Learning and Learning and MemoryMemory

What is Learning?What is Learning?

A relatively permanent change in behavior A relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experiencecaused by experience

What is What is Classical Conditioning?Classical Conditioning? Type of learning where a stimulus gains the power Type of learning where a stimulus gains the power

to cause a responseto cause a response The stimulus predicts another stimulus that already The stimulus predicts another stimulus that already

produces that responseproduces that response In other words…In other words…learning by associationlearning by association

What are stimulus & What are stimulus & responses?responses?

StimulusStimulus - anything in the environment that - anything in the environment that one can respond toone can respond to

ResponseResponse – any behavior or action – any behavior or action

Pavlov & a dog anyone?????Pavlov & a dog anyone?????

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov RussiaRussia What is learning?What is learning? Classical Conditioning:Classical Conditioning: A A

learning process in which learning process in which associations are made associations are made between a natural stimulus between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus.and a neutral stimulus.

Pavlov’s doggy . . . Again . . .Pavlov’s doggy . . . Again . . .

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Pavlov began his Pavlov began his

experiments by ringing a experiments by ringing a tuning fork and then tuning fork and then immediately placing some immediately placing some meat powder on the dogs meat powder on the dogs tongue. He chose the tuning tongue. He chose the tuning fork because it was a fork because it was a neutral neutral stimulusstimulus..

Neutral Stimulus:Neutral Stimulus: A A stimulus that does not stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of the initially elicit any part of the unconditioned response.unconditioned response.

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Well, after a few times the dog Well, after a few times the dog

begins to salivate by merely begins to salivate by merely hearing the sound, even if there hearing the sound, even if there was no food within it’s sight.was no food within it’s sight.

Pavlov demonstrated that a Pavlov demonstrated that a neutral stimulus (here, the tuning neutral stimulus (here, the tuning fork) can cause a formerly fork) can cause a formerly unrelated response.unrelated response.

This occurs if it is presented This occurs if it is presented regularly just before the stimulus regularly just before the stimulus (here, the food) that normally (here, the food) that normally brings about a response (here, brings about a response (here, salivation.)salivation.)

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning According to Pavlov, every human or According to Pavlov, every human or

animal has a set of animal has a set of unconditionalunconditional or or involuntary responses.involuntary responses.

Such responses include blushing, Such responses include blushing, shivering, being startled, and salivating.shivering, being startled, and salivating.

In this experiment, food was the In this experiment, food was the unconditional stimulusunconditional stimulus..

Unconditional Stimulus (UCS):Unconditional Stimulus (UCS): An An event that elicits a certain predictable event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous response typically without previous training.training.

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning A few other important things:A few other important things: Unconditioned Response (UCR): Unconditioned Response (UCR): An An

organism’s automatic (or neutral) organism’s automatic (or neutral) reaction to the Unconditioned stimulus. reaction to the Unconditioned stimulus. (Example = salivation).(Example = salivation).

Under normal conditions, the sound of a Under normal conditions, the sound of a tuning fork would not cause salivation. tuning fork would not cause salivation. The dog had to be taught, or conditioned The dog had to be taught, or conditioned to associate this sound with food.to associate this sound with food.

An ordinarily neutral event that, after An ordinarily neutral event that, after training, leads to a response such as training, leads to a response such as salivation is termed a salivation is termed a conditioned conditioned stimulusstimulus..

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus (CS):Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A once-A once-

neutral event that, through learning, neutral event that, through learning, elicits a given response after a period of elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.an unconditioned stimulus.

The salivation that is caused by the tuning The salivation that is caused by the tuning fork is called a fork is called a conditioned responseconditioned response..

Conditioned Response (CR):Conditioned Response (CR): The The learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus. Usually same behaviors as the UCRUsually same behaviors as the UCR

AcquisitionAcquisition

Process of developing a learned Process of developing a learned responseresponse

The subject learns a new response (CR) The subject learns a new response (CR) to a previously neutral stimulus (CS)to a previously neutral stimulus (CS)

AcquisitionAcquisition

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Extinction and Spontaneous Extinction and Spontaneous RecoveryRecovery

A classically conditioned A classically conditioned response, like any other response, like any other behavior, is subject to change.behavior, is subject to change.

Pavlov discovered that if he Pavlov discovered that if he stopped presenting food after stopped presenting food after the sound of the tuning fork, the sound of the tuning fork, the sound gradually lost its the sound gradually lost its effect on the dog.effect on the dog.

After he repeatedly struck the After he repeatedly struck the tuning fork without giving food, tuning fork without giving food, the dog no longer associated the dog no longer associated the sound with the arrival of the sound with the arrival of food – the sound of the tuning food – the sound of the tuning fork no longer caused the fork no longer caused the salivation response.salivation response.

Extinction and Spontaneous Extinction and Spontaneous RecoveryRecovery

Pavlov called this Pavlov called this effect extinctioneffect extinction!! Extinction:Extinction: The gradual disappearance The gradual disappearance

of a conditioned response when the of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned presented without the unconditioned stimulus.stimulus.

