solar power - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.pdf

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11/12/13 Solar power - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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The 150 MW Andasol solar powerstation is a c ommercial parabolictrough solar thermal power plant,

located in Spain. The Andasol plantuses tanks of molten salt to storesolar energy so that it can continuegenerating electricity even when the

sun isn'tshining.[1]

Solar powerFrom Wikipedia,the free encyclopedia

Solar poweris the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectlyusing concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and trackingsystems to focusa large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using

the photoelectriceffect.[2]

Photovoltaics were initially, and still are, used to power small and medium-sized applications, from thecalculatorpowered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array. They are animportant and relatively inexpensive source of electrical energy where grid power is inconvenient, unreasonablyexpensive to connect, or simply unavailable. However, as the cost of solar electricity is falling, solar power isalso increasingly being used even in grid-connected situations as a way to feed low-carbon energy into the grid.

Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 354 MW SEGS CSP

installation is the largest solar power plant in the world, located in the Mojave Desert of California. Other largeCSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW) and theAndasol solar power station (150MW), both in Spain. The 250+ MW Agua Caliente Solar Project in the United S tates, and the 221 MWCharanka Solar Park in India, are the worlds largest photovoltaic power stations.

Contents

1 Concentratingsolar power2Photovoltaics

2.1 Photovoltaicpowersystems3 Development and deployment

3.1 Photovoltaic power stations3.2 Concentrating solar thermal power

4 Economics4.1 Energy cost4.2 Grid parity

4.3 Self Consumption4.4 Energy pricing and incentives
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Average insolation showing land area(small black dots) required to replacethe world primary energy supply withsolar electricity (18 TW or 568Exajoule, EJ, per year). Insolation for

most people is from 150 to 300 W/m2

or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/(m2day).

The first three units of Solnova in theforeground, w ith the two towers ofthe PS10 and PS20 solar powerstations in the background.

5 Environmental impacts5.1 Greenhouse gases5.2 Energy payback5.3 Cadmium

6 Energy storage methods7 Experimental solar power

8 See also9 References10 Sources11 External links

Concentrating solar power

Further information: Solar thermal energy and Concentrated solar power
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrated_solar_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PS20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PS10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solnova_Solar_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foto_a%C3%A9re_de_solnovas_y_torre_junio_2010.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_land_area.png


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A diagram of a parabolic trough solarfarm (top), and an end view of how a

parabolic collector focuses sunlightonto its focal point.

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Theconcentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists: the most developedare the parabolic trough , the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track thesun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energystorage.[3]Thermal storage efficiently allows up to 24 hour electricity generation.[4]

A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned

along the reflector's focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned right above the middle of the parabolic mirrorand is filled with a working fluid. The reflector is made to follow the sun during daylight hours by tracking alonga single axis. Parabolic trough systems provide the best land-use factor of any solar technology. [5]The SEGSplants in California and Acciona's Nevada Solar One near Boulder City, Nevada are representatives of thistechnology.[6][7]Compact Linear Fresnel Reflectors are CSP-plants which use many thin mirror strips insteadof parabolic mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto two tubes with working fluid. This has the advantage that flatmirrors can be used which are much cheaper than parabolic mirrors, and that more reflectors can be placed inthe same amount of space, allowing more of the available sunlight to be used. Concentrating linear fresnelreflectors can be used in either large or more compact plants.[8][9]

The Stirling solar dish combines a parabolic concentrating dish with a Stirling engine which normally drives anelectric generator. The advantages of Stirling solar over photovoltaic cells are higher efficiency of convertingsunlight into electricity and longer lifetime. Parabolic dish systems give the highest efficiency among CSPtechnologies.[10]The 50 kW Big Dish in Canberra, Australia is an example of this technology. [6]

A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors (heliostats) to concentrate light on a central receiveratop a tower. Power towers are more cost effective, offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capabilityamong CSP technologies.[6]The PS10 Solar Power Plant and PS20 solar power plant are examples of this

technology.

Photovoltaics

Main article: Photovoltaics

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current using the photoelectriceffect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. [11]The German industrialist Ernst

Werner von Siemens was among those who recognized the importance of this discovery.

[12]

In 1931, theGerman engineer Bruno Lange developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide, [13]
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The 71.8 MW Lieberose PhotovoltaicPark in Germany.

