toxoplasmosis - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.pdf

8/14/2019 Toxoplasmosis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.pdf

1/15

8/3/13 Toxoplasmosis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosis 1/15

Toxoplasmosis

Classification and external resources

T. gondii tachyzoites

ICD-10 B58

(http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/B58)

ICD-9 130 (http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=130)

DiseasesDB 13208 (http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb13208.htm)

MedlinePlus000637

(http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000637.htm)

eMedicine med/2294 (http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic2294.htm)

MeSH D014123 (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2013/MB_cgi?

field=uid&term=D014123)

ToxoplasmosisFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Toxoplasmosisis a parasitic

disease caused by the protozoan

Toxoplasma gondii.[1]The

parasite infects most genera ofwarm-blooded animals,

including humans, but the

primary host is the felid (cat)

family. Animals are infected by

eating infected meat, by

ingestion of feces of a cat that

has itself recently been infected,

and by transmission from

mother to fetus. Cats are the

primary source of infection tohuman hosts, although contact

with raw meat, especially pork,

is a more significant source of

human infections in some

countries. Fecal contamination

of hands is a significant risk

factor.[2]

Nicolle and Manceaux first

described the organism in 1908,after they observed the parasites

in the blood, spleen, and liver of

a North African rodent,

Ctenodactylus gondii. The

parasite was named Toxoplasma(arclike form)gondii(after the rodent) in 1909. In 1923, Janku reported

parasitic cysts in the retina of an infant who had hydrocephalus, seizures, and unilateral microphthalmia.

Wolf, Cowan, and Paige (19371939) determined these findings represented the syndrome of severe

congenital T. gondii infection.[2]

Up to a third of the world's human population is estimated to carry a Toxoplasma infection.[3][4]The

Centers for Disease Controland Prevention notes the overall seroprevalence in the United States as

determined with specimens collected by the National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey

(NHANES) between 1999 and 2004 was found to be 10.8%, with seroprevalence among women of

childbearing age (15 to 44 years) 11%.[5]Another study placed seroprevalence in the US at 22.5%.[4]The

same study claimed a seroprevalence of 75% in El Salvador.[4]Official assessment in Great Britain places

the number of infections at about 350,000 a year.[6]

During the first few weeks after exposure, the infection typically causes a mild, flu-like illness or no illness.

Thereafter, the parasite rarely causes any physical symptoms in otherwise healthy adults.[citation needed]However, those with weakened immune systems, such as those with AIDS and pregnant women, may

become seriously ill, and it can occasionally be fatal.[citation needed]The parasite can cause encephalitis
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2013/MB_cgi?field=uid&term=D014123http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2013/MB_cgi?field=uid&term=D014123http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MedlinePlushttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000637.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseases_Databasehttp://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb13208.htmhttp://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb13208.htmhttp://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/B58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyzoitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toxoplasma_gondii_tachy.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toxoplasma_gondii_tachy.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunodeficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_and_Nutrition_Examination_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Preventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicollehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manceauxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprophagiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toxoplasma_gondii_tachy.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toxoplasma_gondii_tachy.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toxoplasma_gondii_tachy.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toxoplasma_gondii_tachy.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warm-bloodedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warm-bloodedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encephalitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunodeficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_and_Nutrition_Examination_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seroprevalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Preventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manceauxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicollehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprophagiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warm-bloodedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_diseasehttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2013/MB_cgi?field=uid&term=D014123http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headingshttp://www.emedicine.com/med/topic2294.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMedicinehttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000637.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MedlinePlushttp://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb13208.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseases_Databasehttp://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=130http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problemshttp://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/B58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD-10_Chapter_Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyzoitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toxoplasma_gondii_tachy.jpg


2/15



(inflammation of the brain) and neurologic diseases, and can affect the heart, liver, inner ears, and eyes

(chorioretinitis).[citation needed]Recent research has also linked toxoplasmosis with attention deficit

hyperactivity disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, and schizophrenia.[7]Numerous studies found a

positive correlation between latent toxoplasmosis and suicidal behavior in humans.[8][9][10]

Contents1 Signs and symptoms

1.1 Acute toxoplasmosis

1.2 Latent toxoplasmosis

1.3 Cutaneous toxoplasmosis

1.4 Psychiatric disorders

1.5 Contrary evidence

2 Diagnosis

3 Transmission

3.1 Pregnancy precautions

3.2 Rodent behavior

4 Treatment

4.1 Acute

4.2 Latent

5 Epidemiology

6 History

7 Society and culture

7.1 Notable cases

8 Other animals8.1 Livestock

8.2 Domestic cats

8.3 Marine mammals

9 See also

10 References

11 Bibliography

12 External links

Signs and symptoms

Infection has two stages:

Acute toxoplasmosis

During acute toxoplasmosis, symptoms are often influenza-like: swollen lymph nodes, or muscle aches and

pains that last for a month or more. Rarely will a human with a fully functioning immune system develop

severe symptoms following infection. Young children and immunocompromised people, such as thosewith HIV/AIDS, those taking certain types of chemotherapy, or those who have recently received an

organ transplant, may develop severe toxoplasmosis. This can cause damage to the brain (encephalitis) or
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encephalitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_transplanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotherapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunodeficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myalgiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymph_nodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenzahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_(medical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicidal_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophreniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive_compulsive_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorioretinitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_earhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologic_disease


3/15



the eyes (necrotizing retinochoroiditis). Infants infected via placental transmission may be born with either

of these problems, or with nasal malformations, although these complications are rare in newborns. The

toxoplasmic trophozoites causing acute toxoplasmosis are referred to as Tachyzoites, and are typically

found in bodily fluids.

Swollen lymph nodes are commonly found in the neck or under the chin, followed by the axillae (armpits)

and the groin. Swelling may occur at different times after the initial infection, persist, and/or recur for

various times independently of antiparasitic treatment.[11]

It is usually found at single sites in adults, but inchildren, multiple sites may be more common. Enlarged lymph nodes will resolve within one to two

months in 60% of cases. However, a quarter of those affected take two to four months to return to normal,

and 8% take four to six months. A substantial number (6%) do not return to normal until much later.[12]

Latent toxoplasmosis

It is easy for a host to become infected with Toxoplasma gondiiand develop toxoplasmosis without

knowing it. In most immunocompetent people, the infection enters a latent phase, during which only

bradyzoites are present, forming cysts in nervous and muscle tissue. Most infants who are infected while in

the womb have no symptoms at birth, but may develop symptoms later in life.[13]

Cutaneous toxoplasmosis

While rare, skin lesions may occur in the acquired form of the disease, including roseola and erythema

multiforme-like eruptions, prurigo-like nodules, urticaria, and maculopapular lesions. Newborns may have

punctate macules, ecchymoses, or blueberry muffin lesions. Diagnosis of cutaneous toxoplasmosis is

based on the tachyzoite form of T. gondiibeing found in the epidermis. It is found in all levels of the

epidermis, is about 6 m by 2 m and bow-shaped, with the nucleus being one-third of its size. It can be

identified by electron microscopy or by Giemsa staining tissue where the cytoplasm shows blue, thenucleus red.[14]

Psychiatric disorders

Studies have shown the toxoplasmosis parasite may affect behavior and may present as or be a causative or

contributory factor in various psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and

schizophrenia.[15][16][17]In 11 of 19 scientific studies, T. gondiiantibody levels were found to be

significantly higher in individuals affected by first-incidence schizophrenia than in unaffected persons.

