marine pollution - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.pdf

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11/28/2015 Marine pollution - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution 1/16 While marine pollution can be obvious, as with the marine debris shown above, it is often the pollutants that cannot be seen that cause most harm. Contents 1 History 2 Pathways of pollution Marine pollution From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Marine pollution occurs when harmful, or potentially harmful, effects result from the entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential waste, noise, or the spread of invasive organisms. Eighty percent of marine pollution comes from land. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off pesticides or dirt into the ocean. Land and air pollution have proven to be harmful to marine life and its habitats. [1] The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris and dust. Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus, stimulate algae growth. Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by plankton and benthos animals, most of which are either deposit or filter feeders. In this way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing estuaries to become anoxic. When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire food web. Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a change to tissue matter, biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction, and suppress growth in marine life. Also, many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way, marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, and appear later in meat and dairy products.

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Page 1: Marine pollution - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.pdf

11/28/2015 Marine pollution - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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While marine pollution can be obvious, as with themarine debris shown above, it is often the pollutantsthat cannot be seen that cause most harm.

Contents

1 History

2 Pathways of pollution

Marine pollutionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Marine pollution occurs when harmful, or potentiallyharmful, effects result from the entry into the ocean ofchemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural andresidential waste, noise, or the spread of invasiveorganisms. Eighty percent of marine pollution comesfrom land. Air pollution is also a contributing factor bycarrying off pesticides or dirt into the ocean. Land andair pollution have proven to be harmful to marine lifeand its habitats.[1]

The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources suchas agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris and dust.Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers tocontamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is aprimary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, inwhich excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus,stimulate algae growth.

Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tinyparticles which are then taken up by plankton andbenthos animals, most of which are either deposit orfilter feeders. In this way, the toxins are concentratedupward within ocean food chains. Many particlescombine chemically in a manner highly depletive ofoxygen, causing estuaries to become anoxic.

When pesticides are incorporated into the marineecosystem, they quickly become absorbed into marinefood webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides cancause mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire food web.

Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a change to tissue matter,biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction, and suppress growth in marine life. Also, many animal feeds have ahigh fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way, marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, andappear later in meat and dairy products.

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2.1 Direct discharge

2.2 Land runoff

2.3 Ship pollution

2.4 Atmospheric pollution

2.5 Deep sea mining

3 Types of pollution

3.1 Acidification

3.2 Eutrophication

3.3 Plastic debris

3.4 Toxins

3.5 Underwater noise

4 Adaptation and mitigation

5 See also

6 References

7 Further reading

8 External links

HistoryAlthough marine pollution has a long history, significant international laws to counter it were only enactedin the twentieth century. Marine pollution was a concern during several United Nations Conferences on theLaw of the Sea beginning in the 1950s. Most scientists believed that the oceans were so vast that they hadunlimited ability to dilute, and thus render pollution harmless.

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, there were several controversies about dumping radioactive waste off thecoasts of the United States by companies licensed by the Atomic Energy Commission, into the Irish Seafrom the British reprocessing facility at Windscale, and into the Mediterranean Sea by the FrenchCommissariat à l'Energie Atomique. After the Mediterranean Sea controversy, for example, JacquesCousteau became a worldwide figure in the campaign to stop marine pollution. Marine pollution madefurther international headlines after the 1967 crash of the oil tanker Torrey Canyon, and after the 1969 SantaBarbara oil spill off the coast of California.

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Parties to the MARPOL 73/78 convention on marinepollution

Septic river.

Marine pollution was a major area of discussionduring the 1972 United Nations Conference onthe Human Environment, held in Stockholm.That year also saw the signing of theConvention on the Prevention of MarinePollution by Dumping of Wastes and OtherMatter, sometimes called the LondonConvention. The London Convention did notban marine pollution, but it established blackand gray lists for substances to be banned(black) or regulated by national authorities(gray). Cyanide and high-level radioactivewaste, for example, were put on the black list.The London Convention applied only to waste dumped from ships, and thus did nothing to regulate wastedischarged as liquids from pipelines.[2]

Pathways of pollutionThere are many different ways to categorize, and examine the inputsof pollution into our marine ecosystems. Patin (n.d.) notes thatgenerally there are three main types of inputs of pollution into theocean: direct discharge of waste into the oceans, runoff into thewaters due to rain, and pollutants that are released from theatmosphere.