Simplified sc hematics of a grid-connected residential PV power

system[16]

although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity. Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchersGerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954.[14]These early solarcells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.56%.[15]

Photovoltaic power systems

Main article: Photovoltaic system

Solar cells produce direct current (DC) power which fluctuates with the sunlight's intensity. For practical usethis usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating current (AC), through the use ofinverters.[16]Multiple solar cells are connected inside modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays,then tied to an inverter, which produces power at the desired voltage, and for AC, the desiredfrequency/phase.[16]

Many residential systems are connected to the grid wherever available, especially in developed countries withlarge markets.[17]In these grid-connected PV systems, use of energy storage is optional. In certainapplications such as satellites, lighthouses, or in developing countries, batteries or additional power generatorsare often added as back-ups. Such stand-alone power systems permit operations at night and at other times oflimited sunlight.

Development and deployment

See also: Solar power by country and Growth of photovoltaics

The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However,development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal andpetroleum.[18]In 1974 it was estimated that only six private homes in all of North America were entirely heated or cooled by functional solar powersystems.[19]The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention todeveloping solar technologies.[20][21]Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in theUS and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), andGermany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).[22]

Between 1970 and 1983 photovoltaic installations grew rapidly, but falling oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of PV from 1984 to 1996.

Since 1997, PV development has accelerated due to supply issues with oil and natural gas, global warming concerns, and the improving economicposition of PV relative to other energy technologies.[23]Photovoltaic production growth has averaged 40% per year since 2000 and installed capacity
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Nellis Solar Power Plant, 14 MWpower plant installed 2007 in Nevada,USA

Solar photovoltaic installation inGermany (MW) plotted against 58%growth curve

reached 39.8 GW at the end of 2010,[24]of them 17.4 GW inGermany. As of October 2011, the largest photovoltaic (PV) powerplants in the world are the Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant(Canada, 97 MW), Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station(Italy, 84.2 MW) and Finsterwalde Solar Park (Germany, 80.7MW).[25]

There are also many large plants under construction. The DesertSunlight Solar Farm is a 550 MW solar power plant underconstruction in Riverside County, California, that will use thin-filmsolar photovoltaic modules made by First Solar.[26]The Topaz SolarFarm is a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant, being built in San LuisObispo County, California.[27]The Blythe Solar Power Project is a500 MW photovoltaic station under construction in Riverside County, California. The Agua Caliente Solar

Project is a 290 megawatt photovoltaic solar generating facility being built in Yuma County, Arizona. The California Valley Solar Ranch (CVSR) is a250 megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaic power plant, which is being built by SunPower in the Carrizo Plain, northeast of California Valley.[28]The 230MW Antelope Valley Solar Ranch is a First Solar photovoltaic project which is under construction in the Antelope Valley area of the Western MojaveDesert, and due to be completed in 2013.[29]

At the end of September 2013, IKEA announced that solar panel packages for houses will be sold at 17 United Kingdom IKEA stores by the end ofJuly 2014. The decision followed a successful pilot project at the Lakeside IKEA store, whereby one photovoltaic (PV) system was sold almost everyday. The panels are manufactured by a Chinese company named Hanergy Holding Group Ltd. [30]
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Electricity Generation from Solar[31]

Year Energy (TWh) % of Total

2005 3.7 0.02%

2006 5.0 0.03%

2007 6.7 0.03%

2008 11.2 0.06%

2009 19.1 0.09%

2010 30.4 0.14%

2011 58.7 0.27%

2012 93.0 0.41%

Photovoltaic power stations

Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_photovoltaic_power_stations


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World's largest photovoltaic power stations (50 MW or larger)[25]

PV power station Country

DC peak

power

(MWp)

Notes

Agua Caliente Solar Project[32] USA 250 AC 397 MW when complete

Charanka Solar Park[33][34]

India 221 Completed 2012Golmud Solar Park[25][35][36][37] China 200 Completed 2011

Mesquite Solar project USA 150 up to 700 MW when complete

Neuhardenberg Solar Park[25][38] Germany 145Completed September 2012. A group of 11 co-located plant by the same

developer[39]but with different IPPs

Templin Solar Park[25][40] Germany 128.48 Completed September 2012

Toul-Rosires Solar Park[41] France 115 Completed November 2012

Perovo Solar Park[42] Ukraine 100 Completed 2011

Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant[43] Canada 97[25] Constructed 20092010[44]

Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic

Power Station[25]Italy 84.2 Constructed 20092010

Finsterwalde Solar Park[45][46] Germany 80.7 Phase I completed 2009, phase II and III 2010

Okhotnykovo Solar Park Ukraine 80 Completed 2011

Solarpark Senftenberg[25][47] Germany 78 Phase II and III completed 2011, another 70 MW phase planned