Individuals with schizophrenia are also more likely to report a clinical history of toxoplasmosis than those

in the general population.[18]Recent work at the University of Leeds has found the parasite produces an

enzyme with tyrosine hydroxylase and phenylalanine hydroxylase activity. This enzyme may contribute to

the behavioral changes observed in toxoplasmosis by altering the production of dopamine, a

neurotransmitter involved in mood, sociability, attention, motivation, and sleep patterns. Schizophrenia has

long been linked to dopamine dysregulation.[19]Minocycline, an antibiotic capable of passing the blood-

brain barrier used for treating toxoplasmosis, has been found to alleviate the symptoms of

schizophrenia.[20]

Chronic infection with T. gondiihas traditionally been considered asymptomatic in immunocompetent

human hosts. However, accumulating evidence suggests latent infection may subtly influence a range ofhuman behaviors and tendencies, and infection may alter the susceptibility to or intensity of a number of

affective, psychiatric, or neurological disorders.[21]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunocompetenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood-brain_barrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minocyclinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalanine_hydroxylasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrosine_hydroxylasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Leedshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophreniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giemsa_stainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecchymoseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Punctate_macules&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urticariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prurigohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roseolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradyzoitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmic_chorioretinitis


4/15



Micrograph of a lymph node showing

the characteristic changes oftoxoplasmosis (scattered epithelioid

histiocytes (pale cells), monocytoid

cells (top-center of image), large

germinal centers (left of image))

H&E stain

Latent T. gondiiinfection in humans has been associated with impaired psychomotor performance,

enhanced risk-taking personality profiles, and higher incidence of automobile accidents.[21]Moreover,

correlations have been found between positive antibody titers to T. gondiiand OCD, Parkinsons disease,

Alzheimers disease, suicide in people with mood disorders, and bipolar disorder.[21]Positive antibody

titers to T. gondiihave been shown to be not correlative with major depression or dysthymia.[22]

The most substantial body of evidence linking T. gondiito a neurological disorder involves the potential

association between schizophrenia and infection with the parasite.[23][24]As of 2013, at least 38 studieshave found a positive correlation between T. gondiiantibody titers and schizophrenia.[21][25]While the

vast majority of these studies tested people already diagnosed with schizophrenia for T. gondiiantibodies,

significant associations between T. gondiiand schizophrenia have been found prior to the onset of

schizophrenia disease symptoms.[23]

In most of the current studies where positive associations have been found between T. gondiiantibody

titers and certain behavioral traits or neurological disorders, T. gondiiseropositivity tests are conducted

after the onset of the examined disease or behavioral trait that is, it is often unclear whether infection with

the parasite increases the chances of having a certain trait or disorder, or if having a certain trait or disorder

increases the chances of becoming infected with the parasite.[26]

Groups of individuals with certain behavioral traits or neurological

disorders may share certain behavioral tendencies that increase the

likelihood of exposure to and infection with T. gondii as a result,

it is difficult to confirm causal relationships between T. gondii

infections and associated neurological disorders or behavioral

traits.[26]

Contrary evidence

Toxoplasma gondiiis beneficial to mice with Alzheimer's disease.[27]Murine analogues to the Comt, DRD4andDAT1human

genes also exist, and these genes are related to Alzheimer's

disease.[28]DAT1, for example, encodes the neural membranes

through which dopamine returns to the cell.DAT1gene mutations

are responsible for too rapid dopamine uptake, which results in

deficiency in extracellular dopamine. Since T. gondiiproduces

dopamine, it has a potential to overcome these gene-related

disorders also in humans, mainly because the mechanisms

encoded by Comt, DRD4, andDAT1are both murine and human.

Too fast DAT1 dopamine uptake is related to other neurological

disorders [29][30]which can potentially benefit from T. gondii

dopamine synthesis. It is an interesting open question whether

mammals with DAT1 polymorphisms are genetically better

adapted to T. gondii infection.

Examples of genetic factors in Parkinson's disease areLRRK2mutations Gly2019Ser, I2020T, and others.

Some evidence indicates exposure to pesticides causes Parkinson's disease[31]The disease presents when

80% of the neurons that produce dopamine in the substantia nigra die. This shortage of dopamine could becompensated by T. gondii, which is known to produce dopamine.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophreniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysthymiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%E2%80%99s_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%E2%80%99s_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile_accidentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychomotor_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%26E_stainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toxoplasmosis_lymphadenopathy_-_intermed_mag.jpg


5/15



Lifecycle of Toxoplasma gondii

Diagnosis

Toxoplasmosis can be difficult to distinguish from primary central nervous system lymphoma, and as a

result, the diagnosis is made by a trial of therapy (pyrimethamine, sulfadiazine, and folinic acid (USAN:

leucovorin)), followed by a brain biopsy if the drugs produce no effect clinically and no improvement on

repeat imaging.

Detection of T. gondiiin human blood samples may also be achieved by using the polymerase chainreaction.[32]Inactive cysts may exist in a host which would evade detection.

Toxoplasmosis cannot be detected with immunostaining. Lymph nodes affected by Toxoplasmahave

characteristic changes, including poorly demarcated reactive germinal centers, clusters of monocytoid B

cells, and scattered epithelioid histiocytes.

