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Badlands incised into shale at the footof the North Caineville Plateau, Utah,within the pass carved by the FremontRiver known as the Blue Gate. GKGilbert studied the landscapes of thisarea in great detail, forming theobservational foundation for many ofhis studies on geomorphology.[1]

Surface of the Earth, showing higherelevations in red color.

GeomorphologyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Geomorphology (from Greek: γῆ, ge, "earth"; μορφή, morfé, "form"; and λόγος, logos, "study") is the scientificstudy of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemicalprocesses operating at or near the earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look theway they do, to understand landform history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of fieldobservations, physical experiments and numerical modeling. Geomorphology is practiced within physicalgeography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology and geotechnical engineering. This broad baseof interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.

Contents

1 Overview2 History

2.1 Ancient geomorphology2.2 Early modern geomorphology2.3 Quantitative geomorphology2.4 Contemporary geomorphology

3 Processes3.1 Eolian processes3.2 Biological processes3.3 Fluvial processes3.4 Glacial processes3.5 Hillslope processes3.6 Igneous processes3.7 Tectonic processes

4 Scales in geomorphology5 Overlap with other fields6 See also7 References8 Further reading9 External links

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Wave action and water chemistry leadto structural failure in exposed rocks

Overview

The surface of the earth is modified by a combination of surface processes that sculpt landscapes, and geologicprocesses that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence, and shape the coastal geography. Surface processes comprisethe action of water, wind, ice, fire, and living things on the surface of the earth, along with chemical reactionsthat form soils and alter material properties, the stability and rate of change of topography under the force ofgravity, and other factors, such as (in the very recent past) human alteration of the landscape. Many of thesefactors are strongly mediated by climate. Geologic processes include the uplift of mountain ranges, the growth ofvolcanoes, isostatic changes in land surface elevation (sometimes in response to surface processes), and theformation of deep sedimentary basins where the surface of the earth drops and is filled with material eroded fromother parts of the landscape. The earth surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic,hydrologic, and biologic action with geologic processes, or alternatively stated, the intersection of the earth'slithosphere with its hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.

The broad­scale topographies of the earth illustrate this intersection of surface and subsurface action. Mountainbelts are uplifted due to geologic processes. Denudation of these high uplifted regions produces sediment that istransported and deposited elsewhere within the landscape or off the coast.[2] On progressively smaller scales,similar ideas apply, where individual landforms evolve in response to the balance of additive processes (upliftand deposition) and subtractive processes (subsidence and erosion). Often, these processes directly affect eachother: ice sheets, water, and sediment are all loads that change topography through flexural isostasy. Topographycan modify the local climate, for example through orographic precipitation, which in turn modifies the topography by changing the hydrologic regime inwhich it evolves. Many geomorphologists are particularly interested in the potential for feedbacks between climate and tectonics, mediated bygeomorphic processes.[3]

In addition to these broad­scale questions, geomorphologists address issues that are more specific and/or more local. Glacial geomorphologistsinvestigate glacial deposits such as moraines, eskers, and proglacial lakes, as well as glacial erosional features, to build chronologies of both smallglaciers and large ice sheets and understand their motions and effects upon the landscape. Fluvial geomorphologists focus on rivers, how they transportsediment, migrate across the landscape, cut into bedrock, respond to environmental and tectonic changes, and interact with humans. Soilsgeomorphologists investigate soil profiles and chemistry to learn about the history of a particular landscape and understand how climate, biota, and rockinteract. Other geomorphologists study how hillslopes form and change. Still others investigate the relationships between ecology and geomorphology.Because geomorphology is defined to comprise everything related to the surface of the earth and its modification, it is a broad field with many facets.

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"Cono de Arita" in Salta (Argentina).