One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. Theevaporation of water from oceans exceeds precipitation. The balanceis restored by rain over the continents entering rivers and then beingreturned to the sea. The Hudson in New York State and the Raritanin New Jersey, which empty at the northern and southern ends of

Staten Island, are a source of mercury contamination of zooplankton (copepods) in the open ocean. Thehighest concentration in the filter-feeding copepods is not at the mouths of these rivers but 70 miles south,nearer Atlantic City, because water flows close to the coast. It takes a few days before toxins are taken up bythe plankton.[3]

Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution occurs whenthere is a single, identifiable, and localized source of the pollution. An example is directly dischargingsewage and industrial waste into the ocean. Pollution such as this occurs particularly in developing nations.Nonpoint source pollution occurs when the pollution comes from ill-defined and diffuse sources. These canbe difficult to regulate. Agricultural runoff and wind blown debris are prime examples.

Direct discharge

Pollutants enter rivers and the sea directly from urban sewerage and industrial waste discharges, sometimesin the form of hazardous and toxic wastes.

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Acid mine drainage in the Rio TintoRiver.

A cargo ship pumps ballastwater over the side.

Inland mining for copper, gold. etc., is another source of marine pollution. Most of the pollution is simplysoil, which ends up in rivers flowing to the sea. However, some minerals discharged in the course of themining can cause problems, such as copper, a common industrial pollutant, which can interfere with the lifehistory and development of coral polyps.[4] Mining has a poor environmental track record. For example,according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency,mining has contaminated portions of the headwaters of over 40% ofwatersheds in the western continental US.[5] Much of this pollutionfinishes up in the sea.

Land runoff

Surface runoff from farming, as well as urban runoff and runoff fromthe construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels, and harbours,can carry soil and particles laden with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,and minerals. This nutrient-rich water can cause fleshy algae andphytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas; known as algal blooms,which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by using all available oxygen.

Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in coastal areas.About 75% of the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off pavedroads and driveways, rooftops, yards and other developed land.[6]

Ship pollution

Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways. Oil spills can havedevastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs), found in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, andlast for years in the sediment and marine environment.[7]

Oil spills are probably the most emotive of marine pollution events.However, while a tanker wreck may result in extensive newspaperheadlines, much of the oil in the world’s seas comes from other smallersources, such as tankers discharging ballast water from oil tanks used onreturn ships, leaking pipelines or engine oil disposed of down sewers.[8]

Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers can pollute ports,waterways and oceans. In many instances vessels intentionally dischargeillegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulation prohibiting suchactions. It has been estimated that container ships lose over 10,000containers at sea each year (usually during storms).[9] Ships also createnoise pollution that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from ballast tanks

can spread harmful algae and other invasive species.[10]

Ballast water taken up at sea and released in port is a major source of unwanted exotic marine life. Theinvasive freshwater zebra mussels, native to the Black, Caspian and Azov seas, were probably transported tothe Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel.[11] Meinesz believes that one of the worst

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Graph linking atmospheric dust tovarious coral deaths across theCaribbean Sea and Florida[13]

cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmlessjellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a species of comb jellyfish that spread so it now inhabits estuaries in manyparts of the world. It was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in aship’s ballast water. The population of the jellyfish shot up exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreakinghavoc upon the local fishing industry. “The anchovy catch fell from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in1993; sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993; horse mackerel from 4,000 tons in 1984 tozero in 1993.”[10] Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton, including fish larvae, theirnumbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the ecosystem.

Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce newgenetic material, alter underwater seascapes and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food.Invasive species are responsible for about $138 billion annually in lost revenue and management costs in theUS alone.[12]

Atmospheric pollution

Another pathway of pollution occurs through the atmosphere. Windblown dust and debris, including plastic bags, are blown seawardfrom landfills and other areas. Dust from the Sahara moving aroundthe southern periphery of the subtropical ridge moves into theCaribbean and Florida during the warm season as the ridge buildsand moves northward through the subtropical Atlantic. Dust can alsobe attributed to a global transport from the Gobi and Taklamakandeserts across Korea, Japan, and the Northern Pacific to theHawaiian Islands.[14] Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened dueto periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in dusttransport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year;[15]however, the flux is greater during positive phases of the NorthAtlantic Oscillation.[16] The USGS links dust events to a decline inthe health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.[17]

Climate change is raising ocean temperatures[18] and raising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.These rising levels of carbon dioxide are acidifying the oceans.[19] This, in turn, is altering aquaticecosystems and modifying fish distributions,[20] with impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and thelivelihoods of the communities that depend on them. Healthy ocean ecosystems are also important for themitigation of climate change.[21]

Deep sea mining

Deep sea mining is a relatively new mineral retrieval process that takes place on the ocean floor. Oceanmining sites are usually around large areas of polymetallic nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal ventsat about 1,400 – 3,700 meters below the ocean’s surface.[22] The vents create sulfide deposits, which contain

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Island with fringing reef in theMaldives. Coral reefs are dyingaround the world.[27]

precious metals such as silver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc.[23][24] The deposits are minedusing either hydraulic pumps or bucket systems that take ore to the surface to be processed. As with allmining operations, deep sea mining raises questions about environmental damages to the surrounding areas

Because deep sea mining is a relatively new field, the complete consequences of full scale miningoperations are unknown. However, experts are certain that removal of parts of the sea floor will result indisturbances to the benthic layer, increased toxicity of the water column and sediment plumes fromtailings.[23] Removing parts of the sea floor disturbs the habitat of benthic organisms, possibly, dependingon the type of mining and location, causing permanent disturbances.[22] Aside from direct impact of miningthe area, leakage, spills and corrosion would alter the mining area’s chemical makeup.

Among the impacts of deep sea mining, sediment plumes could have the greatest impact. Plumes are causedwhen the tailings from mining (usually fine particles) are dumped back into the ocean, creating a cloud ofparticles floating in the water. Two types of plumes occur: near bottom plumes and surface plumes.[22] Nearbottom plumes occur when the tailings are pumped back down to the mining site. The floating particlesincrease the turbidity, or cloudiness, of the water, clogging filter-feeding apparatuses used by benthicorganisms.[25] Surface plumes cause a more serious problem. Depending on the size of the particles andwater currents the plumes could spread over vast areas.[22][26] The plumes could impact zooplankton andlight penetration, in turn affecting the food web of the area.[22][26]

Types of pollution

Acidification

The oceans are normally a natural carbon sink, absorbing carbondioxide from the atmosphere. Because the levels of atmosphericcarbon dioxide are increasing, the oceans are becoming moreacidic.[28][29] The potential consequences of ocean acidification arenot fully understood, but there are concerns that structures made ofcalcium carbonate may become vulnerable to dissolution, affectingcorals and the ability of shellfish to form shells.[30]

Oceans and coastal ecosystems play an important role in the globalcarbon cycle and have removed about 25% of the carbon dioxideemitted by human activities between 2000 and 2007 and about halfthe anthropogenic CO2 released since the start of the industrialrevolution. Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification meansthat the capacity of the ocean carbon sink will gradually get

weaker,[31] giving rise to global concerns expressed in the Monaco[32] and Manado[33] Declarations.

A report from NOAA scientists published in the journal Science in May 2008 found that large amounts ofrelatively acidified water are upwelling to within four miles of the Pacific continental shelf area of NorthAmerica. This area is a critical zone where most local marine life lives or is born. While the paper dealt only

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Polluted lagoon.

Effect of eutrophication on marinebenthic life

with areas from Vancouver to northern California, other continental shelf areas may be experiencing similareffects.[34]

A related issue is the methane clathrate reservoirs found under sediments on the ocean floors. These traplarge amounts of the greenhouse gas methane, which ocean warming has the potential to release. In 2004 theglobal inventory of ocean methane clathrates was estimated to occupy between one and five million cubickilometres.[35] If all these clathrates were to be spread uniformly across the ocean floor, this would translateto a thickness between three and fourteen metres.[36] This estimate corresponds to 500–2500 gigatonnescarbon (Gt C), and can be compared with the 5000 Gt C estimated for all other fossil fuel reserves.[35][37]

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typicallycompounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. Itcan result in an increase in the ecosystem's primary productivity(excessive plant growth and decay), and further effects includinglack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and otheranimal populations.