Transmission

Transmission may occur through:

Ingestion of raw or partly cooked meat, especially pork, lamb,

or venison containing Toxoplasmacysts: Infection prevalence

in countries where undercooked meat is traditionally eaten

has been related to this transmission method. Tissue cysts

may also be ingested during hand-to-mouth contact after

handling undercooked meat, or from using knives, utensils, or

cutting boards contaminated by raw meat.[33]

Ingestion of contaminated cat feces: This can occur through

hand-to-mouth contact following gardening, cleaning a cat's

litter box, contact with children's sandpits, or touching a

leech the parasite can survive in the environment for over a

year.[34]

Cats excrete the pathogen in their feces for a number of weeks after

contracting the disease, generally by eating an infected rodent. Even

then, cat feces are not generally contagious for the first day or two after excretion, after which the cyst

'ripens' and becomes potentially pathogenic.[35]

Pregnancy precautions

Congenital toxoplasmosis is a special form in which an unborn fetus is infected via the placenta. A positive

antibody titer indicates previous exposure and immunity, and largely ensures the unborn fetus' safety. A

simple blood draw at the first prenatal doctor visit can determine whether or not a woman has had previous

exposure and therefore whether or not she is at risk. If a woman receives her first exposure to T. gondii

while pregnant, the fetus is at particular risk. A woman with no previous exposure should avoid handling

raw meat, exposure to cat feces, and gardening (cat feces are common in garden soil). Most cats are not

actively shedding oocysts, so are not a danger, but the risk may be reduced further by having the litter box

emptied daily (oocysts require longer than a single day to become infective), and by having someone else

empty the litter box. However, while risks can be minimized, they cannot be eliminated. For pregnant
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oocysthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_meathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litter_boxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histiocytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germinal_centershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunohistochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Adopted_Namehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folinic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfadiazinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimethaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_central_nervous_system_lymphomahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toxoplasma_gondii_Life_cycle_PHIL_3421_lores.jpg


6/15



women with negative antibody titers, indicating no previous exposure to T. gondii, serology testing as

frequent as monthly is advisable as treatment during pregnancy for those women exposed to T. gondiifor

the first time decreases dramatically the risk of passing the parasite to the fetus.

Despite these risks, pregnant women are not routinely screened for toxoplasmosis in most countries

(Portugal,[36]France,[37]Austria,[37]Uruguay,[38]and Italy[39]being the exceptions) for reasons of cost-

effectiveness and the high number of false positives generated. As invasive prenatal testing incurs some

risk to the fetus (18.5 pregnancy losses per toxoplasmosis case prevented),[37]

postnatal or neonatalscreening is preferred. The exceptions are cases where fetal abnormalities are noted, and thus screening

can be targeted.[37]

Some regional screening programmes operate in Germany, Switzerland and Belgium.[39]

Treatment is very important for recently infected pregnant women, to prevent infection of the fetus. Since a

baby's immune system does not develop fully for the first year of life, and the resilient cysts that form

throughout the body are very difficult to eradicate with antiprotozoans, an infection can be very serious in

the young.

In 2006, a Czech research team discovered women with high levels of toxoplasmosis antibodies were

significantly more likely to have baby boys than baby girls. In most populations, the birth rate is around

51% boys, but women infected with T. gondiihad up to a 72% chance of a boy.[40]

Rodent behavior

Infection with T. gondiihas been shown to alter the behavior of mice and rats in ways thought to increase

the rodents chances of being preyed upon by cats.[23][41][42]Infected rodents show a reduction in their

innate aversion to cat odors while uninfected mice and rats will generally avoid areas marked with cat

urine or with cat body odor, this avoidance is reduced or eliminated in infected animals. [23][42][43]

Moreover, some evidence suggests this loss of aversion may be specific to feline odors: when given a

choice between two predator odors (cat or mink), infected rodents show a significantly stronger preference

to cat odors than do uninfected controls.[44][45]

T. gondii-infected rodents show a number of behavioral changes beyond altered responses to cat odors.

Rats infected with the parasite show increased levels of activity and decreased neophobic behavior.[41][46]

Similarly, infected mice show alterations in patterns of locomotion and exploratory behavior during

experimental tests. These patterns include traveling greater distances, moving at higher speeds, accelerating

for longer periods of time, and showing a decreased pause-time when placed in new arenas. [47]Infectedrodents have also been shown to have differences in traditional measures of anxiety, such as elevated plus

mazes, open field arenas, and social interaction tests.[47][48]

Treatment

Treatment is often only recommended for people with serious health problems, such as people with HIV

whose CD4 counts are under 200, because the disease is most serious when one's immune system is weak.

Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is the drug of choice to prevent toxoplasmosis, but not for treating active

disease.

Acute
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Field_(animal_test)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevated_plus_mazehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxietyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_locomotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neophobichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_(experiment)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neonatalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postnatalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_positiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal


7/15



The medications prescribed for acute toxoplasmosis are:

Pyrimethamine an antimalarial medication

Sulfadiazine an antibiotic used in combination with pyrimethamine to treat toxoplasmosis

Combination therapy is usually given with folic acid supplements to reduce incidence of

thrombocytopaenia.

Combination therapy is most useful in the setting of HIV.

ClindamycinSpiramycin an antibiotic used most often for pregnant women to prevent the infection of their

children

(other antibiotics, such as minocycline, have seen some use as a salvage therapy).

Latent

In people with latent toxoplasmosis, the cysts are immune to these treatments, as the antibiotics do not

reach the bradyzoites in sufficient concentration.

The medications prescribed for latent toxoplasmosis are:

Atovaquone an antibiotic that has been used to kill Toxoplasmacysts inside AIDS patients[49]

Clindamycin an antibiotic which, in combination with atovaquone, seemed to optimally kill cysts

in mice[50]

Epidemiology

T. gondiiinfections occur throughout the world, although infection rates differ significantly by country.[51]

For women of childbearing age, a survey of 99 studies within 44 countries found the areas of highest

prevalence are within Latin America (about 5080%), parts of Eastern and Central Europe (about 20

60%), the Middle East (about 30-50%), parts of Southeast Asia (about 2060%), and parts of Africa (about

2055%).[51]

In the United States, data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from

1999 to 2004 found 9.0% of US-born persons 1249 years of age were seropositive for IgG antibodies

against T. gondii, down from 14.1% as measured in the NHANES 19881994.[52]In the 19992004

survey, 7.7% of US-born and 28.1% of foreign-born women 1544 years of age were T. gondii

seropositive.[52]A trend of decreasing seroprevalence has been observed by numerous studies in the

United States and many European countries.[51]

Because the parasite poses a particular threat to fetuses when it is contracted during pregnancy, [53]much

of the global epidemiological data regarding T. gondiicomes from seropositivity tests in women of

childbearing age. Seropositivity tests look for the presence of antibodies against T. gondiiin blood, so

while seropositivity guarantees one has been exposed to the parasite, it does not necessarily guarantee one

is chronically infected.[54]

History
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seroprevalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibodieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IgGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seropositivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_and_Nutrition_Examination_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atovaquonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clindamycinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atovaquonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradyzoitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvage_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minocyclinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiramycinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clindamycinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombocytopaeniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfadiazinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimalarial_medicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimethamine


