learning. a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 07
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
Learning
A type of learning where a stimulus gains the power to cause a response because it predicts another stimulus that already produces that response
Form of learning by association
Classical Conditioning
Stimulus - anything in the environment that one can respond to
Response – any behavior or action
Stimulus-Response
Stimulus-Response Relationship
Stimulus-Response Relationship
The view that psychology should restrict its efforts to studying observable behaviors, not mental processes.
Founded by John Watson
Behaviorism
A stimulus that triggers a response automatically and reflexively
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
The automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus
The relationship between the UCS and UCR must be reflexive and not learned
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A stimulus that through learning has gained the power to cause a conditioned response
The CS must be a neutral stimulus before conditioning occurs.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
The response to the conditioned stimulus
Usually the same behavior as the UCR
Conditioned Response
The process of developing a learned response
The subject learns a new response (CR) to a previously neutral stimulus (CS)
Acquisition
The diminishing of a learned response In classical conditioning, the continual
presentation of the CS without the UCS
Extinction
Extinction
The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response
Spontaneous Recovery
A Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning while doing experiments on the digestive system of dogs
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Pavlov’s Method of Collecting Saliva
Pavlov’s Research Apparatus
Pavlov’s Experiment
Process in which an organism produces the same response to two similar stimuli
The more similar the substitute stimulus is to the original used in conditioning, the stronger the generalized response
Generalization
A process in which an organism produces different responses to two similar stimuli
The subject learns that one stimuli predicts the UCS and the other does not.
Discrimination
11-month-old infantWatson and his assistant, Rosalie
Rayner, conditioned Albert to be frightened of white rats
Led to questions about experimental ethics
Little Albert
Little Albert – During Conditioning
Little Albert - Generalization
Subjects become classically conditioned to avoid specific tastes, because the tastes are associated with nausea.
John Garcia (1917- )
Taste Aversion
Developed a theory emphasizing the importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning
Pointed out that subjects had to determine (think) whether the CS was a reliable predictor of the UCS
Robert Rescorla (1940- )
We are predisposed to learn things that affect our survival.
We are predisposed to avoid threats our ancestors faced--food that made us sick, storms, heights, snakes, etc.--but not modern-day threats--cars, water pollution, etc.
Biological Perspective
A type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior
The frequency will increase if the consequence is reinforcing to the subject.
The frequency will decrease if the consequence is not reinforcing to the subject.
Operant Conditioning
Author of the law of effectBehaviors with favorable consequences
will occur more frequently.Behaviors with unfavorable
consequences will occur less frequently.Created puzzle boxes for research on
cats
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
Developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world
Designed the Skinner Box, or operant chamber
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases the likelihood of the behavior it follows
Punishment - Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior it follows
The subject determines if a consequence is reinforcing or punishing
Reinforcement/Punishment
Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state
The subject receives something they want
Will strengthen the behavior
Positive Reinforcement
Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state
Something the subject doesn’t like is removed
Will strengthen the behavior
Negative Reinforcement
Positive/Negative Reinforcement
Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcement
Ability to delay gratification predicts higher achievement
Immediate/Delayed Reinforcement
Something that is naturally reinforcingExamples: food, warmth, water, etc.The item is reinforcing in and of itself
Primary Reinforcement
Something that a person has learned to value or finds rewarding because it is paired with a primary reinforcer
Money is a good example
Secondary Reinforcement
An undesirable event following a behavior
A desirable state or event ends following a behavior
Types of Punishment
Doesn’t prevent the undesirable behavior when away from the punisher
Can lead to fear, anxiety, and lower self-esteem
Children who are punished physically may learn to use aggression as a means to solve problems.
Negative Effects of Punishment
Punishment can effectively control certain behaviors.
Especially useful if teaching a child not to do a dangerous behavior
Most still suggest reinforcing an incompatible behavior rather than using punishment
Positive Effects of Punishment
Reinforcement of behaviors that are more and more similar to the one you want to occur
Technique used to establish a new behavior
Shaping
The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli
Learning to respond to one stimuli but not to a similar stimuli
Discrimination
In operant conditioning, the loss of a conditioned behavior when consequences no longer follow it.
