackson Mac Low,Al Hansen, George Brecht and Dick Higgins.

Fluxus encouraged a do-it-yourself aesthetic and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxusincluded a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatevermaterials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with theircolleagues.

Andreas Huyssen criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for postmodernism as "either the master-code of

postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement as it were, postmodernism's sublime."[125]

Instead he sees Fluxus as a major Neo-Dadaist phenomena within the avant-garde tradition. It did not representa major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against, "theadministered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated Modernism served as ideological prop to

the Cold War."[126]
http://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Dadahttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Huyssenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Higginshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Brechthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Hansenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_Mac_Lowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_School_for_Social_Researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Maciunashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_arthttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ihab_Hassanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Duchamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alison_Knowleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Something_Else_Presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Found_objectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluxushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Higginshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediahttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Whitmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Groomshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Dinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claes_Oldenburghttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Kaprowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happeninghttp://-/?-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoko_Onohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Moormanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yayoi_Kusamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolee_Schneemannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yves_Kleinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Schneemann-Interior_Scroll.gif


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