Geomorphologists use a wide range of techniques in their work. These may include fieldwork and field data collection, the interpretation of remotelysensed data, geochemical analyses, and the numerical modelling of the physics of landscapes. Geomorphologists may rely on geochronology, usingdating methods to measure the rate of changes to the surface.[4][5] Terrain measurement techniques are vital to quantitatively describe the form of theearth's surface, and include differential GPS, remotely sensed digital terrain models and laser scanning, to quantify, study, and to generate illustrationsand maps.[6]

Practical applications of geomorphology include hazard assessment (such as landslide prediction and mitigation), river control and stream restoration,and coastal protection. Planetary geomorphology studies landforms on other terrestrial planets such as Mars. Indications of effects of wind, fluvial,glacial, mass wasting, meteor impact, tectonics and volcanic processes are studied. This effort not only helps better understand the geologic andatmospheric history of those planets but also extends geomorphological study of the earth. Planetary geomorphologists often use earth analogues to aidin their study of surfaces of other planets.[7]

History

With some notable exceptions (see below), geomorphology is a relatively young science, growing along withinterest in other aspects of the earth sciences in the mid­19th century. This section provides a very brief outline ofsome of the major figures and events in its development.

Ancient geomorphology

The first theory of geomorphology was arguably devised by the polymath Chinese scientist and statesman ShenKuo (1031­1095 AD). This was based on his observation of marine fossil shells in a geological stratum of amountain hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean. Noticing bivalve shells running in a horizontal span alongthe cut section of a cliffside, he theorized that the cliff was once the pre­historic location of a seashore that hadshifted hundreds of miles over the centuries. He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed by soil erosion ofthe mountains and by deposition of silt, after observing strange natural erosions of the Taihang Mountains andthe Yandang Mountain near Wenzhou.[8][9] Furthermore, he promoted the theory of gradual climate change over centuries of time once ancient petrifiedbamboos were found to be preserved underground in the dry, northern climate zone of Yanzhou, which is now modern day Yan'an, Shaanxiprovince.[9][10]

Early modern geomorphology

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Lake "Veľké Hincovo pleso" in HighTatras, Slovakia.

The term geomorphology seems to have been first used by Laumann in an 1858 work written in German. Keith Tinkler has suggested that the wordcame into general use in English, German and French after John Wesley Powell and W. J. McGee used it during the International Geological Conferenceof 1891.[11]

An early popular geomorphic model was the geographical cycle or cycle of erosion model of broad­scale landscape evolution developed by WilliamMorris Davis between 1884 and 1899. It was an elaboration of the uniformitarianism theory that had first been proposed by James Hutton (1726–1797).[12] With regard to valley forms, for example, uniformitarianism posited a sequence in which a river runs through a flat terrain, gradually carvingan increasingly deep valley, until the side valleys eventually erode, flattening the terrain again, though at a lower elevation. It was thought that tectonicuplift could then start the cycle over. In the decades following Davis's development of this idea, many of thosestudying geomorphology sought to fit their findings into this framework, known today as "Davisian".[12] Davis'sideas are of historical importance, but have been largely superseded today, mainly due to their lack of predictivepower and qualitative nature.[12]

In the 1920s, Walther Penck developed an alternative model to Davis's.[12] Penck thought that landform evolutionwas better described as an alternation between ongoing processes of uplift and denudation, as opposed to Davis'smodel of a single uplift followed by decay. He also emphasised that in many landscapes slope evolution occursby backwearing of rocks, not by Davisian­style surface lowering, and his science tended to emphasise surfaceprocess over understanding in detail the surface history of a given locality. Penck was German, and during hislifetime his ideas were at times rejected vigorously by the English­speaking geomorphology community.[12]

Both Davis and Penck were trying to place the study of the evolution of the earth's surface on a more generalized,globally relevant footing than it had been previously. In the early 19th century, authors ­ especially in Europe ­ had tended to attribute the form oflandscapes to local climate, and in particular to the specific effects of glaciation and periglacial processes. In contrast, both Davis and Penck wereseeking to emphasize the importance of evolution of landscapes through time and the generality of the earth's surface processes across differentlandscapes under different conditions.