Lieberose Photovoltaic Park [48][49] Germany 71.8

Rovigo Photovoltaic Power

Plant[50][51]Italy 70 Completed November 2010

Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park Spain 60 Completed September 2008

Strasskirchen Solar Park Germany 54

Puertollano Photovoltaic Park Spain 50 opened 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puertollano_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strasskirchen_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmedilla_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rovigo_Photovoltaic_Power_Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieberose_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solarpark_Senftenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okhotnykovo_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsterwalde_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montalto_di_Castro_Photovoltaic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarnia_Photovoltaic_Power_Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Ukrainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perovo_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toul-Rosi%C3%A8res_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templin_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Power_Producerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuhardenberg_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesquite_Solar_projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huanghe_Hydropower_Golmud_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarat_Solar_Park#Charanka_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agua_Caliente_Solar_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt-peak


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Concentrating solar thermal power

Main article: List of solar thermal power stations

Commercial concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 354 MW SEGS CSP installation is the largest solarpower plant in the world, located in the Mojave Desert of California. Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW), theAndasol solar power station (150 MW), and Extresol Solar Power Station (100 MW), all in Spain. The 370 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, locatedin California's Mojave Desert, is the worlds largest solar thermal power plant project currently under construction.

The principle advantage of CSP is the ability to efficiently add thermal storage, allowing the dispatching of electricity over up to a 24-hour period. Sincepeak electricity demand typically occurs at about 5 pm, many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal storage.[52]

Largest operational solar thermal power stations

Capacity

(MW)Name Country Location Notes

354 Solar Energy GeneratingSystems USA Mojave DesertCalifornia Collection of 9 units

280 Solana Generating Station USA Gila Bend, Arizona Completed in October 2013, with 6h thermal energy storage[53][54]

200Solaben Solar Power

Station[55]Spain Logrosn

Solaben 3 completed June 2012[56]

Solaben 2 completed October 2012[56]

Solaben 1 and 6 completed September 2013[57]

150 Solnova Solar Power Station Spain SevilleCompleted 2010[58][59][60]

150 Andasol solar power station Spain Granada completed 2011, with 7.5h thermal energy storage[61][62]

150 Extresol Solar Power Station SpainTorre de MiguelSesmero

Extresol 1 completed February 2010Extresol 2 completed December 2010Extresol 3 completed August 2012, with 7.5h thermal energy

storage[56][63][64]

100Palma del Rio Solar Power

StationSpain Palma del Ro

Palma del Rio 2 completed December 2010[56]

Palma del Rio 1 completed July 2011[56]
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Projection of levelized cost of PV

energy in Europe.[69]

100 Manchasol Power Station Spain Alczar de San Juan Manchasol-1 completed January 2011, with 7.5h heat storage[56]

Manchasol-2 completed April 2011, with 7.5h heat storage[56]

100 Valle Solar Power Station Spain San Jos del Valle Completed December 2011, with 7.5h heat storage[56][65]

100Helioenergy Solar PowerStation

Spain cijaHelioenergy 1 completed September 2011[66][67]

Helioenergy 2 completed January 2012[56][66][67]

100 Aste Solar Power Station Spain Alczar de San JuanAste 1A Completed January 2012, with 8h heat storage[56]

Aste 1B Completed January 2012, with 8h heat storage[56]

100 Solacor Solar Power Station Spain El CarpioSolacor 1 completed February 2012[56]

Solacor 2 completed March 2012[56][68]

100 Helios Solar Power Station Spain Puerto LpiceHelios 1 completed May 2012[56]

Helios 2 completed August 2012[56]

Economics

Photovoltaic systems use no fuel and modules typically last 25 to 40 years. The cost of installation is almost theonly cost, as there is very little maintenance required. Installation cost is measured in $/watt or /watt. Theelectricity generated is sold for /kWh. 1 watt of installed photovoltaics generates roughly 1 to 2 kWh/year, asa result of the local insolation. The product of the local cost of electricity and the insolation determines thebreak even point for solar power. The International Conference on Solar Photovoltaic Investments, organizedby EPIA, has estimated that PV systems will pay back their investors in 8 to 12 years.[71]As a result, since

2006 it has been economical for investors to install photovoltaics for free in return for a long term powerpurchase agreement. Fifty percent of commercial systems were installed in this manner in 2007 and over 90%by 2009.[72]

As of 2011, the cost of PV has fallen well below that of nuclear power and is set to fall further. The averageretail price of solar cells as monitored by the Solarbuzz group fell from $3.50/watt to $2.43/watt over thecourse of 2011, and a decline to prices below $2.00/watt seems inevitable:[73]

A U.S. study of the amount of economic installations agrees closely with the actual installations.
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US average daily solar energy

insolation received by an optimallylatitude-tilted fixed photovoltaic cell.

