LearningLearning• LearningLearning refers to relatively refers to relatively

permanent changes in behavior permanent changes in behavior resulting from practice or resulting from practice or experienceexperience

• Innate behaviorsInnate behaviors are inborn, are inborn, emerge during certain periods, emerge during certain periods, and are not the result of learningand are not the result of learning

Classical Conditioning• Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive response

– Air puff >> eye-blink– Smelling food >> can produce salivation

• The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response (UCR) are unconditioned

• The neutral stimulus is referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS)

• In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly paired with the reflexive stimulus (UCS)

• Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR) similar to that produced by the UCS

Pavlov’s Experiment

Analysis of Pavlov’s Study

Conditioning of Conditioning of Emotional ResponsesEmotional Responses

• John Watson documented that conditioning of emotional responses in the Little Albert study– CS: a white rat– UCS: a loud banging sound– UCR: fear/startle response– Eventually Albert exhibited fear to the white rat

• Other instances of learning– Positive: conditioning of attraction in advertising

• Brand name (CS) + attractive model (UCS) => liking (UCR)

– Negative: aversion• Flavor (CS) + illness (UCS) => flavor aversion (UCR)

ExtinctionExtinction

• Pairings of the CS and UCS lead to conditioning whereas presentation of the CS only leads to loss of the conditioned response

• Extinction refers to loss of response to a CS presented without the UCS– Extinction is not forgetting

• Extinction is useful in clinical situations– Extinction of a phobia can be treated by

exposure to the CS only

Operant/Skinnerian Conditioning

• Organisms make responses that have consequences– Punishment

– Reinforcement

– The response can be associated with cues in the environment• We put coins in a machine to obtain food• But we refrain when an Out of Order

sign is placed on the machine

Key Aspects of Operant Conditioning

• In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue, it does not elicit the response

• Operant responses are voluntary

• In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus

Key Terms of Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement is any procedure that increases the response

• Punishment is any procedure that decreases the response

• Types of reinforcers:– Primary: e.g. food or water

– Secondary: money or power

Reinforcement/Punishment

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

• ContinuousContinuous: reinforcement occurs : reinforcement occurs after every responseafter every response– Produces rapid acquisition and is Produces rapid acquisition and is

subject to rapid extinctionsubject to rapid extinction

• PartialPartial: reinforcement occurs after : reinforcement occurs after some, but not all, responsessome, but not all, responses– Responding on a partial reinforcement Responding on a partial reinforcement

schedule is more resistant to schedule is more resistant to extinction extinction

Partial Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement SchedulesSchedules

• Ratio: every nth response is reinforced– Fixed: every nth response– Variable: on average, every nth response

• Interval: first response after some interval results in reinforcement– Fixed: interval is x in length (e.g. 1 min)– Variable: the average interval is x

Shaping

• Shaping – rewarding Shaping – rewarding successive approximations successive approximations towards the final goaltowards the final goal–Used often in phobias…Used often in phobias…

–E.G. fear of snakes…E.G. fear of snakes…

PunishmentPunishment• Positive PunishmentPositive Punishment – – presenting presenting

a stimulus that leads to a lowered a stimulus that leads to a lowered likelihood for a response to occur likelihood for a response to occur in the futurein the future

• Negative PunishmentNegative Punishment – – removing removing a stimulus that leads to a lowered a stimulus that leads to a lowered likelihood for a response to occur likelihood for a response to occur in the futurein the future

Reinforcement/PunishmentReinforcement/Punishment

Biofeedback• Feedback allows for control of

responses– Most operant responses are voluntary

motor system responses– The autonomic nervous system (ANS)

does not provide sufficient sensory feedback to the brain to allow for conscious control

• Biofeedback uses electronic devices to provide feedback and control of ANS function (e.g. skin temperature)

Biofeedback

Cognitive-Social Theory• Cognitive-social theory: uses learning Cognitive-social theory: uses learning

principles in combination with an principles in combination with an emphasis on thought processesemphasis on thought processes

• Observational learning refers to the Observational learning refers to the notion that humans can learn through notion that humans can learn through observation of modelsobservation of models– Requires attention to the modelRequires attention to the model– Involves cognitive abilities to organize and Involves cognitive abilities to organize and

remember the modeled behaviorremember the modeled behavior– Requires practice of the modeled behaviorRequires practice of the modeled behavior– Person must decide to use the modeled Person must decide to use the modeled

behaviorbehavior

Neuroscience of Learning• Learning involves changes in the brain

– Biochemical changes noted during learning include changes in the ability of neurons to release transmitters across the synaptic cleft

– Anatomical changes during learning include circuits within particular brain regions:

• E.g. the cerebellum plays a role in certain forms of classical conditioning (involving an eye blinking)

Summary Summary of of

ConditioningConditioning