The subject no longer responds since the reinforcement or punishment has stopped.
Extinction
A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response
Most useful way to establish a behaviorThe behavior will extinguish quickly
once the reinforcement stops.
Continuous reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses
Includes the following types:◦Fixed-interval and variable interval◦Fixed-ratio and variable-ratio
Partial Reinforcement
A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period of time
i.e. weekly quiz in a class
Fixed-Interval Schedule
A partial reinforcement that rewards the first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time
i.e. “pop” quiz in a class
Variable-Interval Schedule
A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct responses
The faster the subject responds, the more reinforcements they will receive.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses
This schedule is very resistant to extinction.
Sometimes called the “gambler’s schedule”; similar to a slot machine
Variable-Ratio Schedule
Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning that takes place in absence of an apparent reward
Latent Learning
A mental representation of a placeExperiments showed rats could learn a
maze without any reinforcements
Cognitive Map
The effect of promising a reward for doing what someone already likes to do
The reward may lessen and replace the person’s original, natural motivation, so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated
Overjustification Effect
Research suggests some species are biologically predisposed to learn specific behaviors
Biological Predisposition
Learning by observing and watching others (the model)
Observational Learning
In observational learning, the person whose behavior the subject watches and imitates
Model
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Modeling
American psychologist who has done major studies in observational learning
Studies the consequences a model has on subjects
Bobo Doll experiments
Albert Bandura (1925- )
Children watched an adult model show aggressive behavior toward a bobo doll
Three experimental conditions:◦The model was praised.◦The model was punished.◦The model received no consequences for the aggressive behavior.
Bobo Doll Experiments
Learning by seeing the consequence of another’s behavior
Vicarious Learning
Bandura suggests four requirements for effective modeling to occur:◦Attention◦Retention◦Ability to reproduce the behavior◦Motivation
Modeling Requirements
Bobo Doll Experiment
Antisocial behavior - negative, destructive unhelpful behavior
Prosocial behavior – positive, constructive, helpful behavior
Both types of behavior can be modeled effectively.
Antisocial/Prosocial Behavior
Memory
Chapter 08
Encoding - getting information into the memory system
Storage - the retaining of encoded information over time
Retrieval - getting encoded information out of memory storage
Information Processing Model
The unconscious encoding of some information without effort
Usually information on space, time and frequency
Automatic Processing
Encoding that requires attention and a conscious deliberate effort
The best processing is through rehearsal or practice.
Effortful Processing
The conscious repetition of information in order to encode it
The more time spent on rehearsal, the more information one tends to remember.
Rehearsal
Rehearsal and Retention(From Baddeley, 1982)
German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables
Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
Continuing to rehearse after the point the information has been learned
Rehearsing past the point of masteryHelps ensure information will be
available even under stress
Overlearning
The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list
Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list
Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list
Serial Position Effect
Primacy/Recency Effect(From Craik & Watkins, 1973)
The tendency for distributed practice to yield better retention than is achieved through massed practice
Spacing Effect
Spreading rehearsal out in several sessions separated by period of time
Usually enhances the recalling of the information
Distributed Practice
Putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming)
Not as effective as distributed practice
Massed Practice
The encoding of meaningEncoding information that is meaningful
enhances recall
Semantic Encoding
Semantic Encoding(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Encoding information based on the sounds of the information
Acoustic Encoding
Acoustic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Encoding information based on the images of the information
Visual Encoding
Visual Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
The enhanced semantic encoding of information that is personally relevant
Making information meaningful to a person by making it relevant to one’s life
Self-Reference Effect
A memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts
“Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale
“People say you could have odd lots of good years” as a way to remember how to spell “psychology”
Mnemonic Device
A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to be remembered with imaginary places
Method of Loci
A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized
Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs
Peg-Word System
Peg Word System
Organizing information into meaningful units
More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.