Yet, even though the conditioned response Yet, even though the conditioned response has been extinguished, it does not mean has been extinguished, it does not mean that the CR has been completely that the CR has been completely unlearned.unlearned.

Spontaneous Recovery:Spontaneous Recovery: The return of an extinguished classically conditioned The return of an extinguished classically conditioned

response after a rest periodresponse after a rest period

Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery

Generalization and Generalization and DiscriminationDiscrimination

In the same set of experiments, Pavlov In the same set of experiments, Pavlov also studied the process of also studied the process of generalization and discriminationgeneralization and discrimination..

Generalization:Generalization: Responding similarly Responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli.to a range of similar stimuli.

Example:Example: When Pavlov attempted to When Pavlov attempted to train the dog to salivate at the sight of a train the dog to salivate at the sight of a circle…it worked after multiple trials!circle…it worked after multiple trials!

The dog had generalized it’s response The dog had generalized it’s response to include a similar stimulus.to include a similar stimulus.

Generalization and Generalization and DiscriminationDiscrimination

Pavlov was later able to do the opposite, Pavlov was later able to do the opposite, teaching the dog to respond only to the teaching the dog to respond only to the circle by always pairing meat powder circle by always pairing meat powder with the circle but never pairing it with with the circle but never pairing it with a different object like an oval.a different object like an oval.

In doing this, he taught his dog In doing this, he taught his dog discrimination.discrimination.

Discrimination:Discrimination: The ability to respond The ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli.differently to similar but distinct stimuli. The subject learns that one stimuli predicts the UCS and The subject learns that one stimuli predicts the UCS and

the other does not.the other does not.

BehaviorismBehaviorism

View that psychology should restrict its View that psychology should restrict its efforts to studying observable behaviors, not efforts to studying observable behaviors, not mental processesmental processes

Founded by John WatsonFounded by John Watson

Little AlbertLittle Albert 11-month-old infant11-month-old infant Watson and Rosalie Rayner, conditioned Watson and Rosalie Rayner, conditioned

Albert to be frightened of white ratsAlbert to be frightened of white rats Led to questions about experimental ethicsLed to questions about experimental ethics

Little Albert – Before Little Albert – Before ConditioningConditioning

Little Albert – During Little Albert – During ConditioningConditioning

Little Albert – After Little Albert – After ConditioningConditioning

Little Albert - GeneralizationLittle Albert - Generalization

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Ok, so, suppose you have a dinosaur! Yes Ok, so, suppose you have a dinosaur! Yes

a dinosaur!a dinosaur! Your dinosaur is wandering around the Your dinosaur is wandering around the

neighborhood, sniffing trees, checking neighborhood, sniffing trees, checking garbage cans, and looking for a squirrel garbage cans, and looking for a squirrel to chase.to chase.

A kind neighbor sees the dinosaur and A kind neighbor sees the dinosaur and tosses a bone out of the kitchen door to it.tosses a bone out of the kitchen door to it.

The next day the dinosaur is likely to stop The next day the dinosaur is likely to stop at the same door on it’s rounds. Once at the same door on it’s rounds. Once again your neighbor produces another again your neighbor produces another bone, so the dinosaur becomes a regular bone, so the dinosaur becomes a regular visitor!visitor!

Why?Why?

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Well I’ll tell ya why! Hold your Well I’ll tell ya why! Hold your

horses!horses! Well, ummm, see, there’s this, well, Well, ummm, see, there’s this, well,

ummm, thing called, like, ummm, thing called, like, operant operant conditioningconditioning..

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning:: Learning Learning in which a certain action is in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases and corresponding increases and decreases in occurrence.decreases in occurrence.

OperantOperant = operates due to a = operates due to a change change

ReinforcementReinforcement Reinforcement:Reinforcement: Stimulus or event Stimulus or event

follows a response and increases the follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be likelihood that the response will be repeated.repeated.

Examples of reinforcers:Examples of reinforcers: Social ApprovalSocial Approval MoneyMoney Extra privilagesExtra privilages Giving a dog a treat when it shakes your Giving a dog a treat when it shakes your

hand.hand.

Primary and Secondary Primary and Secondary Reinforcer’sReinforcer’s

Primary Reinforcer:Primary Reinforcer: Stimulus that is Stimulus that is naturally rewarding, naturally rewarding, such as food or water.such as food or water.

Secondary Secondary Reinforcer:Reinforcer: Stimulus Stimulus such as money that such as money that becomes rewarding becomes rewarding through its link with a through its link with a primary reinforcer.primary reinforcer. Something you have Something you have

learned to value!!! learned to value!!! (money, grades, etc)(money, grades, etc)

Schedules of Schedules of ReinforcementReinforcement

Fixed-Ratio Schedule:Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement A pattern of reinforcement in which a specific number of correct responses is in which a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained.required before reinforcement can be obtained.

Variable-Ratio Schedule:Variable-Ratio Schedule: A pattern of A pattern of reinforcement in which an unpredictable number of reinforcement in which an unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement can be responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained.obtained.

Fixed-Interval Schedule:Fixed-Interval Schedule: A pattern of A pattern of reinforcement in which a specific amount of time reinforcement in which a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement.reinforcement.