The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with itthe many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as wastefrom livestock and humans. An excess of oxygen depletingchemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a deadzone.[3]

Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land-derivednutrients are concentrated where runoff enters the marineenvironment in a confined channel. The World Resources Institutehas identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones around the world,concentrated in coastal areas in Western Europe, the Eastern andSouthern coasts of the US, and East Asia, particularly in Japan.[38] Inthe ocean, there are frequent red tide algae blooms[39] that kill fishand marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans andsome domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore.

In addition to land runoff, atmospheric anthropogenic fixed nitrogen can enter the open ocean. A study in2008 found that this could account for around one third of the ocean’s external (non-recycled) nitrogensupply and up to three per cent of the annual new marine biological production.[40] It has been suggestedthat accumulating reactive nitrogen in the environment may have consequences as serious as putting carbondioxide in the atmosphere.[41]

One proposed solution to eutrophication in estuaries is to restore shellfish populations, such as oysters.Oyster reefs remove nitrogen from the water column and filter out suspended solids, subsequently reducingthe likelihood or extent of harmful algal blooms or anoxic conditions.[42] Filter feeding activity isconsidered beneficial to water quality[43] by controlling phytoplankton density and sequestering nutrients,

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A mute swan builds a nest usingplastic garbage.

Remains of an albatross containingingested flotsam

which can be removed from the system through shellfish harvest, buried in the sediments, or lost throughdenitrification.[44][45] Foundational work toward the idea of improving marine water quality throughshellfish cultivation to was conducted by Odd Lindahl et al., using mussels in Sweden.[46]

Plastic debris

Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, oris suspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic– a component that has been rapidly accumulating since the end ofWorld War II.[47] The mass of plastic in the oceans may be as highas one hundred million metric tons.[48]

Discarded plastic bags, six pack rings and other forms of plasticwaste which finish up in the ocean present dangers to wildlife andfisheries.[49] Aquatic life can be threatened through entanglement,suffocation, and ingestion.[50][51][52] Fishing nets, usually made ofplastic, can be left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Known as ghostnets, these entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs,

crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, restricting movement, causing starvation, laceration andinfection, and, in those that need to return to the surface to breathe, suffocation.[53]

Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake,as it often looks similar to their natural prey.[54] Plastic debris, whenbulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanentlylodged in the digestive tracts of these animals. Especially whenevolutionary adaptions make it impossible for the likes of turtles toreject plastic bags, which resemble jellyfish when immersed inwater, as they have a system in their throat to stop slippery foodsfrom otherwise escaping.[55] Thereby blocking the passage of foodand causing death through starvation or infection.[56][57]

Plastics accumulate because they don't biodegrade in the way manyother substances do. They will photodegrade on exposure to the sun, but they do so properly only under dryconditions, and water inhibits this process.[58] In marine environments, photodegraded plastic disintegratesinto ever smaller pieces while remaining polymers, even down to the molecular level. When floating plasticparticles photodegrade down to zooplankton sizes, jellyfish attempt to consume them, and in this way theplastic enters the ocean food chain.[59][60] Many of these long-lasting pieces end up in the stomachs ofmarine birds and animals,[61] including sea turtles, and black-footed albatross.[62]

Plastic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of ocean gyres. In particular, the Great Pacific GarbagePatch has a very high level of plastic particulate suspended in the upper water column. In samples taken in1999, the mass of plastic exceeded that of zooplankton (the dominant animal life in the area) by a factor ofsix.[47][63] Midway Atoll, in common with all the Hawaiian Islands, receives substantial amounts of debrisfrom the garbage patch. Ninety percent plastic, this debris accumulates on the beaches of Midway where it

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Marine debris on Kamilo Beach,Hawaii, washed up from the GreatPacific Garbage Patch

becomes a hazard to the bird population of the island. Midway Atoll is home to two-thirds (1.5 million) ofthe global population of Laysan albatross.[64] Nearly all of these albatross have plastic in their digestivesystem[65] and one-third of their chicks die.[66]