During the early 1900s, the study of regional­scale geomorphology was termed "physiography". Physiography later was considered to be a contractionof "physical" and "geography", and therefore synonymous with physical geography, and the concept became embroiled in controversy surrounding theappropriate concerns of that discipline. Some geomorphologists held to a geological basis for physiography and emphasized a concept of physiographicregions while a conflicting trend among geographers was to equate physiography with "pure morphology," separated from its geological heritage. In theperiod following World War II, the emergence of process, climatic, and quantitative studies led to a preference by many earth scientists for the term"geomorphology" in order to suggest an analytical approach to landscapes rather than a descriptive one.[13]

Quantitative geomorphology

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Geomorphology was started to be put on a solid quantitative footing in the middle of the 20th century. Following the early work of Grove Karl Gilbertaround the turn of the 20th century,[12] a group of natural scientists, geologists and hydraulic engineers including Ralph Alger Bagnold, Hans­AlbertEinstein, Frank Ahnert, John Hack, Luna Leopold, A. Shields, Thomas Maddock, Arthur Strahler, Stanley Schumm, and Ronald Shreve began toresearch the form of landscape elements such as rivers and hillslopes by taking systematic, direct, quantitative measurements of aspects of them andinvestigating the scaling of these measurements.[12] These methods began to allow prediction of the past and future behavior of landscapes from presentobservations, and were later to develop into the modern trend of a highly quantitative approach to geomorphic problems. Quantitative geomorphologycan involve fluid dynamics and solid mechanics, geomorphometry, laboratory studies, field measurements, theoretical work, and full landscapeevolution modeling. These approaches are used to understand weathering and the formation of soils, sediment transport, landscape change, and theinteractions between climate, tectonics, erosion, and deposition.

Contemporary geomorphology

Today, the field of geomorphology encompasses a very wide range of different approaches and interests. Modern researchers aim to draw outquantitative "laws" that govern earth surface processes, but equally, recognize the uniqueness of each landscape and environment in which theseprocesses operate. Particularly important realizations in contemporary geomorphology include:

1) that not all landscapes can be considered as either "stable" or "perturbed", where this perturbed state is a temporary displacement away from someideal target form. Instead, dynamic changes of the landscape are now seen as an essential part of their nature.[14][15]

2) that many geomorphic systems are best understood in terms of the stochasticity of the processes occurring in them, that is, the probabilitydistributions of event magnitudes and return times.[16] This in turn has indicated the importance of chaotic determinism to landscapes, and that landscapeproperties are best considered statistically.[17] The same processes in the same landscapes do not always lead to the same end results.

Processes

Geomorphically relevant processes generally fall into (1) the production of regolith by weathering and erosion, (2) the transport of that material, and (3)its eventual deposition. Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include wind, waves, chemical dissolution, mass wasting,groundwater movement, surface water flow, glacial action, tectonism, and volcanism. Other more exotic geomorphic processes might include periglacial(freeze­thaw) processes, salt­mediated action, or extraterrestrial impact.

Eolian processes

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Grand Canyon, Arizona

Eolian processes pertain to the activity of the winds and more specifically, to the winds' ability to shape the surface of the earth. Winds may erode,transport, and deposit materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation and a large supply of fine, unconsolidated sediments.Although water and mass flow tend to mobilize more material than wind in most environments, eolian processes are important in arid environments suchas deserts.[18]

Biological processes

The interaction of living organisms with landforms, or biogeomorphologic processes, can be of many different forms, and is probably of profoundimportance for the terrestrial geomorphic system as a whole. Biology can influence very many geomorphicprocesses, ranging from biogeochemical processes controlling chemical weathering, to the influence ofmechanical processes like burrowing and tree throw on soil development, to even controlling global erosion ratesthrough modulation of climate through carbon dioxide balance. Terrestrial landscapes in which the role ofbiology in mediating surface processes can be definitively excluded are extremely rare, but may hold importantinformation for understanding the geomorphology of other planets, such as Mars.[19]