Chunking
Three distinct storage systems :◦Sensory Memory◦Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory)
◦Long-Term Memory
Three Storage Systems
The brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system◦Iconic store – visual information◦Echoic store – sound information
Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance
Sensory Memory
Conscious, activated memory which holds information briefly before it is stored or forgotten
Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information
Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed
Also called “working memory”
Short-Term Memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
Holds memories without conscious effort
Long-Term Memory
A vivid, clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Can be personal memories or centered around a shared event
Flashbulb Memory
An increase in a synapse’s firing efficiency
Believed to be the neural basis of learning and memory
Long-Term Potentiation
Memory of facts and experiences that one must consciously retrieve and declare
Processed through the hippocampus
Explicit Memory
Explicit Memories
Memory of skills and procedures that are retrieved without conscious recollection
Processed through the cerebellum
Implicit Memory
Implicit Memories
Damage to the hippocampus would result in the inability to form new explicit memories, but the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories
Memory and the Hippocampus
Memory and the Hippocampus
The process of getting information out of memory storage
Two forms of retrieval◦Recall◦Recognition
Retrieval
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short answer test questions test recall
Recall
A measure of memory in which a person must identify items learned earlier
Multiple choice and matching test questions test recognition
Recognition
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information
Context Effect
Context
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when the person is in the same physical and emotional state they were in when they encoded the information
The retrieval state is congruent with the encoding state
State Dependent Memory
Memory
Chapter 08
Encoding - getting information into the memory system
Storage - the retaining of encoded information over time
Retrieval - getting encoded information out of memory storage
Information Processing Model
The unconscious encoding of some information without effort
Usually information on space, time and frequency
Automatic Processing
Encoding that requires attention and a conscious deliberate effort
The best processing is through rehearsal or practice.
Effortful Processing
The conscious repetition of information in order to encode it
The more time spent on rehearsal, the more information one tends to remember.
Rehearsal
Rehearsal and Retention(From Baddeley, 1982)
German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables
Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
Continuing to rehearse after the point the information has been learned
Rehearsing past the point of masteryHelps ensure information will be
available even under stress
Overlearning
The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list
Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list
Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list
Serial Position Effect
Primacy/Recency Effect(From Craik & Watkins, 1973)
The tendency for distributed practice to yield better retention than is achieved through massed practice
Spacing Effect
Spreading rehearsal out in several sessions separated by period of time
Usually enhances the recalling of the information
Distributed Practice
Putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming)
Not as effective as distributed practice
Massed Practice
The encoding of meaningEncoding information that is meaningful
enhances recall
Semantic Encoding
Semantic Encoding(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Encoding information based on the sounds of the information
Acoustic Encoding
Acoustic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Encoding information based on the images of the information
Visual Encoding
Visual Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
The enhanced semantic encoding of information that is personally relevant
Making information meaningful to a person by making it relevant to one’s life
Self-Reference Effect
A memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts
“Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale
“People say you could have odd lots of good years” as a way to remember how to spell “psychology”
Mnemonic Device
A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to be remembered with imaginary places
Method of Loci
A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized
Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs
Peg-Word System
Peg Word System
Organizing information into meaningful units
More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.
Chunking
Three distinct storage systems :◦Sensory Memory◦Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory)
◦Long-Term Memory
Three Storage Systems
The brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system◦Iconic store – visual information◦Echoic store – sound information
Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance
Sensory Memory
Conscious, activated memory which holds information briefly before it is stored or forgotten
Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information
Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed
Also called “working memory”
Short-Term Memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
Holds memories without conscious effort
Long-Term Memory
A vivid, clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Can be personal memories or centered around a shared event
Flashbulb Memory
An increase in a synapse’s firing efficiency
Believed to be the neural basis of learning and memory
Long-Term Potentiation
Memory of facts and experiences that one must consciously retrieve and declare
Processed through the hippocampus
Explicit Memory
Explicit Memories
Memory of skills and procedures that are retrieved without conscious recollection
Processed through the cerebellum
Implicit Memory
Implicit Memories
Damage to the hippocampus would result in the inability to form new explicit memories, but the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories
Memory and the Hippocampus
Memory and the Hippocampus
The process of getting information out of memory storage
Two forms of retrieval◦Recall◦Recognition
Retrieval
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short answer test questions test recall
Recall
A measure of memory in which a person must identify items learned earlier
Multiple choice and matching test questions test recognition
Recognition
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information
Context Effect
Context
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when the person is in the same physical and emotional state they were in when they encoded the information
The retrieval state is congruent with the encoding state
State Dependent Memory
States of Consciousness
Chapter 09
Awareness of oneself and one’s environment
Consciousness
Periodic physiological fluctuationsCan affect physiological functioningFall into three main categories◦Circadian Rhythms◦Ultradian Rhythms◦Infradian Rhythms
Biological Rhythms
Biological rhythms that occur approximately every 24 hours
Example: Sleep-wake cycle
Circadian Rhythms
Biological rhythms that occur more than once each day
Example: Stages of sleep throughout the night
Ultradian Rhythms
Biological rhythms that occur once a month or once a season
Example: Women’s menstrual cycle
Infradian Rhythms
Decreases efficiency of immune system functioning
Safety and accident issuesContributes to hypertension, impaired
concentration, irritability, etc.