European average kWh produced peryear for an optimally latitude-tilted

fixed photovoltaic kW(peak) array[70]

For large-scale installations, prices below $1.00/watt are now common. In some locations, PV has reached grid parity, the cost at which itis competitive with coal or gas-fired generation. More generally, it is now evident that, given a carbon price of $50/ton, which would raisethe price of coal-fired power by 5c/kWh, solar PV will be cost-competitive in most locations. The declining price of PV has been reflectedin rapidly growing installations, totalling about 23 GW in 2011. Although some consolidation is likely in 2012, as firms try to restoreprofitability, strong growth seems likely to continue for the rest of the decade. Already, by one estimate, total investment in renewables for2011 exceeded investment in carbon-based electricity generation.[73]

Additionally, governments have created various financial incentives to encourage the use of solar power, suchas feed-in tariff programs. Also, Renewable portfolio standards impose a government mandate that utilitiesgenerate or acquire a certain percentage of renewable power regardless of increased energy procurementcosts. In most states, RPS goals can be achieved by any combination of solar, wind, biomass, landfill gas,ocean, geothermal, municipal solid waste, hydroelectric, hydrogen, or fuel cell technologies.[74]

Shi Zhengrong has said that, as of 2012, unsubsidised solar power is already competitive with fossil fuels inIndia, Hawaii, Italy and Spain. He said "We are at a tipping point. No longer are renewable power sourceslike solar and wind a luxury of the rich. They are now starting to compete in the real world without subsidies".

"Solar power will be able to compete without subsidies against conventional power sources in half the worldby 2015".[75]

Energy cost

The PV industry is beginning to adopt levelized cost of energy (LCOE) as the unit of cost. For a 10 MW plantin Phoenix, AZ, the LCOE is estimated at $0.15 to 0.22/kWh in 2005.[76]

The table below illustrates the calculated total cost in US cents per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated by a

photovoltaic system as function of the investment cost and the efficiency, assuming some accountingparameters such as cost of capital and depreciation period. The row headings on the left show the total cost,per peak kilowatt (kWp), of a photovoltaic installation. The column headings across the top refer to the annualenergy output in kilowatt-hours expected from each installed peak kilowatt. This varies by geographic regionbecause the average insolation depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversedby the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon.

Panels can be mounted at an angle based on latitude,[77]or solar tracking can be utilized to access even moreperpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output. The calculated values in the table reflect the total

cost in cents per kilowatt-hour produced. They assume a 5%/year total capital cost (for instance 4% interestrate, 1% operating and maintenance cost, and depreciation of the capital outlay over 20 years).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depreciation#Straight-line_depreciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_trackinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell#Watts_peakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt-hourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi_Zhengronghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_solid_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfill_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_portfolio_standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feed-in_tariffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pvgis_Europe-solar_opt_publication.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Us_pv_annual_may2004.jpg


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Economic photovoltaic capacity vsinstallation cost, in the United States.

A solar-powered trash compactor ona residential corner in Jersey City,

New J ersey.

Table showing average cost in cents/kWh over 20 years for solar power panels

Insolation

Cost

2400

kWh/

kWpy

2200

kWh/

kWpy

2000

kWh/

kWpy

1800

kWh/

kWpy

1600

kWh/

kWpy

1400

kWh/kWpy

1200

kWh/kWpy

1000

kWh/kWpy

800

kWh/kWpy

200 $/kWp 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.5

600 $/kWp 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.8 4.3 5.0 6.0 7.5

1000 $/kWp 4.2 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.3 7.1 8.3 10.0 12.5