Fluvial processes

Rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of sediment. The water, as it flows over the channelbed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as bed load, suspended load or dissolvedload. The rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and on the river's discharge.[20]Rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and creating new sediment, both from their own beds and also bycoupling to the surrounding hillslopes. In this way, rivers are thought of as setting the base level for large scalelandscape evolution in nonglacial environments.[21][22] Rivers are key links in the connectivity of differentlandscape elements.

As rivers flow across the landscape, they generally increase in size, merging with other rivers. The network ofrivers thus formed is a drainage system. These systems take on four general patterns, dendritic, radial, rectangular, and trellis. Dendritic happens to bethe most common occurring when the underlying strata is stable (without faulting). Drainage systems have four primary components: drainage basin,alluvial valley, delta plain, and receiving basin. Some geomorphic examples of fluvial landforms are alluvial fans, oxbow lakes, and fluvial terraces.

Glacial processes

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Wind­eroded alcove near Moab, Utah

Beaver dams, as this one in Tierra delFuego, constitute a specific form ofzoogeomorphology, a type ofbiogeomorphology

Glaciers, while geographically restricted, are effective agents of landscape change. The gradual movement of ice down a valley causes abrasion andplucking of the underlying rock. Abrasion produces fine sediment, termed glacial flour. The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes,is termed a moraine. Glacial erosion is responsible for U­shaped valleys, as opposed to the V­shaped valleys of fluvial origin.[23]

The way glacial processes interact with other landscape elements, particularly hillslope and fluvial processes, is an important aspect of Plio­Pleistocenelandscape evolution and its sedimentary record in many high mountain environments. Environments that have been relatively recently glaciated but areno longer may still show elevated landscape change rates compared to those that have never been glaciated. Nonglacial geomorphic processes whichnevertheless have been conditioned by past glaciation are termed paraglacial processes. This concept contrasts with periglacial processes, which aredirectly driven by formation or melting of ice or frost.[24]

Hillslope processes

Soil, regolith, and rock move downslope under the force of gravity via creep, slides, flows, topples, and falls.Such mass wasting occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has been observed on Earth, Mars,Venus, Titan and Iapetus.

Ongoing hillslope processes can change the topology of the hillslope surface, which in turn can change the ratesof those processes. Hillslopes that steepen up to certain critical thresholds are capable of shedding extremelylarge volumes of material very quickly, making hillslope processes an extremely important element of landscapesin tectonically active areas.[25]

On the earth, biological processes such as burrowing or tree throw may play important roles in setting the rates ofsome hillslope processes.[26]

Igneous processes

Both volcanic (eruptive) and plutonic (intrusive) igneous processes can have important impacts ongeomorphology. The action of volcanoes tends to rejuvenize landscapes, covering the old land surface with lavaand tephra, releasing pyroclastic material and forcing rivers through new paths. The cones built by eruptions alsobuild substantial new topography, which can be acted upon by other surface processes. Plutonic rocks intrudingthen solidifying at depth can cause both uplift or subsidence of the surface, depending on whether the newmaterial is denser or less dense than the rock it displaces.

Tectonic processes

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Mesquite Flat Dunes in Death Valleylooking toward the CottonwoodMountains from the north west armof Star Dune (2003)

Features of a glacial landscape

Example of mass wasting at PaloDuro Canyon, Texas

Tectonic effects on geomorphology can range from scales of millions of years to minutes or less. The effects oftectonics on landscape are heavily dependent on the nature of the underlying bedrock fabric that more lesscontrols what kind of local morphology tectonics can shape. Earthquakes can, in terms of minutes, submergelarge areas of land creating new wetlands. Isostatic rebound can account for significant changes over hundreds tothousands of years, and allows erosion of a mountain belt to promote further erosion as mass is removed from thechain and the belt uplifts. Long­term plate tectonic dynamics give rise to orogenic belts, large mountain chainswith typical lifetimes of many tens of millions of years, which form focal points for high rates of fluvial andhillslope processes and thus long­term sediment production.