8/15



The T. gondiiprotozoan was first discovered by Nicolle and Manceaux, who in 1908 isolated it from the

African rodent Ctenodactylus gundi, then in 1909 differentiated the organism fromLeishmaniaand named

it Toxoplasma gondii.[37]The first recorded congenital case was not until 1923, and the first adult case not

until 1940.[37]In 1948, a serological dye test was created by Sabin and Feldman, which is now the

standard basis for diagnostic tests.[55]

Society and cultureNotable cases

Arthur Ashe (tennis player) developed neurological problems from toxoplasmosis (and was later

found to be HIV-positive).[56]

Merritt Butrick (actor) was HIV positive and died from toxoplasmosis as a result of his already

weakened immune system.[57]

Prince Franois, Count of Clermont (pretender to the throne of France) his disability caused him to

be overlooked in the line of succession.Leslie Ash (actress) contracted toxoplasmosis in the second month of pregnancy.[58]

Sebastian Coe (British middle distance runner)[59]

Martina Navratilova suffered from toxoplasmosis during the 1982 US Open.[60]

Louis Wain (artist) was famous for painting cats he later developed schizophrenia, which some

believe was due to toxoplasmosis resulting from his prolonged exposure to cats.[61]

Jaroslav Flegr (biologist) is a proponent of the theory that toxoplasmosis affects human behavior. [62]

Other animals

Although T. gondiihas the capability of infecting virtually all warm-blooded animals, susceptibility and

rates of infection vary widely between different genera and species. [63]Rates of infection in populations of

the same species can also vary widely due to differences in location, diet, and other factors.

Livestock

Among livestock, pigs, sheep, and goats have the highest rates of chronic T. gondii infection.[64]The

prevalence of T. gondiiin meat-producing animals varies widely both within and between countries,[64]

and rates of infection have been shown to be dramatically influenced by varying farming and managementpractices.[65]For instance, animals kept outdoors or in free-ranging environments are more at risk of

infection than animals raised indoors or in commercial confinement operations.[65][66]

In the United States, the percentage of pigs harboring viable parasites has been measured (via bioassay in

mice or cats) to be as high as 92.7% and as low as 0%, depending on the farm or herd. [66]Surveys of

seroprevalence (T. gondiiantibodies in blood) are more common, and such measurements are indicative of

the high relative seroprevlance in pigs across the world.[67]Along with pigs, sheep and goats are among

the most commonly infected livestock of epidemiological significance for human infection.[64]Prevalence

of viable T. gondiiin sheep tissue has been measured (via bioassay) to be as high as 78% in the United

States,[68]and a 2011 survey of goats intended for consumption in the United States found a

seroprevalence of 53.4%.[69]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioassayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_farminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_rangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livestockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaroslav_Flegrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Wainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_US_Open_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_Singleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martina_Navratilovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_Coehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throne_of_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Fran%C3%A7ois,_Count_of_Clermonthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merritt_Butrickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Ashehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishmaniahttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/differentiatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gundi


9/15



Due to a lack of exposure to the outdoors, chickens raised in large-scale indoor confinement operations are

not commonly infected with T. gondii.[65]Free-ranging or backyard-raised chickens are much more

commonly infected.[65]A survey of free-ranging chickens in the United States found its prevalence to be

17%100%, depending on the farm.[70]Because chicken meat is generally cooked thoroughly before

consumption, poultry is not generally considered to be a significant risk factor for human T. gondii

infection.[71]

Although cattle and buffalo can be infected with T. gondii, the parasite is generally eliminated or reducedto undetectable levels within a few weeks following exposure.[65]Tissue cysts are rarely present in buffalo

meat or beef, and meat from these animals is considered to be low-risk for harboring viable

parasites.[64][66]

Horses are considered resistant to chronic T. gondii infection.[65]However, viable cells have been isolated

from US horses slaughtered for export, and severe human toxoplasmosis in France has been

epidemiologically linked to the consumption of horse meat.[66]

Domestic cats

The seroprevalence of T. gondiiin domestic cats, worldwide, has been estimated to be around 3040%.[72]

In the United States, no official national estimate has been made, but local surveys have shown levels

varied between 16% and 80%.[72]A 2012 survey of 445 purebred pet cats and 45 shelter cats in Finland

found an overall seroprevalence of 48.4%.[73]A 2010 survey of feral cats from Giza, Egypt, found an

overall seroprevalence of 97.4%.[74]

T. gondiiinfection rates in domestic cats vary widely depending on the cats' diets and lifestyles.[75]Feral

cats that hunt for their food are more likely to be infected than domestic cats. The prevalence of T. gondii

in cat populations depends on the availability of infected birds and small mammals,[76]but often this prey

is abundant.

Most infected cats will shed oocysts only once in their lifetimes, for a period of about one to two

weeks.[72]Although this period of shedding is quite transient, millions of oocysts can be shed, with each

oocyst capable of spreading and surviving for months.[72]An estimated 1% of cats at any given time are

actively shedding oocysts.[65]

Marine mammals

A University of California, Davis study of dead sea otters collected from 1998 to 2004 found

toxoplasmosis was the cause of death for 13% of the animals.[77]Proximity to freshwater outflows into the

ocean was a major risk factor. Ingestion of oocysts from cat faeces is considered to be the most likely

ultimate source.[78]Surface runoff containing wild cat faeces and litter from domestic cats flushed down

toilets are possible sources of oocysts.[79]The parasites have been found in dolphins and whales.[17]

Researchers Black and Massie believe anchovies, which travel from estuaries into the open ocean, may be

helping to spread the disease.

See also

TORCH infection
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TORCH_complexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oocystshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_otterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Davishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_cathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giza,_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purebredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_cathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_meat


10/15



The T.Gondii Host/Pathogen interactome (http://www.polygenicpathways.co.uk/tgondii.htm)

References

1. ^Ryan KJ Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 7237.

ISBN 0838585299.

2. ^ abTorda A (2001). "Toxoplasmosis. Are cats really the source?".Aust Fam Physician30 (8): 7437.PMID 11681144 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11681144).

3. ^The New York Times 2006/06/20

4. ^ abcMontoya J, Liesenfeld O (2004). "Toxoplasmosis".Lancet363 (9425): 196576. doi:10.1016/S0140-

6736(04)16412-X (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2804%2916412-X). PMID 15194258

(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15194258).

5. ^Jones JL, Kruszon-Moran D, Sanders-Lewis K, Wilson M (2007). "Toxoplasma gondiiinfection in the

United States, 19992004, decline from the prior decade". Am J Trop Med Hyg77 (3): 40510.