1400 $/kWp 5.8 6.4 7.0 7.8 8.8 10.0 11.7 14.0 17.5

1800 $/kWp 7.5 8.2 9.0 10.0 11.3 12.9 15.0 18.0 22.5

2200 $/kWp 9.2 10.0 11.0 12.2 13.8 15.7 18.3 22.0 27.5

2600 $/kWp 10.8 11.8 13.0 14.4 16.3 18.6 21.7 26.0 32.5

3000 $/kWp 12.5 13.6 15.0 16.7 18.8 21.4 25.0 30.0 37.5

3400 $/kWp 14.2 15.5 17.0 18.9 21.3 24.3 28.3 34.0 42.5

3800 $/kWp 15.8 17.3 19.0 21.1 23.8 27.1 31.7 38.0 47.5

4200 $/kWp 17.5 19.1 21.0 23.3 26.3 30.0 35.0 42.0 52.5

4600 $/kWp 19.2 20.9 23.0 25.6 28.8 32.9 38.3 46.0 57.5

5000 $/kWp 20.8 22.7 25.0 27.8 31.3 35.7 41.7 50.0 62.5

Grid parity

Main article: Grid parity

Grid parity, the point at which the cost of photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than the price of gridpower, is more easily achieved in areas with abundant sun and high costs for electricity such as in Californiaand Japan.[78]
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The fully loaded cost (cost not price) of solar electricity in 2008 was $0.25/kWh or less in most of the OECD countries. By late 2011, the fully loadedcost was predicted to fall below $0.15/kWh for most of the OECD and reach $0.10/kWh in sunnier regions. These cost levels are driving three emergingtrends:[79]

1. vertical integration of the supply chain;2. origination of power purchase agreements (PPAs) by solar power companies;3. unexpected risk for traditional power generation companies, grid operators and wind turbine manufacturers.

Grid parity was first reached in Spain in 2013,[80]Hawaii and other islands that otherwise use fossil fuel (diesel fuel) to produce electricity, and most ofthe US is expected to reach grid parity by 2015. [81][82]

General Electric's Chief Engineer predicted grid parity without subsidies in sunny parts of the United States by around 2015. Other companies predict anearlier date:[83]the cost of solar power will be below grid parity for more than half of residential customers and 10% of commercial customers in theOECD, as long as grid electricity prices do not decrease through 2010. [79]

Self Consumption

In cases of self consumption of the solar energy the payback time is calculated based on how much electricity is not purchased from the grid.

For example in Germany with electricity prices of 0.25 Euro/KWh and insolation of 900 KWh/KW one KWp will save 225 Euro per year, and with aninstallation cost of 1700 Euro/KWp the system cost will be returned in less than 7 years. [84]

However, in many cases, the patterns of generation and consumption do not coincide, and some or all of the energy is fed back into the grid; theelectricity is sold, and at other times energy is taken from the grid, electricity is bought. The relative costs and prices obtained affect the economics.

Energy pricing and incentives

Main article: PV financial incentives

The political purpose of incentive policies for PV is to facilitate an initial small-scale deployment to begin to grow the industry, even where the cost of PVis significantly above grid parity, to allow the industry to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid parity. The policies are implemented topromote national energy independence, high tech job creation and reduction of CO2emissions.

Three incentive mechanisms are used (often in combination):

investment subsidies: the authorities refund part of the cost of installation of the system,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PV_financial_incentiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine_manufacturerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_operatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_purchase_agreementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost


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Net metering, unlike a feed-in tariff,requires only one meter, but it must be bi-directional.

Feed-in Tariffs (FIT): the electricity utility buys PV electricity from the producer under a multiyear contract at a guaranteed rate.Solar Renewable Energy Certificates ("SRECs")

Rebates

With investment subsidies, the financial burden falls upon the taxpayer, while with feed-in tariffs the extra cost is distributed across the utilities' customerbases. While the investment subsidy may be simpler to administer, the main argument in favour of feed-in tariffs is the encouragement of quality.

Investment subsidies are paid out as a function of the nameplate capacity of the installed system and are independent of its actual power yield over time,thus rewarding the overstatement of power and tolerating poor durability and maintenance. Some electric companies offer rebates to their customers,such as Austin Energy in Texas, which offers $2.50/watt installed up to $15,000.[85]

Net metering

Main article: Net metering

In net metering the price of the electricity produced is the same as the price supplied to the consumer, andthe consumer is billed on the difference between production and consumption. Net metering can usuallybe done with no changes to standard electricity meters, which accurately measure power in bothdirections and automatically report the difference, and because it allows homeowners and businesses togenerate electricity at a different time from consumption, effectively using the grid as a giant storagebattery. With net metering, deficits are billed each month while surpluses are rolled over to the followingmonth. Best practices call for perpetual roll over of kWh credits.[86]Excess credits upon termination ofservice are either lost, or paid for at a rate ranging from wholesale to retail rate or above, as can beexcess annual credits. In New Jersey, annual excess credits are paid at the wholesale rate, as are left overcredits when a customer terminates service.[87]

Feed-in Tariffs (FiT)

With feed-in tariffs, the financial burden falls upon the consumer. They reward the number of kilowatt-hours produced over a long period of time, butbecause the rate is set by the authorities, it may result in perceived overpayment. The price paid per kilowatt-hour under a feed-in tariff exceeds the priceof grid electricity. Net metering refers to the case where the price paid by the utility is the same as the price charged.