Sleep Deprivation Effects
Sleep Deprivation(National Transportation Safety Board, 1995)
Sleep control center in the brainMonitors changes in light or dark in the
environmentChanges levels of hormones in the body
Hypothalamus
A hormone that helps regulate daily biological rhythms
Linked to the sleep-wake cycleMelatonin level increases during the
night and decreases with exposure to morning light
Melatonin
Two primary reasons:◦Preservation: keep us protected from the dangers of the night
◦Restoration: recuperate from the wear and tear of the day
Reasons for Sleep
A machine that amplifies and records waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface
Electrodes are placed on the person’s scalp to measure the waves
Used as a means to measure the stages of sleep
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
EEG
Breathing is slowed.Brain waves become irregular. It is easy to wake the person, who will
insist they are not asleep.Person will report they have dreamlike
sensations, such as falling.
Stage 1 Sleep
Stage 1
Brain wave cycle slows.EEG spindles (small brain wave bursts)
develop.First time through stage 2 last about 20
minutes.
Stage 2 Sleep
Stage 2
Increase in delta waves (large and slow waves per second)
First time through stage 4 is about 30 minutes and is where one gets rejuvenated
Stages 3 and 4 Sleep
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stages 1 - 4 considered N-REM (non-REM sleep)
Rapid eye movement (REM Sleep) as eyes move quickly back and forth
Most dreaming occurs in REM sleep
REM Sleep
REM Sleep
During REM sleep brain wave patterns are similar to when a person is awake
Pulse and breathing quickens.REM sleep is sometimes called
paradoxical sleep as one’s physiology is close to that of being awake but the brainstem blocks all muscle movement
Paradoxical Sleep
Typical Night’s Sleep
Stage 4/REM Changes
Sleep Changes through Life
Dreams serve an important memory- related function by sorting and sifting through the day’s experiences
Research suggests REM sleep helps memory storage.
Information-Processing Theory
Neural activity during REM sleep provides periodic stimulation of the brain.
Physiological Function Theory
Dreams are the mind’s attempt to make sense of random neural firings in the brain as one sleeps.
Activation-Synthesis Theory
Recurring problems falling asleep or staying asleep
Sleeping pills tend to inhibit or suppress REM sleep; worsen the problem
Alcohol suppresses REM sleep; also worsens the problem
Studies show most people overestimate how long it took them to get to sleep
Insomnia
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings.
Tend to be loud snorersContinuous Positive Airway Pressure
machine
Sleep Apnea
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks
Person goes directly into REM sleepNervous system getting aroused tends to
trigger the sleep attack
Narcolepsy
Formal name for sleepwalkingStarts in the deep stages of N-REM
sleepPerson can walk or talk but remembers
nothing of the experience
Somnambulism
Sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and appearance of being terrified
Happens during stage 4 sleep; mostly children
The children seldom remember the event.