PMID 17827351 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17827351).

6. ^"Beware of the cat: Britain's hidden toxoplasma problem" (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-

news/beware-of-the-cat-britains-hidden-toxoplasma-problem-8102860.html).[1]

(http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/beware-of-the-cat-britains-hidden-toxoplasma-problem-

8102860.html)

7. ^How Your Cat Is Making You Crazy (http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/03/how-your-cat-

is-making-you-crazy/8873/?single_page=true)

8. ^Toxoplasma gondii immunoglobulin G antibodies and nonfatal suicidal self-directed violence.

(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22938818).[2] (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22938818)

9. ^Mortensen, Preben Bo (2012). "Toxoplasma gondii Infection and Self-directed Violence in Mothers"

(http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1206779).Archives of General Psychiatry: 1.

doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2012.668 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Farchgenpsychiatry.2012.668).[3]

(http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1206779)

10. ^Ling, VJ Lester, D Mortensen, PB Langenberg, PW Postolache, TT (2011). "Toxoplasma gondiiSeropositivity and Suicide rates in Women" (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3128543). The

Journal of nervous and mental disease199(7): 440444. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e318221416e

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FNMD.0b013e318221416e). PMC 3128543

(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3128543). PMID 21716055

(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21716055).[4] (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3128543/)

11. ^Paul M (1 July 1999). "Immunoglobulin G Avidity in Diagnosis of Toxoplasmic Lymphadenopathy and

Ocular Toxoplasmosis" (http://cvi.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10391853). Clin. Diagn. Lab.

Immunol.6 (4): 5148. PMC 95718 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC95718). PMID 10391853


12. ^"Lymphadenopathy" (http://archive.is/eplJ). Btinternet.com. Archived from the original

(http://www.btinternet.com/~ukneqas.parasitologyscheme/Toxoplasma_Scheme/Teaching_Information/_Lymphadenopathy/_lymphadenopathy.html) on 2012-07-24. Retrieved 2010-07-28.

13. ^Randall Parker: Humans Get Personality Altering Infections From Cats

(http://www.futurepundit.com/archives/001675.html). September 30, 2003

14. ^Klaus, Sidney N. Shoshana Frankenburg, and A. Damian Dhar (2003). "Chapter 235: Leishmaniasis and

Other Protozoan Infections". In Freedberg et al.Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine.(6th ed.).

McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-138067-1.

15. ^Kar N, Misra B.Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report. BMC Psychiatry. 2004 Feb

54:1.doi:10.1186/1471-244X-4-1 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-244X-4-1) PMID 15018628

16. ^Henriquez SA, Brett R, Alexander J, Pratt J, Roberts CW.Neuropsychiatric disease and Toxoplasma gondii

infection. Neuroimmunomodulation. 200916(2):122-33. Epub 2009 Feb 11.doi:10.1159/000180267

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1159%2F000180267) PMID 19212132

17. ^ ab3 Schizophrenia (http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20427301.600-3-schizophrenia.html)

18. ^redOrbit:Researchers Link Parasites To Schizophrenia
http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/1657166/researchers_link_parasites_to_schizophrenia/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20427301.600-3-schizophrenia.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19212132?dopt=Abstracthttp://dx.doi.org/10.1159%2F000180267http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15018628?dopt=Abstracthttp://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-244X-4-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-138067-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.futurepundit.com/archives/001675.htmlhttp://www.btinternet.com/~ukneqas.parasitologyscheme/Toxoplasma_Scheme/Teaching_Information/_Lymphadenopathy/_lymphadenopathy.htmlhttp://archive.is/eplJhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10391853http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC95718http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://cvi.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10391853http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3128543/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21716055http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3128543http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FNMD.0b013e318221416ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3128543http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1206779http://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Farchgenpsychiatry.2012.668http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1206779http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22938818http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22938818http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/03/how-your-cat-is-making-you-crazy/8873/?single_page=truehttp://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/beware-of-the-cat-britains-hidden-toxoplasma-problem-8102860.htmlhttp://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/beware-of-the-cat-britains-hidden-toxoplasma-problem-8102860.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17827351http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15194258http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2804%2916412-Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11681144http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0838585299http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.polygenicpathways.co.uk/tgondii.htm


11/15



(http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/1657166/researchers_link_parasites_to_schizophrenia/). March 19, 2009

19. ^Science Daily: Toxoplasmosis Parasite May Trigger Schizophrenia And Bipolar Disorders

(http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/03/090311085151.htm). March 11, 2009

20. ^The Independent: [5] (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/scientists-shocked-to-find-antibiotics-

alleviate-symptoms-of-schizophrenia-7469121.html). March 2, 2012

21. ^ abcdWebster, JP Kaushik, M Bristow, GC McConkey, GA (2013 Jan 1). "Toxoplasma gondii infection,

from predation to schizophrenia: can animal behaviour help us understand human behaviour?"

(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3515034). The Journal of experimental biology216 (Pt 1):

99112. doi:10.1242/jeb.074716 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.074716). PMC 3515034(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3515034). PMID 23225872


22. ^Pearce, BD Kruszon-Moran, D Jones, JL (2012 Aug 15). "The relationship between Toxoplasma gondii

infection and mood disorders in the third National Health and Nutrition Survey". Biological psychiatry72 (4):

2905. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.01.003 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biopsych.2012.01.003).


23. ^ abcdWebster, JP McConkey, GA (2010 Jun). "Toxoplasmagondii-altered host behaviour: clues as to

mechanism of action".Folia parasitologica57 (2): 95104. PMID 20608471


24. ^Torrey, EF Yolken, RH (2007 May). "Schizophrenia and toxoplasmosis"(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2526129). Schizophrenia bulletin33 (3): 7278.

doi:10.1093/schbul/sbm026 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fschbul%2Fsbm026). PMC 2526129



25. ^Torrey, EF Bartko, JJ Yolken, RH (2012 May). "Toxoplasma gondii and other risk factors for

schizophrenia: an update" (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3329973). Schizophrenia bulletin38

(3): 6427. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs043 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fschbul%2Fsbs043). PMC 3329973



26. ^ abFlegr, J (2013 Jan 1). "Influence of latent Toxoplasma infection on human personality, physiology and

morphology: pros and cons of the Toxoplasma-human model in studying the manipulation hypothesis". TheJournal of experimental biology216 (Pt 1): 12733. doi:10.1242/jeb.073635

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.073635). PMID 23225875 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23225875).