Solar Renewable Energy Credits (SRECs)

Alternatively, SRECs allow for a market mechanism to set the price of the solar generated electricity subsity. In this mechanism, a renewable energy

production or consumption target is set, and the utility (more technically the Load Serving Entity) is obliged to purchase renewable energy or face a fine(Alternative Compliance Payment or ACP). The producer is credited for an SREC for every 1,000 kWh of electricity produced. If the utility buys this
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SREC and retires it, they avoid paying the ACP. In principle this system delivers the cheapest renewable energy, since the all solar facilities are eligibleand can be installed in the most economic locations. Uncertainties about the future value of SRECs have led to long-term SREC contract markets(http://www.srectrade.com/srec_forwards.php) to give clarity to their prices and allow solar developers to pre-sell/hedge their SRECs.

Financial incentives for photovoltaics differ across countries, including Australia, China, [88]Germany,[89]Israel,[90]Japan, and the United States and evenacross states within the US.

The Japanese government through its Ministry of International Trade and Industry ran a successful programme of subsidies from 1994 to 2003. By theend of 2004, Japan led the world in installed PV capacity with over 1.1 GW. [91]

In 2004, the German government introduced the first large-scale feed-in tariff system, under a law known as the 'EEG' (Erneuerbare Energien Gesetz)which resulted in explosive growth of PV installations in Germany. At the outset the FIT was over 3x the retail price or 8x the industrial price. Theprinciple behind the German system is a 20 year flat rate contract. The value of new contracts is programmed to decrease each year, in order toencourage the industry to pass on lower costs to the end users. The programme has been more successful than expected with over 1GW installed in2006, and political pressure is mounting to decrease the tariff to lessen the future burden on consumers.

Subsequently, Spain, Italy, Greece (who enjoyed an early success with domestic solar-thermal installations for hot water needs) and France introducedfeed-in tariffs. None have replicated the programmed decrease of FIT in new contracts though, making the German incentive relatively less and lessattractive compared to other countries. The French and Greek FIT offer a high premium (EUR 0.55/kWh) for building integrated systems. California,Greece, France and Italy have 30-50% more insolation than Germany making them financially more attractive. The Greek domestic "solar roof"programme (adopted in June 2009 for installations up to 10 kW) has internal rates of return of 10-15% at current commercial installation costs, which,furthermore, is tax free.

In 2006 California approved the 'California Solar Initiative', offering a choice of investment subsidies or FIT for small and medium systems and a FIT forlarge systems. The small-system FIT of $0.39 per kWh (far less than EU countries) expires in just 5 years, and the alternate "EPBB" residentialinvestment incentive is modest, averaging perhaps 20% of cost. All California incentives are scheduled to decrease in the future depending as a function

of the amount of PV capacity installed.

At the end of 2006, the Ontario Power Authority (OPA, Canada) began its Standard Offer Program (http://www.powerauthority.on.ca/sop/) (SOP), thefirst in North America for small renewable projects (10MW or less). This guarantees a fixed price of $0.42 CDN per kWh over a period of twentyyears. Unlike net metering, all the electricity produced is sold to the OPA at the SOP rate. The generator then purchases any needed electricity at thecurrent prevailing rate (e.g., $0.055 per kWh). The difference should cover all the costs of installation and operation over the life of the contract. On 1October 2009, OPA issued a Feed-in Tariff (FIT) program, increasing this fixed price to $0.802 per kWh.[92]

The price per kilowatt hour or per peak kilowatt of the FIT or investment subsidies is only one of three factors that stimulate the installation of PV. The

other two factors are insolation (the more sunshine, the less capital is needed for a given power output) and administrative ease of obtaining permits andcontracts.
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Unfortunately the complexity of approvals in California, Spain and Italy has prevented comparable growth to Germany even though the return oninvestment is better.

In some countries, additional incentives are offered for BIPV compared to stand alone PV.

France + EUR 0.16 /kWh (compared to semi-integrated) or + EUR 0.27/kWh (compared to stand alone)Italy + EUR 0.04-0.09 kWh

Germany + EUR 0.05/kWh (facades only)

Environmental impacts

Unlike fossil fuel based technologies, solar power does not lead to any harmful emissions during operation, but the production of the panels leads to someamount of pollution.