Toxic additives used in the manufacture of plastic materials canleach out into their surroundings when exposed to water. Waterbornehydrophobic pollutants collect and magnify on the surface of plasticdebris,[48] thus making plastic far more deadly in the ocean than itwould be on land.[47] Hydrophobic contaminants are also known tobioaccumulate in fatty tissues, biomagnifying up the food chain andputting pressure on apex predators. Some plastic additives are knownto disrupt the endocrine system when consumed, others can suppressthe immune system or decrease reproductive rates.[63] Floatingdebris can also absorb persistent organic pollutants from seawater,including PCBs, DDT and PAHs.[67] Aside from toxic effects,[68]when ingested some of these are mistaken by the animal brain forestradiol, causing hormone disruption in the affected wildlife.[62]

Toxins

Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxins that do not disintegrate rapidly in themarine environment. Examples of persistent toxins are PCBs, DDT, TBT, pesticides, furans, dioxins,phenols and radioactive waste. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively highdensity and are toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples are mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic andcadmium. Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process calledbioaccumulation. They are also known to accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and baymuds: a geological record of human activities of the last century.

Specific examples

Chinese and Russian industrial pollution such as phenols and heavy metals in the Amur River havedevastated fish stocks and damaged its estuary soil.[69]Wabamun Lake in Alberta, Canada, once the best whitefish lake in the area, now has unacceptablelevels of heavy metals in its sediment and fish.Acute and chronic pollution events have been shown to impact southern California kelp forests,though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants andduration of exposure.[70][71][72][73][74]Due to their high position in the food chain and the subsequent accumulation of heavy metals fromtheir diet, mercury levels can be high in larger species such as bluefin and albacore. As a result, inMarch 2004 the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursingmothers and children limit their intake of tuna and other types of predatory fish.[75]Some shellfish and crabs can survive polluted environments, accumulating heavy metals or toxins intheir tissues. For example, mitten crabs have a remarkable ability to survive in highly modifiedaquatic habitats, including polluted waters.[76] The farming and harvesting of such species needscareful management if they are to be used as a food.[77][78]Surface runoff of pesticides can alter the gender of fish species genetically, transforming male into

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Aerosol can polluting a beach.

female fish.[79]Heavy metals enter the environment through oil spills – such as the Prestige oil spill on the Galiciancoast – or from other natural or anthropogenic sources.[80]In 2005, the 'Ndrangheta, an Italian mafia syndicate, was accused of sinking at least 30 ships loadedwith toxic waste, much of it radioactive. This has led to widespread investigations into radioactive-waste disposal rackets.[81]Since the end of World War II, various nations, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, theUnited States, and Germany, have disposed of chemical weapons in the Baltic Sea, raising concernsof environmental contamination.[82][83]

Underwater noise

Marine life can be susceptible to noise or the sound pollution from sources such as passing ships, oilexploration seismic surveys, and naval low-frequency active sonar. Sound travels more rapidly and overlarger distances in the sea than in the atmosphere. Marine animals, such as cetaceans, often have weakeyesight, and live in a world largely defined by acoustic information. This applies also to many deeper seafish, who live in a world of darkness.[84] Between 1950 and 1975, ambient noise at one location in thePacific Ocean increased by about ten decibels (that is a tenfold increase).[85]

Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called the Lombard vocal response.[86] Whalesongs are longer when submarine-detectors are on.[87] If creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their voicecan be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, orpreparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking louder, it will mask other species voices,causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder.[88]

According to the oceanographer Sylvia Earle, "Undersea noise pollution is like the death of a thousand cuts.Each sound in itself may not be a matter of critical concern, but taken all together, the noise from shipping,seismic surveys, and military activity is creating a totally different environment than existed even 50 yearsago. That high level of noise is bound to have a hard, sweeping impact on life in the sea."[89]

Adaptation and mitigationMuch anthropogenic pollution ends up in the ocean. The 2011edition of the United Nations Environment Programme Year Bookidentifies as the main emerging environmental issues the loss to theoceans of massive amounts of phosphorus, "a valuable fertilizerneeded to feed a growing global population", and the impact billionsof pieces of plastic waste are having globally on the health of marineenvironments.[90] Bjorn Jennssen (2003) notes in his article,“Anthropogenic pollution may reduce biodiversity and productivityof marine ecosystems, resulting in reduction and depletion of humanmarine food resources”.[91] There are two ways the overall level of

this pollution can be mitigated: either the human population is reduced, or a way is found to reduce theecological footprint left behind by the average human. If the second way is not adopted, then the first waymay be imposed as world ecosystems falter.