27. ^Jung, BK Pyo, KH Shin, KY Hwang, YS Lim, H Lee, SJ Moon, JH Lee, SH Suh, YH Chai, JY Shin,

EH (2012 March 21). "Toxoplasma gondii Infection in the Brain Inhibits Neuronal Degeneration and Learning

and Memory Impairments in a Murine Model of Alzheimer's Disease". In Heimesaat, Markus M. PLoS ONE

7(3): e333127 (3): e33312. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0033312

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0033312).

28. ^LIn, WY Wu, BT Lee, CC Sheu, JJ Liu, SH Wang, WF Tsai, CH Liu, HP Tsai, FJ (2012 Jul-Sep).

"Association analysis of dopaminergic gene variants (Comt, Drd4 And Dat1) with Alzheimer's disease"

(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23034259).J Biol Regul Homeost Agents26 (3): 40110.


29. ^Santtila, Pekka Patrick, Jern Lars, Westberg Hasse, Walum Christin T., Pedersen Elias, Eriksson Nils

Kenneth, Sandnabba (5 FEB 2010). "The Dopamine Transporter Gene (DAT1) Polymorphism is Associated

with Premature Ejaculation". The Journal of Sexual Medicine7 (4pt1): 15381546. doi:10.1111/j.1743-

6109.2009.01696.x (http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1743-6109.2009.01696.x).

30. ^Cornish, K M T,ManlyR,SavageJ,SwansonD,MorisanoN,ButlerC,GrantG,CrossL,BentleyC P,Hollis (5

April 2005). "Association of the dopamine transporter (DAT1) 10/10-repeat genotype with ADHD symptoms

and response inhibition in a general population sample". Molecular Psychiatry. (2005) 10 (7): 686698.

doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001641 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.mp.4001641).

31. ^Fitzmaurice, Arthur G. Shannon L., Rhodes Aaron, Lulla Niall P., Murphy Hoa A., Lam Kelley C.,

ODonnell Lisa, Barnhill John E., Casida Myles, Cockburn Alvaro, Sagasti Mark C., Stahl Nigel T.,Maidment Beate, Ritz Jeff M., Bronstein (2012 December 24). "Aldehyde dehydrogenase inhibition as a

pathogenic mechanism in Parkinson disease". Proceedings of the National Academy of Science Of the United
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.mp.4001641http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1743-6109.2009.01696.xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23034259http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23034259http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0033312http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23225875http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.073635http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22446566http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3329973http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fschbul%2Fsbs043http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3329973http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17426051http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2526129http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fschbul%2Fsbm026http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2526129http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20608471http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22325983http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biopsych.2012.01.003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23225872http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3515034http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.074716http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3515034http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/scientists-shocked-to-find-antibiotics-alleviate-symptoms-of-schizophrenia-7469121.htmlhttp://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/03/090311085151.htmhttp://www.redorbit.com/news/health/1657166/researchers_link_parasites_to_schizophrenia/


12/15



States of America. doi:10.1073/pnas.1220399110 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1220399110).

32. ^Ho-Yen DO, Joss AW, Balfour AH, Smyth ET, Baird D, Chatterton JM (October 1992). "Use of the

polymerase chain reaction to detect Toxoplasma gondii in human blood samples"

(http://jcp.bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=1430262).J. Clin. Pathol.45 (10): 9103.

doi:10.1136/jcp.45.10.910 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fjcp.45.10.910). PMC 495065



33. ^"Toxoplasmosis" (http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/DPDx/HTML/Toxoplasmosis.htm). Centers of Disease Control

and Prevention. 2004-11-22.34. ^North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services

(http://www.ncagr.com/vet/ToxoplasmosisTxt.htm)

35. ^"Parasites Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma infection)"

(http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/biology.html). Centers of Disease Control and Prevention. 2011-

04-05.

36. ^ Circular Normativa sobre Cuidados Pr-Concepcionais Direco-Geral de Sade

(http://www.srsdocs.com/parcerias/normas/circulares/dgs/2006/cuidados_pre_concepcionais.pdf)

37. ^ abcdefSukthana Y (March 2006). "Toxoplasmosis: beyond animals to humans"

(http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1471-4922(06)00023-7). Trends Parasitol.22 (3): 13742.

doi:10.1016/j.pt.2006.01.007 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pt.2006.01.007). PMID 16446116


38. ^ [6] (http://participacion.elpais.com.uy/lasalud/2008/05/20/los-gatos-domesticos-transmiten-toxoplasmosis/)

39. ^ ab M. De Paschale, C. Agrappi, P. Clerici, P. Mirri, M. T. Manco, S. Cavallari and E. F. Vigan:

Seroprevalence and incidence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in the Legnano area of Italy

(http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2007.01883.x). Clinical Microbiology and

Infection Volume 14 Issue 2 (2007), Pages 186189.

40. ^Ian Sample, science correspondent. "Pregnant women infected by cat parasite more likely to give birth to

boys, say researchers | Science" (http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2006/oct/12/uk.health). The Guardian.

Retrieved 2013-02-14.

41. ^ abWebster, JP (2007 May). "The effect of Toxoplasma gondii on animal behavior: playing cat and mouse"

(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2526137). Schizophrenia bulletin33 (3): 7526.doi:10.1093/schbul/sbl073 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fschbul%2Fsbl073). PMC 2526137



42. ^ abBerdoy, M Webster, JP Macdonald, DW (2000 Aug 7). "Fatal attraction in rats infected with

Toxoplasma gondii" (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1690701).Proceedings. Biological

sciences / the Royal Society267 (1452): 15914. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1182

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2000.1182). PMC 1690701



43. ^Vyas, A Kim Giacomini Boothroyd Sapolsky Kim, SK Giacomini, N Boothroyd, JC Sapolsky, RM

(2007 Apr 10). "Behavioral changes induced by Toxoplasma infection of rodents are highly specific to aversion

of cat odors" (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1851063).Proceedings of the National Academy

of Sciences of the United States of America104(15): 64427. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.6442V

(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..104.6442V). doi:10.1073/pnas.0608310104

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0608310104). PMC 1851063



44. ^Xiao, J Kannan, G Jones-Brando, L Brannock, C Krasnova, IN Cadet, JL Pletnikov, M Yolken, RH

(2012 Mar 29). "Sex-specific changes in gene expression and behavior induced by chronic Toxoplasma

infection in mice".Neuroscience206: 3948. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.12.051

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuroscience.2011.12.051). PMID 22240252(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22240252).