Night Terrors
Bruxism – teeth grindingEnuresis – bed wettingMyoclonus – sudden jerk of a body part
occurring during stage 1 sleep◦Everyone has occasional episodes of myoclonus
Other Sleep Disorders
Hypnosis
Module 21
A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) makes suggestions about perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors, and another person (the subject) follows those suggestions
Hypnosis
Powerful social influences produce a state of hypnosis.
This theory notes that a person’s physiological state does not change under hypnosis.
Social factors influence people to believe hypnosis will work.
Social Influence Theory
During hypnosis our consciousness splits so that one aspect of consciousness is not aware of the role that other parts are playing.
Promoted by Ernest Hilgard (1904-2001)
Divided Consciousness Theory
The process by which a hypnotist creates a state of hypnosis in a subject
Usually done by voicing a series of suggestions
Voice is usually calm and of a rhythmic tone
Hypnotic Induction
Differences in the ability of people to become hypnotized
Varies from person to personVaries from situation to situation
Hypnotizability
Hypnotizability
Suggestions usually involve sensations, thoughts, emotions, and a wide variety of behaviors.
Hypnosis does not cause behaviors.Hypnosis can lead people to certain
behaviors but so can ordinary suggestions.
Limits to Hypnotic Suggestions
A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, that the subject will carry out when no longer hypnotized
Technique can be used to encourage helpful behavior changes, such as stopping smoking or losing weight.
Posthypnotic Suggestions
Inability to remember what happened during hypnosis because the hypnotist suggests that the subject will have no memory of that period of time
Hypnotic Amnesia
There are isolated cases of hypnosis helping recall.
Cannot be sure if the memory came back due to hypnosis
Cannot be sure if the memory is accurate or one that is created to please the hypnotist
Hypnosis and Memory
Hypnosis does work as a means to control pain.
Has a number of practical applications
Pain and Hypnosis
Improvement due only to the power of positive expectations
People think they will get better so they do
Placebo Effect
Many feats of strength done under hypnosis can be accomplished without hypnosis.
Feats of Strength
Feats of Strength
Under hypnosis, the supposed ability to remember earlier periods of time in one’s life
Psychologists consider age regression demonstrations unreliable.
Age Regression
Drugs
Module 22
A chemical substance that alters perceptions, mood, or behavior
Three common psychoactive drugs:◦Caffeine◦Alcohol◦Nicotine
Induce an altered state of consciousness
Psychoactive Drug
A state of physiological and/or psychological need to take more of a substance after continued use.
Withdrawal follows if the drug is discontinued
Dependence
The discomfort and distress that follow when a person who is dependent on a drug discontinues the use of the drug
Withdrawal symptoms are usually the reverse of the drug’s effects.
Withdrawal
Reduced responsiveness to a drug, prompting the user to increase the dosage to achieve effects previously obtained by lower doses of the drug
Tolerance
Tolerance
The process whereby neurons communicate with each other
Neurotransmission, especially in the brain and spinal cord, helps explain the effects of psychoactive drugs.
Psychoactive drugs interfere with normal neurotransmission.
Neurotransmission
Chemical messengers that cross synaptic gaps between neurons
When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, setting up the next link in the chain of communication.
Neurotransmitters
The junction between the tip of the sending neuron and the receptor sites on the receiving neuron
Call the synaptic gap or cleft
Synapse
Neural Activity
Neurotransmitters and the Synapse
Process where the unused neurotransmitter chemical is reabsorbed by the sending neuron
Reuptake
Reuptake
Psychoactive drugs affect synapses and neurotransmitters in three ways:◦Binding with receptors◦Blocking receptor site◦Blocking neurotransmitters’ reuptake
Psychoactive Drugs and Synapses
Five different categories we will study:◦Depressants◦Opiates◦Stimulants◦Hallucinogens◦Marijuana
Five Psychoactive Drug Categories
Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functioning
Includes alcohol and sedatives
Depressants
Found in beer, wine, and liquorThe second most used psychoactive
drug (caffeine first)Slows thinking, and impairs physical
activity
Alcohol (ethyl alcohol)
A measure of how much alcohol is in a person’s bloodstream
BAC of .8 considered legal intoxication in most states
Blood Alcohol Content (BAC)
Alcohol impairs the parts of the brain responsible for controlling inhibitions and making judgments
Euphoric Affects of Alcohol
Studies have shown that alcohol impairs memory by suppressing the processing of events into long term memory.