Features of deeper mantle dynamics such as plumes and delamination of the lower lithosphere have also beenhypothesised to play important roles in the long term (> million year), large scale (thousands of km) evolution ofthe earth's topography (see dynamic topography). Both can promote surface uplift through isostasy as hotter, lessdense, mantle rocks displace cooler, denser, mantle rocks at depth in the earth.[27][28]

Scales in geomorphology

Different geomorphological processes dominate at different spatial and temporal scales. Moreover, scales onwhich processes occur may determine the reactivity or otherwise of landscapes to changes in driving forces suchas climate or tectonics.[15] These ideas are key to the study of geomorphology today.

To help categorize landscape scales some geomorphologists might use the following taxonomy:

1st ­ Continent, ocean basin, climatic zone (~10,000,000 km2)2nd ­ Shield, e.g. Baltic Shield, or mountain range (~1,000,000 km2)3rd ­ Isolated sea, Sahel (~100,000 km2)4th ­ Massif, e.g. Massif Central or Group of related landforms, e.g., Weald (~10,000 km2)5th ­ River valley, Cotswolds (~1,000 km2)6th ­ Individual mountain or volcano, small valleys (~100 km2)7th ­ Hillslopes, stream channels, estuary (~10 km2)8th ­ gully, barchannel (~1 km2)9th ­ Meter­sized features

Overlap with other fields

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The Ferguson Slide is an activelandslide in the Merced River canyonon California State Highway 140, aprimary access road to YosemiteNational Park.

There is a considerable overlap between geomorphology and other fields. Deposition of material is extremely important in sedimentology. Weathering isthe chemical and physical disruption of earth materials in place on exposure to atmospheric or near surfaceagents, and is typically studied by soil scientists and environmental chemists, but is an essential component ofgeomorphology because it is what provides the material that can be moved in the first place. Civil andenvironmental engineers are concerned with erosion and sediment transport, especially related to canals, slopestability (and natural hazards), water quality, coastal environmental management, transport of contaminants, andstream restoration. Glaciers can cause extensive erosion and deposition in a short period of time, making themextremely important entities in the high latitudes and meaning that they set the conditions in the headwaters ofmountain­born streams; glaciology therefore is important in geomorphology.

See also

BioerosionBiogeologyBiogeomorphologyBiorhexistasyCoastal biogeomorphologyCoastal erosionDrainage system (Geomorphology)Erosion predictionGeologic modellingGeomorphometryGeotechnicsHack's lawHydrologic modeling, behavioral modeling in hydrologyOrogenyPhysiographic regions of the worldSediment transportSoil morphologySoils retrogression and degradationStream captureThermochronologyList of important publications in geology

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References1. Gilbert, Grove Karl, and Charles Butler Hunt, eds. Geology of the Henry Mountains, Utah, as recorded in the notebooks of GK Gilbert, 1875­76. Vol. 167.

Geological Society of America, 1988.2. Willett, Sean D.; Brandon, Mark T. (January 2002). "On steady states in mountain belts". Geology 30 (2): 175–178. Bibcode:2002Geo....30..175W

(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Geo....30..175W). doi:10.1130/0091­7613(2002)030<0175:OSSIMB>2.0.CO;2 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1130%2F0091­7613%282002%29030%3C0175%3AOSSIMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2).

3. Roe, Gerard H.; Whipple, Kelin X.; Fletcher, Jennifer K. (September 2008). "Feedbacks among climate, erosion, and tectonics in a critical wedge orogen".American Journal of Science 308 (7): 815–842. doi:10.2475/07.2008.01 (https://dx.doi.org/10.2475%2F07.2008.01).