45. ^Lamberton, PH Donnelly, CA Webster, JP (2008 Sep). "Specificity of theToxoplasma gondii-altered
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22240252http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuroscience.2011.12.051http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17404235http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1851063http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0608310104http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..104.6442Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1851063http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11007336http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1690701http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2000.1182http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1690701http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218613http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2526137http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fschbul%2Fsbl073http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2526137http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2006/oct/12/uk.healthhttp://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2007.01883.xhttp://participacion.elpais.com.uy/lasalud/2008/05/20/los-gatos-domesticos-transmiten-toxoplasmosis/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16446116http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pt.2006.01.007http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1471-4922(06)00023-7http://www.srsdocs.com/parcerias/normas/circulares/dgs/2006/cuidados_pre_concepcionais.pdfhttp://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/biology.htmlhttp://www.ncagr.com/vet/ToxoplasmosisTxt.htmhttp://www.dpd.cdc.gov/DPDx/HTML/Toxoplasmosis.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1430262http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC495065http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fjcp.45.10.910http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://jcp.bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=1430262http://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1220399110http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier


13/15



behaviour to definitive versus non-definitive host predation risk".Parasitology135 (10): 114350.

doi:10.1017/S0031182008004666 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0031182008004666). PMID 18620624


46. ^McConkey, GA Martin, HL Bristow, GC Webster, JP (2013 Jan 1). "Toxoplasma gondii infection and

behaviour location, location, location?" (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3515035). The

Journal of experimental biology216 (Pt 1): 1139. doi:10.1242/jeb.074153

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.074153). PMC 3515035


(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23225873).47. ^ abAfonso, C Paixo Costa Paixo, VB Costa, RM (2012). "Chronic Toxoplasma infection modifies the

structure and the risk of host behavior" (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3303785). In Hakimi,

Mohamed-Ali.PloS one7 (3): e32489. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...732489A

(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PLoSO...732489A). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032489

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0032489). PMC 3303785



48. ^Gonzalez, LE Rojnik, B Urrea, F Urdaneta, H Petrosino, P Colasante, C Pino, S Hernandez, L (2007

Feb 12). "Toxoplasma gondii infection lower anxiety as measured in the plus-maze and social interaction tests

in rats A behavioral analysis".Behavioural brain research177 (1): 709. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2006.11.012

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbr.2006.11.012). PMID 17169442


49. ^"Toxoplasmosis treatment key research" (http://www.aidsmap.com/en/docs/659BAD5D-332A-4F8D-9F93-

8D0F470B2D32.asp). NAM & aidsmap. 2005-11-02.

50. ^Djurkovi-Djakovi O, Milenkovi V, Nikoli A, Bobi B, Gruji J (2002). "Efficacy of atovaquone

combined with clindamycin against murine infection with a cystogenic (Me49) strain of Toxoplasma gondii"

(http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/50/6/981.pdf) (PDF).J Antimicrob Chemother50 (6): 9817.

doi:10.1093/jac/dkf251 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkf251). PMID 12461021


51. ^ abc Pappas, G Roussos, N Falagas, ME (2009 Oct). "Toxoplasmosis snapshots: global status of

Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence and implications for pregnancy and congenital toxoplasmosis". Internationaljournal for parasitology39 (12): 138594. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2009.04.003

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpara.2009.04.003). PMID 19433092


52. ^ abJones, JL Kruszon-Moran, D Sanders-Lewis, K Wilson, M (2007 Sep). "Toxoplasma gondii infection

in the United States, 1999 2004, decline from the prior decade". The American journal of tropical medicine

and hygiene77 (3): 40510. PMID 17827351 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17827351).

53. ^ "CDC: Parasites Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma infection) Pregnant Women"

(http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/gen_info/pregnant.html). Retrieved 13 March 2013.

54. ^Dubey, JP Frenkel, JK (1998 May). "Toxoplasmosis of rats: a review, with considerations of their value as

an animal model and their possible role in epidemiology". Veterinary parasitology77 (1): 132.

doi:10.1016/S0304-4017(97)00227-6 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0304-4017%2897%2900227-6).


55. ^Toxoplasma Serology Laboratory: Laboratory Tests For The Diagnosis Of Toxoplasmosis

(http://www.pamf.org/serology/clinicianguide.html#toxosero)

56. ^Arthur Ashe, Tennis Star, is Dead at 49 (http://www.aegis.com/news/ads/1993/ad930239.html)New York

Times (02/08/93)

57. ^Merritt Butrick, A Biography (http://www.angelfire.com/celeb2/merrittbutrick/Biography.html)

Angelfire.com, accessdate Mar 18, 2011

58. ^"Pregnancy superfoods revealed" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1109818.stm).BBC News. January 10,

2001. Retrieved May 25, 2010.

59. ^"Olympics bid Coes finest race" (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/article537461.ece). The Times(London). June 26, 2005. Retrieved May 25, 2010.

60. ^"PERSONAL HEALTH" (http://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/27/garden/personal-health-247906.html).New
http://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/27/garden/personal-health-247906.htmlhttp://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/article537461.ecehttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1109818.stmhttp://www.angelfire.com/celeb2/merrittbutrick/Biography.htmlhttp://www.aegis.com/news/ads/1993/ad930239.htmlhttp://www.pamf.org/serology/clinicianguide.html#toxoserohttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9652380http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0304-4017%2897%2900227-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/gen_info/pregnant.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17827351http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19433092http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpara.2009.04.003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12461021http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkf251http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://jac.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/50/6/981.pdfhttp://www.aidsmap.com/en/docs/659BAD5D-332A-4F8D-9F93-8D0F470B2D32.asphttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17169442http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbr.2006.11.012http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22431975http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3303785http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0032489http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PLoSO...732489Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3303785http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23225873http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3515035http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.074153http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3515035http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18620624http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0031182008004666http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier


14/15



York Times. 27 October 1982.

61. ^"Topic 33. Coccidia and Cryptosporidium spp" (http://www.k-

state.edu/parasitology/classes/625protozoa33.html). Biology 625: Animal Parasitology. Kent State Parasitology

Lab. October 24, 2005. Retrieved 2006-10-14. Includes a list of famous victims.

62. ^Kathleen McAuliffe (March 2012).How Your Cat is Making You Crazy

(http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/03/how-your-cat-is-making-you-crazy/8873/). The

Atlantic.

63. ^J.P Dubey (2010)

64. ^ abcdTenter, AM Heckeroth, AR Weiss, LM (2000 Nov). "Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans"

(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109627).International journal for parasitology30 (1213):

121758. doi:10.1016/S0020-7519(00)00124-7 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0020-7519%2800%2900124-

7). PMC 3109627 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109627). PMID 11113252


65. ^ abcdefgDubey, JP Jones, JL (2008 Sep). "Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans and animals in the

United States".International journal for parasitology38 (11): 125778. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.03.007



66. ^ abcdJones, JL Dubey, JP (2012 Sep). "Foodborne toxoplasmosis". Clinical infectious diseases : an official

publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America55(6): 84551. doi:10.1093/cid/cis508(http://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fcid%2Fcis508). PMID 22618566 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22618566).