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The second way is for humans, individually, to pollute less. That requires social and political will, togetherwith a shift in awareness so more people respect the environment and are less disposed to abuse it.[92] At anoperational level, regulations, and international government participation is needed.[93] It is often verydifficult to regulate marine pollution because pollution spreads over international barriers, thus makingregulations hard to create as well as enforce.[94]

Without appropriate awareness of marine pollution, the necessary global will to effectively address theissues may prove inadequate. Balanced information on the sources and harmful effects of marine pollutionneed to become part of general public awareness, and ongoing research is required to fully establish, andkeep current, the scope of the issues. As expressed in Daoji and Dag’s research,[95] one of the reasons whyenvironmental concern is lacking among the Chinese is because the public awareness is low and thereforeshould be targeted. Likewise, regulation, based upon such in-depth research should be employed. InCalifornia, such regulations have already been put in place to protect Californian coastal waters fromagricultural runoff. This includes the California Water Code, as well as several voluntary programs.Similarly, in India, several tactics have been employed that help reduce marine pollution, however, they donot significantly target the problem. In Chennai, sewage has been dumped further into open waters. Due tothe mass of waste being deposited, open-ocean is best for diluting, and dispersing pollutants, thus makingthem less harmful to marine ecosystems.

See alsoMarine debrisNutrient pollutionStockholm Convention on Persistent Organic PollutantsEnvironmental effects of pesticidesPlastic pollutionGarbage patch state – environmental artwork intended to raise awareness

References1. Administration, US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric. "What is the biggest source

of pollution in the ocean?". oceanservice.noaa.gov (in EN-US). Retrieved 2015-11-22.2. Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2008) Poison in the Well: Radioactive Waste in the Oceans at the Dawn of the Nuclear

Age. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-4220-13. Gerlach, S. A. (1975) Marine Pollution, Springer, Berlin4. Young, Emma (2003). "Copper decimates coral reef spawning". Retrieved 26 August 2006.5. Environmental Protection Agency. "Liquid Assets 2000: Americans Pay for Dirty Water". Retrieved 23 January

2007.6. Washington State Department of Ecology. "Control of Toxic Chemicals in Puget Sound, Phase 2: Development

of Simple Numerical Models" (http://www.ecy.wa.gov/Programs/wq/pstoxics/index.html), 20087. Panetta, LE (Chair) (2003) America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change [Electronic Version, CD]

Pew Oceans Commission.8. Farmer, Andrew (1997). Managing Environmental Pollution. Psychology Press. ISBN 04151451559. Podsadam, Janice (19 June 2001). "Lost Sea Cargo: Beach Bounty or Junk?". National Geographic News.

Retrieved 8 April 2008.10. Meinesz, A. (2003) Deep Sea Invasion: The Impact of Invasive Species

(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/algae/impact.html) PBS: NOVA. Retrieved 26 November 2009

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11. Aquatic invasive species. A Guide to Least-Wanted Aquatic Organisms of the Pacific Northwest(http://www.wsg.washington.edu/mas/pdfs/leastwanted.pdf). 2001. University of Washington.

12. Pimentel, D.; Zuniga, R.; Morrison, D. (2005). "Update on the environmental and economic costs associated withalien-invasive species in the United States". Ecological Economics 52 (3): 273.doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002.

13. Coral Mortality and African Dust: Barbados Dust Record: 1965–1996(http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/barbados.html) US Geological Survey. Retrieved 10 December 2009.

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32. Monaco Declaration (http://ioc3.unesco.org/oanet/Symposium2008/MonacoDeclaration.pdf) and OceanAcidification (http://ioc3.unesco.org/oanet/OAdocs/SPM-lorezv2.pdf) A Summary for Policymakers from theSecond Symposium on the Ocean in a High-CO2 World. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission ofUNESCO, International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Marine Environment Laboratories (MEL) of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency, Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research. 2008.