4. Summerfield, M.A., 1991, Global Geomorphology, Pearson Education Ltd, 537 p. ISBN 0­582­30156­4.5. Dunai, T.J., 2010, Cosmogenic Nucleides, Cambridge University Press, 187 p. ISBN 978­0­521­87380­2.6. e.g., DTM intro page (http://www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu/terrain/intro.html), Hunter College Department of Geography, New York NY.7. "International Conference of Geomorphology" (http://www.geomorphology­iag­paris2013.com/en/s3­%E2%80%93­planetary­geomorphology­iag­wg). Europa

Organization.8. Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing. III, p. 239. Needham, Joseph. (1959). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge University Press.

pp. 603–618.10. Chan, Alan Kam­leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui­Chieh Loy (2002). Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine. Singapore:

Singapore University Press. p. 15. ISBN 9971­69­259­7.11. Tinkler, Keith J. A short history of geomorphology. Page 4. 198512. Oldroyd, David R. & Grapes, Rodney H. Contributions to the history of geomorphology and Quaternary geology: an introduction. In: GRAPES, R. H.,

OLDROYD, D. & GRIGELIS, A. (eds) History of Geomorphology and Quaternary Geology. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 301, 1–17.13. Baker, Victor R. (1986). "Geomorphology From Space: A Global Overview of Regional Landforms, Introduction"

(http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/geomorphology/GEO_1/GEO_CHAPTER_1.shtml). NASA. Retrieved 2007­12­19.14. Whipple, Kelin X. (19 May 2004). "Bedrock Rivers and the Geomorphology of Active Orogens". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 32 (1): 151–185.

Bibcode:2004AREPS..32..151W (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AREPS..32..151W). doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.32.101802.120356(https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.32.101802.120356).

15. Allen, Philip A. (2008). "Time scales of tectonic landscapes and their sediment routing systems". Geological Society, London, Special Publications 296: 7–28.Bibcode:2008GSLSP.296....7A (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008GSLSP.296....7A). doi:10.1144/SP296.2 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP296.2).

16. Benda, Lee; Dunne, Thomas (December 1997). "Stochastic forcing of sediment supply to channel networks from landsliding and debris flow". Water ResourcesResearch 33 (12): 2849–2863. Bibcode:1997WRR....33.2849B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997WRR....33.2849B). doi:10.1029/97WR02388(https://dx.doi.org/10.1029%2F97WR02388).

17. Dietrich, W. E.; Bellugi, D.G.; Sklar, L.S.; Stock, J.D.; Heimsath, A.M.; Roering, J.J. (2003). "Geomorphic Transport Laws for Predicting Landscape Form andDynamics" (http://calm.geo.berkeley.edu/geomorph/gtl.pdf) (PDF). Prediction in Geomorphology, Geophysical Monograph Series (Washington, D. C.) 135: 103–132. Bibcode:2003GMS...135..103D (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003GMS...135..103D). doi:10.1029/135GM09 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1029%2F135GM09).

18. Leeder, M., 1999, Sedimentology and Sedimentary Basins, From Turbulence to Tectonics, Blackwell Science, 592 p. ISBN 0­632­04976­6.19. Dietrich, William E.; Perron, J. Taylor (26 January 2006). "The search for a topographic signature of life". Nature 439 (7075): 411–418.

Bibcode:2006Natur.439..411D (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.439..411D). doi:10.1038/nature04452 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04452).PMID 16437104 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16437104).