Alcohol impairs REM sleep, further disrupting memory storage.
Alcohol, Memory, and Sleep
Drugs that reduce anxiety or induce sleep
Also called tranquilizers Include barbiturates and
benzodiazepines
Sedatives
Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system and thereby reduce anxiety
Can be lethal in overdose and interact with other drugs, especially alcohol
Impair both memory and judgmentCan create tolerance and dependence
Barbiturates
Drugs that depress that activity of the central nervous system without most of the side effects associated with barbiturates
Include Valium and XanaxCan create dependency
Benzodiazepines
Drugs that depress neural activity, temporarily lesson pain and anxiety
Include: opium, morphine, and heroin
Opiates
Strong sedative and pain-relieving drug derived from opium
Works by preventing pain neurons from firing or releasing pain-signaling neurotransmitters into the synapse
Morphine
Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
Body’s natural pain killers
Endorphins
Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
Include: caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine
Stimulants
Stimulant found in coffee, chocolate, tea, and some soft drinks
Provides user with a sense of increased energy, mental alertness, and forced wakefulness
Blocks neurological receptor sites that , if activated, sedate the central nervous system
Caffeine
Stimulant found in tobaccoEffects similar to those of caffeineVery addictive and does not stay in the
body very long
Nicotine
Stimulant derived from leaves of the coca plant
Crack – cocaine crystalsBlocks the reuptake of certain
neurotransmittersDependency is quick and severe; places
extreme strain on cardiovascular system
Cocaine
Drugs that stimulate neural activity, speeding up body functions, with associated energy and mood changes
Includes: speed, uppers, and methamphetamines
Mimic adrenalineCan cause irreversible changes in mood
Amphetamines
Drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
Include: LSD and ecstasySometimes called “psychedelics”
Hallucinogens
Powerful hallucinogenic drugAlso known as “acid”The effects vary from person to personUsers can be dangerous to themselves
and others.
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
Hallucinogenic drug that produces lower inhibitions, pleasant feelings, and greater acceptance of others
Also called MDMAEven moderate users may experience
permanent brain damage.
Ecstasy
Leaves, stems, resin, and flowers form the hemp plant that, when smoked, lower inhibitions and produce feelings of relaxation and mild euphoria
THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) is the active ingredient
Disrupts memory; lung damage from smoke
Marijuana
High School Drug Use(Johnston & others, 2002)
Chapter 10
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing and remembering
Cognitive Abilities
A mental grouping based on shared similarity
Categorizing items in one’s environment
Concept
A typical best example incorporating the major features of a concept
The closer a new object is to our concept prototype the easier it is to categorize it
Prototype
A means to keep mental information organized from basic concepts to specific ones
Concept Hierarchy
Concept Hierarchy
A problem solving strategy that guarantees the solution to the problem
Not always the most efficient method
Algorithms
A rule-of-thumb problem solving strategy that makes a solution more likely and efficient but does not guarantee a solution
These can be handy shortcuts, or they can get us into trouble
Heuristics
The sudden realization of the solution to a problem
Insight
A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way
The set may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem
Mental Set
A mental set that hinders the solution of a problem
One needs to think beyond the mental set to solve the new problem
Fixation
The tendency to focus on information that supports one’s preconceptions
Confirmation Bias
Uses information from our memory to judge the likelihood of events
Can be correct or incorrect
Availability Heuristic
The tendency to be more confident than correct when estimating the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments
Overconfidence
The way an issue is worded or presentedCan influence decisions and judgments
Framing
Clinging to one’s initial beliefs even after new information discredits the basis on which they were formed
Belief Perseverance
The spoken, written, or gestured words a group uses to communicate meaningfully
Language
The smallest distinctive unit of sound of a spoken language
English has about 40 phonemes.A young baby produces all the
phonemes of all the languages of the world.
Phoneme
The smallest unit, in a language, that carries meaning
May be a word or part of a wordEnglish has about 100,000 morphemes.