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47. Weisman, Alan (2007). The World Without Us. St. Martin's Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-312-34729-4.48. "Plastic Debris: from Rivers to Sea" (PDF). Algalita Marine Research Foundation. Retrieved 29 May 2008.49. "Research | AMRF/ORV Alguita Research Projects" (http://www.algalita.org/research.html) Algalita Marine

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56. Moore, Charles (November 2003). "Across the Pacific Ocean, plastics, plastics, everywhere". Natural History.Retrieved 5 April 2008.

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91. Jenssen BM (2003) "Marine pollution: the future challenge is to link human and wildlife studies"(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241462/pdf/ehp0111-a00198.pdf) Environ Health Perspect.111(4): A198–A199.

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94. Warner R (2009) Protecting the oceans beyond national jurisdiction: strengthening the international lawframework (http://books.google.com/books?id=0s3nzXC7tMcC&printsec=frontcover). Vol. 3 of Legal aspects ofsustainable development, Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-17262-3.

95. Daoji L and Daler D (2004) "Ocean pollution from land-based sources: East China Sea, China"(http://www.unep.org/dewa/giwa/publications/articles/ambio/article_13.pdf) Ambio, 33: 1–2. Royal SwedishAcademy of Sciences.

Further readingCookson, Clive (Feb. 2015). Oceans choke as plastic waste pours in at 8 million tonnes a year(http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/2198fdea-b297-11e4-b234-00144feab7de.html?siteedition=uk) (freeregistration required), The Financial TimesAhn, YH; Hong, GH; Neelamani, S; Philip, L and Shanmugam, P (2006) Assessment of Levels ofcoastal marine pollution of Chennai city, southern India. Water Resource Management, 21(7), 1187–1206.Daoji, L and Dag, D (2004) Ocean pollution from land-based sources: East China sea. AMBIO – AJournal of the Human Environment, 33(1/2), 107–113.Dowrd, BM; Press, D and Los Huertos, M (2008) Agricultural non-point sources: water pollutionpolicy: The case of California’s central coast. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 128(3), 151–161.Laws, Edward A (2000) Aquatic Pollution (http://books.google.com/books?id=11LI7XyEIsAC&pg=PA4) John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-34875-7Sheavly, SB and Register, KM (2007) Marine debris and plastics: Environmental concerns, sources,impacts and solutions. Journal of Polymers & the Environment, 15(4), 301–305.Slater, D (2007) Affluence and effluents. Sierra 92(6), 27

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UNEP/GPA (2006) The State of the Marine Environment: Trends and processes(http://gpa.unep.org/documents/soe_-_trends_and_english.pdf) United Nations EnvironmentProgramme, Global Programme of Action, The Hague. 2006 ISBN 92-807-2708-7.UNEP (2007) Land-based Pollution in the South China Sea(http://www.unepscs.org/SCS_Documents/Download/19_-_Technical_Publications_and_Guidelines/Technical_Publication_10_-_Land-Based_Pollution_in_the_South_China_Sea.html). UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No 10.

External linksCoastal Pollution Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute (http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=12049), Woods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionMercury pollution (http://web.archive.org/web/20001021140316/www.ecoscope.com/mercury.htm)How Oil Spill Absorbent Products Work (http://www.censol.co.uk/censol%20-%20oil%20absorbents%20-%20testing.html)Facts about Marine Mercury Pollution from Oceana.org (http://www.oceana.org/north-america/what-we-do/stop-seafood-contamination)Science News / Marine Pollution Spawns 'wonky Babies'(http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/38922/title/Marine_pollution_spawns_wonky_babies)Plastics at SEA: North Atlantic Expedition (http://plastics.sea.edu)Plastic Trash Plagues the Ocean (http://ocean.si.edu/blog/plastic-trash-plagues-ocean), Trashing theOcean (http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-news/trashing-ocean), Oil's Impact on Marine Invertebrates(http://ocean.si.edu/blog/invisible-loss-impacts-oil-you-do-not-see) on the Smithsonian Ocean PortalHow the oceans can clean themselves (http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=ROW9F-c0kIQ) – TED TalkWhich Countries Create the Most Ocean Trash? (http://www.wsj.com/articles/which-countries-create-the-most-ocean-trash-1423767676)—Wall Street Journal (February 12, 2015)

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