Greenhouse gases

The Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of solar power are in the range of 22 to 46 g/kWh depending on if solar thermal or solar PV is being analyzed,respectively. With this potentially being decreased to 15 g/kWh in the future.[93]For comparison (of weighted averages), a combined cycle gas-firedpower plant emits some 400-599 g/kWh,[94]an oil-fired power plant 893 g/kWh,[94]a coal-fired power plant 915-994 g/kWh[95]or with carboncapture and storage some 200 g/kWh, and a geothermal high-temp. power plant 91-122 g/kWh.[94]The life cycle emission intensity of hydro, wind andnuclear power are lower than solar's as of 2011 as published by the IPCC, and discussed in the article Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energysources. Similar to all energy sources were their total life cycle emissions primarily lay in the construction and transportation phase, the switch to lowcarbon power in the manufacturing and transportation of solar devices would further reduce carbon emissions. BP Solar owns two factories built bySolarex (one in Maryland, the other in Virginia) in which all of the energy used to manufacture solar panels is produced by solar panels. A 1-kilowatt

system eliminates the burning of approximately 170 pounds of coal, 300 pounds of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere, and savesup to 105 gallons of water consumption monthly.[96]

Energy payback

The energy payback time of a power generating system is the time required to generate as much energy as was consumed during production of thesystem. In 2000 the energy payback time of PV systems was estimated as 8 to 11 years [97]and in 2006 this was estimated to be 1.5 to 3.5 years forcrystalline silicon PV systems[93]and 1-1.5 years for thin film technologies (S. Europe).[93]
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This energy park in Geesthacht,Germany, includes solar panels and

pumped-storage hydroelectricity.

Another economic measure, closely related to the energy payback time, is the energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) or energy return oninvestment (EROI),[98]which is the ratio of electricity generated divided by the energy required to build and maintainthe equipment. (This is not thesame as the economic return on investment (ROI), which varies according to local energy prices, subsidies available and metering techniques.) Withlifetimes of at least 30 years[citation needed], the EROEI of PV systems are in the range of 10 to 30, thus generating enough energy over their lifetimes toreproduce themselves many times (6-31 reproductions) depending on what type of material, balance of system (BOS), and the geographic location ofthe system.[99]

Cadmium

One issue that has often raised concerns is the use of cadmium in cadmium telluride solar cells (CdTe is only used in a few types of PV panels). Cadmiuin its metallic form is a toxic substance that has the tendency to accumulate in ecological food chains. The amount of cadmium used in thin-film PVmodules is relatively small (5-10 g/m) and with proper emission control techniques in place the cadmium emissions from module production can bealmost zero. Current PV technologies lead to cadmium emissions of 0.3-0.9 microgram/kWh over the whole life-cycle.[93]Most of these emissionsactually arise through the use of coal power for the manufacturing of the modules, and coal and lignite combustion leads to much higher emissions ofcadmium. Life-cycle cadmium emissions from coal is 3.1 microgram/kWh, lignite 6.2, and natural gas 0.2 microgram/kWh.

Note that if electricity produced by photovoltaic panels were used to manufacture the modules instead of electricity from burning coal, cadmiumemissions from coal power usage in the manufacturing process could be entirely eliminated.[100]

Energy storage methods

Main articles: Grid energy storage and V2G

Solar energy is not available at night, making energy storage an important issue in order to provide the

continuous availability of energy.[101]

Both wind power and solar power are intermittent energy sources,meaning that all available output must be taken when it is available and either stored for whenit can be used,or transported, over transmission lines, to whereit can be used.

Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity. With grid-tiedsystems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid. Net metering and feed-in tariff programs givethese systems a credit for the electricity they produce. This credit offsets electricity provided from the gridwhen the system cannot meet demand, effectively using the grid as a storage mechanism. Credits are normallyrolled over from month to month and any remaining surplus settled annually. [102]When wind and solar are a

small fraction of the grid power, other generation techniques can adjust their output appropriately, but as theseforms of variable power grow, this becomes less practical.
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Seasonal variation of the output of thesolar panels at AT&T Park in SanFrancisco

Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective storage mediumbecause they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatiblewith conventional power systems. The Solar Two used this method of energy storage, allowing it to store1.44 TJ in its 68 m storage tank, enough to provide full output for close to 39 hours, with an efficiency ofabout 99%.[103]

Conventional hydroelectricity works very well in conjunction with intermittent electricity sources such as solar

and wind, the water can be held back and allowed to flow as required with virtually no energy loss. Where asuitable river is not available, pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumpedwhen surplus electricity is available, from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy isrecovered when demand is high by releasing the water: the pump becomes a turbine, and the motor ahydroelectric power generator.[104]However, this loses some of the energy to pumpage losses.