Morpheme
A system of rules governing how one can combine morphemes and words and arrange them in sentences to communicate with others
Grammar
Structure of Language
Argues that children have a predisposition to learn language
A person’s brain is hard wired to learn vocabulary and the rules of grammar
Noam Chomsky (1928- )
Skinner believed language was the result of learning through:◦Association : linking certain sounds with certain people
◦Imitation◦Rewards or punishments
B.F. Skinner and Language
Three-step process:◦Babbling◦One-Word Stage◦Two-Word Stage
Language Acquisition Stages
Babies spontaneously babble phonemes.Will babble all the phonemes of the
worldWill begin to babble only the phonemes
of the child’s native tongue at about 1 year of age
Babbling
Child uses one word to convey a complete thought or idea
One-Word Stage
Two word sentences showing an appreciation of the rules of grammar
Two-Word Stage
Child will generalize grammar rules so they apply the rules too broadly.
Example: “I dugged in the sandbox” rather than “I dug in the sandbox”
Overgeneralization
Overgeneralization
Hypothesis that one’s language determines the way a person may think
Proposed by Benjamin Whorf (1897-1941)
Use of inclusive language
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
Thinking About Psychology:
The Science of Mind and Behavior
Charles T. Blair-BroekerRandal M. Ernst
The Nature of Intelligence
Module 24: Intelligence and Intelligence Testing
The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to a new situation
Is intelligence one thing or are there multiple intelligences?
Intelligence
Author of a contemporary theory of multiple intelligences consisting of eight separate kinds of intelligence
Howard Gardner (1943- )
Gardner’s Types of Intelligence
Author of a contemporary theory of multiple intelligences consisting of:◦analytic,◦creative, and ◦practical intelligence
Robert Sternberg (1949- )
Sternberg’s Types of Intelligence
The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
People high in emotional intelligence are more in touch with their feelings and the feelings of others.
Emotional Intelligence
Theorized that a general intelligence factor (g) underlies other, more specific aspects of intelligence
Charles Spearman (1863-1945)
General intelligence factor that Spearman believed underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
General Intelligence (g)
Developer of the first test to classify children’s abilities using the concept of mental age
Assumed children’s intellectual abilities grew every year
Alfred Binet (1857-1911)
The chronological age that corresponds to the difficulty of the questions a child can answer
An average 8-year-old child should have the mental age of 8 years.
Mental Age
The actual age of a person
Chronological Age
Adapted Binet’s tests for use in the United States as the Stanford-Binet intelligence test
The test reported intelligence as a calculated IQ score.
Lewis Terman (1877-1956)
The number that results from Terman and Stern’s formula for computing the level of a person’s intelligence
IQ = (MA/CA) X 100A score of 100 would be considered
averageFormula has been replaced with modern
versions
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Developed the Wechsler intelligence scales which included:◦Different tests for different age groups◦Separate verbal and nonverbal scores◦Subtests and subtest scores
David Wechsler (1896-1981)
Originally designed for the army in World War I
Can be given to large numbers of peopleThose supervising the test do not need
extensive trainingAre very easy to scoreNot the most reliable
Group Intelligence Test
Tests that attempt to measure what the test-taker has accomplished
i.e. classroom tests at the end of a unit
Achievement Tests
Tests that attempt to predict the test-taker’s future performance
Examples: ACT and SAT
Aptitude Tests
The extent to which a test yields consistent results
Test Reliability
Test-retest reliability - taking the same test and receiving a similar score
Split-half - the score on one half of a test’s questions is similar to the score on the other half
Scorer reliability – the score of the test should be similar no matter which scorer is scoring the test
Types of Reliability
The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is suppose to
Does an achievement test accurately measure accomplishments?
Does an aptitude test accurately measure the person’s future performance?
One needs to know the purpose of the test
Test Validity
A number of studies show scoring differences between different racial, ethnic, and gender groups.
Are these differences due to nature or to nurture? Studies suggest environment is playing a heavy role.
Heredity and environment interact to produce intelligence in individuals.
Group Differences in Testing
The End
The END