67. ^J.P Dubey (2010) p. 145-151

68. ^Dubey, JP Sundar, N Hill, D Velmurugan, GV Bandini, LA Kwok, OC Majumdar, D Su, C (2008 Jul).

"High prevalence and abundant atypical genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii isolated from lambs destined for

human consumption in the USA".International journal for parasitology38(89): 9991006.

doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.11.012 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpara.2007.11.012). PMID 18191859


69. ^Dubey, JP Rajendran, C Ferreira, LR Martins, J Kwok, OC Hill, DE Villena, I Zhou, H Su, C Jones,

JL (2011 Jul). "High prevalence and genotypes ofToxoplasma gondiiisolated from goats, from a retail meat

store, destined for human consumption in the USA".International journal for parasitology41 (8): 82733.

doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2011.03.006 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpara.2011.03.006). PMID 21515278(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21515278).

70. ^Dubey, JP (2010 Feb). "Toxoplasma gondii infections in chickens (Gallus domesticus): prevalence, clinical

disease, diagnosis and public health significance".Zoonoses and public health57 (1): 6073.

doi:10.1111/j.1863-2378.2009.01274.x (http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1863-2378.2009.01274.x).


71. ^Louis M Weiss, Kami Kim (2011) p. 723

72. ^ abcdElmore, SA Jones, JL Conrad, PA Patton, S Lindsay, DS Dubey, JP (2010 Apr). "Toxoplasma

gondii: epidemiology, feline clinical aspects, and prevention". Trends in parasitology26 (4): 1906.

doi:10.1016/j.pt.2010.01.009 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pt.2010.01.009). PMID 20202907


73. ^Jokelainen, P Simola, O Rantanen, E Nreaho, A Lohi, H Sukura, A (2012 Nov). "Feline toxoplasmosis

in Finland: cross-sectional epidemiological study and case series study".Journal of veterinary diagnostic

investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc24

(6): 111524. doi:10.1177/1040638712461787 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F1040638712461787).


74. ^Al-Kappany, YM Rajendran, C Ferreira, LR Kwok, OC Abu-Elwafa, SA Hilali, M Dubey, JP (2010

Dec). "High prevalence of toxoplasmosis in cats from Egypt: isolation of viable Toxoplasma gondii, tissue

distribution, and isolate designation". The Journal of parasitology96 (6): 11158. doi:10.1645/GE-2554.1

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1645%2FGE-2554.1). PMID 21158619 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21158619).

75. ^J.P Dubey (2010) p. 95

76. ^J.P Dubey (2010) p. 4677. ^Conrad P, Miller M, Kreuder C, James E, Mazet J, Dabritz H, Jessup D, Gulland F, Grigg M (2005).

"Transmission of Toxoplasma: clues from the study of sea otters as sentinels of Toxoplasma gondii flow into
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21158619http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1645%2FGE-2554.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23012380http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F1040638712461787http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20202907http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pt.2010.01.009http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19744305http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1863-2378.2009.01274.xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21515278http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpara.2011.03.006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18191859http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpara.2007.11.012http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22618566http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fcid%2Fcis508http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18508057http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpara.2008.03.007http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11113252http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109627http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0020-7519%2800%2900124-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109627http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/03/how-your-cat-is-making-you-crazy/8873/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_Statehttp://www.k-state.edu/parasitology/classes/625protozoa33.html


15/15


the marine environment".Int J Parasitol35 (1112): 115568. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.07.002



78. ^17:3022:00 "Treating Disease in the Developing World" (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?

storyId=5058325). Talk of the Nation Science Friday. National Public Radio. December 16, 2005.

79. ^"Parasite in cats killing sea otters" (http://www.magazine.noaa.gov/stories/mag72.htm).NOAA magazine

(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). 21 January 2003. Retrieved 24 November 2007.

Parts of this article are taken from the public domain CDC factsheet: Toxoplasmosis

(http://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/)

Bibliography

Louis M Weiss Kami Kim (28 April 2011). Toxoplasma Gondii: The Model Apicomplexan.

Perspectives and Methods(http://books.google.com/books?id=yTUkJEphM_IC). Academic Press.

ISBN 978-0-08-047501-1. Retrieved 12 March 2013.

J. P. Dubey (15 April 2010). Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Humans, Second Edition

(http://books.google.com/books?id=5Nm7t5p9APAC). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-9237-0.

Retrieved 12 March 2013.

External links

Toxoplasmosis (http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec14/ch186/ch186h.html)at Merck Manual of

Diagnosis and Therapy Professional Edition

Toxoplasmosis

(http://www.hpa.org.uk/webw/HPAweb&HPAwebStandard/HPAweb_C/1195733799638) atHealth Protection Agency (HPA), United Kingdom

Pictures of Toxoplasmosis (http://rad.usuhs.edu/medpix/medpix.html?

mode=image_finder&action=search&srchstr=toxoplasmosis#top) Medical Image Database

Video-Interview (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m3x3TMdkGdQ) with Professor Robert

Sapolsky on Toxoplasmosis and its affect on human behavior. (24:27 min)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&oldid=566312154"

Categories: Cat diseases Apicomplexa Protozoal diseases Zoonoses Mind-altering parasites

Parasitic infestations, stings, and bites of the skin Poultry diseases Health issues in pregnancy

This page was last modified on 29 July 2013 at 17:45.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License additional terms may

apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.

Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
http://www.wikimediafoundation.org/http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policyhttp://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Terms_of_Usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_Licensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Categorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&oldid=566312154http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Sapolskyhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m3x3TMdkGdQhttp://rad.usuhs.edu/medpix/medpix.html?mode=image_finder&action=search&srchstr=toxoplasmosis#tophttp://www.hpa.org.uk/webw/HPAweb&HPAwebStandard/HPAweb_C/1195733799638http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merck_Manual_of_Diagnosis_and_Therapyhttp://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec14/ch186/ch186h.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-9237-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=5Nm7t5p9APAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-047501-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=yTUkJEphM_IChttp://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administrationhttp://www.magazine.noaa.gov/stories/mag72.htmhttp://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5058325http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16157341http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpara.2005.07.002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Health_issues_in_pregnancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Poultry_diseaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Parasitic_infestations,_stings,_and_bites_of_the_skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Mind-altering_parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Zoonoseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Protozoal_diseaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Apicomplexahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Cat_diseases

toxoplasmosis - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.pdf

Documents