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Further reading

Chorley, Richard J.; Stanley Alfred Schumm; David E. Sugden (1985). Geomorphology. London: Methuen. ISBN 0­416­32590­4.Committee on Challenges and Opportunities in Earth Surface Processes, National Research Council (2010). Landscapes on the Edge: NewHorizons for Research on Earth's Surface. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. ISBN 0­309­14024­2.Edmaier, Bernhard (2004). Earthsong. London: Phaidon Press. ISBN 0­7148­4451­9.Kondolf, G. Mathias; Hervé Piégay (2003). Tools in fluvial geomorphology. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0­471­49142­X.Kuenzer, Claudia; Stracher, Glenn B. (2012). "Geomorphology of Coal Seam Fires". Geomorphology 138 (1): 209–222.Bibcode:2012Geomo.138..209K (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Geomo.138..209K). doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.09.004(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geomorph.2011.09.004).Needham, Joseph (1954). Science and civilisation in China. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0­521­05801­5.Scheidegger, Adrian E. (2004). Morphotectonics. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 3­540­20017­7.Selby, Michael John (1985). Earth's changing surface: an introduction to geomorphology. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0­19­823252­7.

PMID 16437104 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16437104).20. Knighton, D., 1998, Fluvial Forms & Processes, Hodder Arnold, 383 p. ISBN 0­340­66313­8.21. Strahler, A. N. (1 November 1950). "Equilibrium theory of erosional slopes approached by frequency distribution analysis; Part II". American Journal of Science

248 (11): 800–814. doi:10.2475/ajs.248.11.800 (https://dx.doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.248.11.800).22. Burbank, D. W. (February 2002). "Rates of erosion and their implications for exhumation"

(http://projects.crustal.ucsb.edu/tectgeomorphfigs/Min_Mag_exhumation_ms.pdf) (PDF). Mineralogical Magazine 66 (1): 25–52. doi:10.1180/0026461026610014(https://dx.doi.org/10.1180%2F0026461026610014).

23. Bennett, M.R. & Glasser, N.F., 1996, Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 364 p. ISBN 0­471­96345­3.24. Church, Michael; Ryder, June M. (October 1972). "Paraglacial Sedimentation: A Consideration of Fluvial Processes Conditioned by Glaciation". Geological

Society of America Bulletin 83 (10): 3059–3072. Bibcode:1972GSAB...83.3059C (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972GSAB...83.3059C). doi:10.1130/0016­7606(1972)83[3059:PSACOF]2.0.CO;2 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1130%2F0016­7606%281972%2983%5B3059%3APSACOF%5D2.0.CO%3B2).

25. Roering, Joshua J.; Kirchner, James W.; Dietrich, William E. (March 1999). "Evidence for nonlinear, diffusive sediment transport on hillslopes and implicationsfor landscape morphology" (http://www.geog.uoregon.edu/amarcus/geog607w09/readings/roering­et­al1999_wrr_slopes.pdf) (PDF). Water Resources Research 35(3): 853–870. Bibcode:1999WRR....35..853R (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999WRR....35..853R). doi:10.1029/1998WR900090(https://dx.doi.org/10.1029%2F1998WR900090).

26. Gabet, Emmanuel J.; Reichman, O.J.; Seabloom, Eric W. (May 2003). "The Effects of Bioturbation on Soil Processes and Sediment Transport". Annual Review ofEarth and Planetary Sciences 31 (1): 249–273. Bibcode:2003AREPS..31..249G (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003AREPS..31..249G).doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141314 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.31.100901.141314).

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28. Seber, Dogan; Barazangi, Muawia; Ibenbrahim, Aomar; Demnati, Ahmed (29 February 1996). "Geophysical evidence for lithospheric delamination beneath theAlboran Sea and Rif–Betic mountains". Nature 379 (6568): 785–790. Bibcode:1996Natur.379..785S (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996Natur.379..785S).doi:10.1038/379785a0 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F379785a0).

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Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related toGeomorphology.

Charlton, Ro (2008). Fundamentals of fluvial geomorphology. London, UK: Rutledge. ISBN 978­0­415­33454­9.

External links

The Geographical Cycle, or the Cycle of Erosion (1899)(http://ugb.org.br/home/artigos/classicos/Davis_1899.pdf)Geomorphology from Space (NASA) (http://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/geomorphology/index.shtml)

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