Artificial photosynthesis involves the use of nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds, by splitting water to producehydrogen fuel or then combining with carbon dioxide to make biopolymers such as methanol. Many large national and regional research projects onartificial photosynthesis are now trying to develop techniques integrating improved light capture, quantum coherence methods of electron transfer and

cheap catalytic materials that operate under a variety of atmospheric conditions.[105]Senior researchers in the field have made the public policy case for aGlobal Project on Artificial Photosynthesis to address critical energy security and environmental sustainability issues. [106]

Wind power and solar power tend to be somewhat complementary, as there tends to be more wind in the winter and more sun in the summer, but ondays with no sun and no wind the difference needs to be made up in some manner.[107]Solar power is seasonal, particularly in northern/southernclimates, away from the equator, suggesting a need for long term seasonal storage in a medium such as hydrogen. The storage requirements vary and insome cases can be met with biomass.[108]The Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot-tested a combined powerplant linking solar, wind, biogas and hydrostorage to provide load-following power around the clock, entirely from renewable sources.[109]

Experimental solar power

See also: Space-based solar power

Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) systems employ sunlight concentrated onto photovoltaic surfaces for the purpose of electrical power production.Solar concentrators of all varieties may be used, and these are often mounted on a solar tracker in order to keep the focal point upon the cell as the sunmoves across the sky.[110]Luminescent solar concentrators (when combined with a PV-solar cell) can also be regarded as a CPV system. Concentratedphotovoltaics are useful as they can improve efficiency of PV-solar panels drastically.[111]
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Concentrating photovoltaics inCatalonia, Spain

Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices convert a temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an electric current. First proposed as amethod tostore solar energy by solar pioneer Mouchout in the 1800s,[112]thermoelectrics reemerged in the Soviet Union during the 1930s. Under thedirection ofSoviet scientist Abram Ioffe a concentrating system was used to thermoelectrically generate power for a 1 hp engine. [113]Thermogenerators,but in the following cases powered by the heat source plutonium-238 in radioisotope thermoelectric generators are used in the US space program as anenergy conversion technology for powering deep space missions such as the Mars Curiosity rover, Cassini, Galileo and Viking. Research in this area ofthermogenerators, which can use any heat source, is focused on raising the efficiency of these devices from 78% to 1520%.[114]

Physicists have claimed that recent technological developments bring the cost of solar energy more in paritywith that offossil fuels. In 2007, David Faiman, the director of the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Centerof Israel, announced that the Center had entered into a project with Zenith Solar to create a home solar energysystem thatuses a 10 square meter reflector dish.[115]In testing, the concentrated solar technology proved tobe up to five times more cost effective than standard flat photovoltaic silicon panels, which would make italmost thesame cost as oil and natural gas.[116]A prototype ready for commercialization achieved aconcentration of solar energy that was more than 1,000 times greater than standard flat panels. [117]

See alsoCostof electricity by sourceListof energy storage projectsListof photovoltaic power stationsListof renewable energy organizationsListof solar energy topicsListof solar thermal power stationsRenewable energy commercialization

Solar energySolar lampSustainable energyThin-film cellTimeline of solar energy

References

1. ^Edwin Cartlid e 18 November 2011 . "Savin for a rain da ". Science Vol 334 . . 922924.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_lamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercializationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_solar_thermal_power_stationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_solar_energy_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_organizationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_photovoltaic_power_stationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_energy_storage_projectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_meterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenith_Solarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben-Gurion_National_Solar_Energy_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Faimanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_programhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity_roverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium-238http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abram_Ioffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermogeneratorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Concentraci%C3%B3_Fotovoltaica.jpg


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. . . . . .2. ^"Energy Sources: Solar" (http://www.energy.gov/energysources/solar.htm).Department of Energy. Retrieved 19 April 2011.3. ^Martin and Goswami (2005), p. 454. ^Spanish CSP Plant with Storage Produces Electricity for 24 Hours Straight (http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/07/solar-can-

be-baseload-spanish-csp-plant-with-storage-produces-electricity-for-24-hours-straight)5. ^"Concentrated Solar Thermal Power Now" (http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/Concentrated-Solar-Thermal-

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