Variable-Interval Schedule:Variable-Interval Schedule: A pattern of A pattern of reinforcement in which changing amounts of time reinforcement in which changing amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement.reinforcement.

Shaping and ChainingShaping and Chaining What is Shaping?What is Shaping? Shaping: Shaping: A technique in A technique in

which the desired behavior is which the desired behavior is “molded” by first rewarding “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that any act similar to that behavior and then requiring behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior to the desired behavior before giving the reward.before giving the reward.

In other words, positive In other words, positive reinforcement is used to reinforcement is used to “sculpt” new responses out of “sculpt” new responses out of the old, possibly negative, ones.the old, possibly negative, ones.

Shaping and ChainingShaping and Chaining

Response Chain: Response Chain: Learned Reactions Learned Reactions that follow one that follow one another in sequence, another in sequence, each reaction each reaction producing the signal producing the signal for the next.for the next. Examples:Examples:

Swimming, Swimming, Basketball, Lacrosse, Basketball, Lacrosse, Baseball, Hockey, Baseball, Hockey, Football, etc.Football, etc.

One Example of a Response One Example of a Response ChainChain

PunishmentPunishment(Aversive Control)(Aversive Control)

PunishmentPunishment ((Aversive Control):Aversive Control): Process of Process of Influencing Influencing behavior by means behavior by means of some form of of some form of “unpleasant” “unpleasant” stimuli!stimuli!

Ouch! Ouch! Ouch! Ouch! Ouch!Ouch!

Funny Fishies!

Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement In the concept of negative In the concept of negative

reinforcement, a painful or unpleasant reinforcement, a painful or unpleasant stimulus is removed. The removal of stimulus is removed. The removal of unpleasant consequences increases unpleasant consequences increases the frequency of a behavior. the frequency of a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement:Negative Reinforcement: Increasing the strength of a given Increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response painful stimulus when the response occurs.occurs.

Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning Cognitive Learning focuses on how Cognitive Learning focuses on how

information is obtained, processed, and information is obtained, processed, and organized. organized. Such learning is concerned Such learning is concerned with the mental process involved in with the mental process involved in learning.learning. Latent Learning and Learned Latent Learning and Learned Helplessness are examples of cognitive Helplessness are examples of cognitive learning.learning.

Cognitive Learning:Cognitive Learning: Form of altering Form of altering behavior that involves mental processes behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or and may result from observation or imitation.imitation.

Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning Examples:Examples: 1. 1. Latent LearningLatent Learning.. Latent learning is not Latent learning is not

demonstrated by an immediately observable demonstrated by an immediately observable change in behavior at the time of the change in behavior at the time of the learning.learning. Although the learning typically Although the learning typically occurs in the absence of a reinforcer, it may occurs in the absence of a reinforcer, it may not be demonstrated until the reinforcer not be demonstrated until the reinforcer appears.appears.

Example:Example: Have you ever had to locate a building or a Have you ever had to locate a building or a street in a section of Chicago, or Crystal Lake that you street in a section of Chicago, or Crystal Lake that you are unfamiliar with?are unfamiliar with? You may have been through that You may have been through that section of town before and remember details such as section of town before and remember details such as an unusual sign or building.an unusual sign or building. Remembering these Remembering these details may have helped you find the building or street details may have helped you find the building or street you were looking for.you were looking for. In other words, you learned In other words, you learned some details you were not intending to.some details you were not intending to.

Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning Examples:Examples: 2. 2. Learned HelplessnessLearned Helplessness.. Learned Learned

helplessness is a condition in which helplessness is a condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable.situation is uncontrollable. Example:Example: You do poorly on a math test the You do poorly on a math test the

first time you try and decide it was because first time you try and decide it was because you had not studied enough.you had not studied enough. The next test, The next test, you do poorly again and decide it was because you do poorly again and decide it was because you did not feel well.you did not feel well. On the third test, you On the third test, you once again score poorly…You give up and once again score poorly…You give up and decide that you “are just dumb,” giving up on decide that you “are just dumb,” giving up on math.math.

Modeling and Behavior Modeling and Behavior ModificationModification

Modeling!Modeling! Wait….No…The other kind of Wait….No…The other kind of

modeling!modeling! Modeling:Modeling: Learning by Learning by

imitating others; copying imitating others; copying behavior!behavior!

This is how the majority of This is how the majority of people learn how to act in new people learn how to act in new situations (sports, concerts, situations (sports, concerts, etc.)etc.)

Modeling and Behavior Modeling and Behavior ModificationModification

The term “behavior modification” often The term “behavior modification” often appears in magazine articles describing appears in magazine articles describing research on changing people’s behavior research on changing people’s behavior through drugs, “mind control,” or even through drugs, “mind control,” or even brain surgery.brain surgery.

In fact, it is none of these things.In fact, it is none of these things. Behavior Modification:Behavior Modification: Refers to the Refers to the

systematic application of learning principles systematic application of learning principles to change people’s actions and feelings.to change people’s actions and feelings. Example: Example: Giving your little brother a quarter to Giving your little brother a quarter to

go away! (also which type of reinforcement???)go away! (also which type of reinforcement???)