def: a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience classical conditioning:...
TRANSCRIPT
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CHAPTER 9: LEARNING—PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
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SECTION 1: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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LEARNINGDef: a relatively
permanent change in behavior that results from experience
Classical Conditioning: learning procedure in which associations are made btwn a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus
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PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONINGNeutral stimulus: a
stimulus that does not initially elicit a response (bell)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): an event that elicits a certain predictable response without previous training (food)
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CC CONTINUEDUnconditioned response
(UCR): an organism’s automatic/natural reaction to a stimulus (salivate)
Conditioned stimulus (CS): a once-neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an UCS
Conditioned response (CR): learned response to a CS
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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ACQUISITIONLearning the
response to a CSOccurs graduallyTiming of association
btwn CS and UCS influence learning
Most effective when CS is presented right before UCS
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GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATIONGeneralization:
responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli
Discrimination: the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli
Complementary processes
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EXTINCTION AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
Extinction: the gradual disappearance of a CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS
Spontaneous recovery: when the CR reappears when the CS is presented but not followed by a UCS, after a period of extinction
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EXAMPLES OF CCLittle AlbertBell and Pad—to
train bedwettersTaste aversion
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REASON FOR CCHelps us predict---
useful for survivalPerfect example of
behaviorist theoryShows how learners
respond to their environment
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SECTION 2: OPERANT CONDITIONING
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WHAT IS IT?Def: learning in
which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence
The study of how voluntary behavior is affected by consequences
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REINFORCEMENTB.F. SkinnerBelieved actions are
based on history of reward and punishment
Trained ratsReinforcement:
stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated
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TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTPositive
reinforcement: something that is added after an action
Negative reinforcement: something unpleasant taken away after an action
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REINFORCERSPrimary reinforcer:
stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water
Secondary reinforcer: stimulus such as money that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforcer
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Continuous reinforcement: reinforce every response
Partial reinforcement: intermittent reinforcing—produces more stable and longer lasting
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
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PARTIAL REINFORCEMENTFour basic schedules
based on:Ratio—number of
correct responses btwn reinforcements
Interval—amount of time elapsed before reinforcement is given
Fixed—predictableVariable--
unpredictable
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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENTFixed-ratio
schedule: a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained
Variable-ratio schedule: an unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement
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SCHEDULES CONTINUEDFixed-interval
schedule: a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement
Variable-interval schedule: changing amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement
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SHAPING Shaping: technique
in which the desired behavior is “molded” by 1st rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward
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CHAININGResponse chain:
learned reactions that follow on another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next
Learning smaller skills to obtain a larger skill
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AVERSIVE CONTROLDef: process of
influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli
2 ways: negative reinforcement or punishers
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NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Def: increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs
2 uses: escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning
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ESCAPE CONDITIONINGDef: training of an
organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus
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AVOIDANCE CONDITIONINGDef: training of an
organism to withdraw from or prevent an unpleasant stimulus before it starts
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PUNISHMENTMeant to decrease
an undesired behavior
Punishment may be what a child wants
It could reinforce a need for attention
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Could produce unwanted side effectsRage, aggression, fearPeople learn to avoid the person delivering
the punishmentDoes not teach acceptable behaviorPositive coaching and modeling are needed
DISADVANTAGES OF PUNISHMENT
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SECTION 3: SOCIAL LEARNING
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SOCIAL LEARNINGDef: process of
altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others
2 types: cognitive learning and modeling
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COGNITIVE LEARNINGDef: form of altering
behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation and imitation
Ex: latent learning and learned helplessness
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COGNITIVE MAPSDef: a mental picture
of spatial relationships or relationships between events
Introduced by Edward Tolman in the 1930s
Rat maze
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LATENT LEARNINGDef: alteration of a
behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior
Occurs in the absence of a reinforcer
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LEARNED HELPLESSNESSDef: condition in
which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable
Martin Seligman believes this is a root cause of depression
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LEARNED HELPLESSNESSSeligman: 3
elements of LH1) Temporary vs.
stable: 2) Specific vs. Global
3) External vs. Internal:
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MODELINGDef: learning by imitating
others; copying behavior3 basic types of modeling:1) behavior of others
increases chances of you performing the behavior
2) Observational learning: mimicking
3) Disinhibition: observe someone engaged in dangerous activity without being punished, you will find it easier to engage in that behavior later
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BEHAVIOR MODIFICATIONDef: systematic
application of learning principles to change people’s actions and feelings
Use classical conditioning to overcome fears
Modeling to teach desired behaviors
Operant conditioning applied to everyday problems
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TOKEN ECONOMIESToken economy:
conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with valueless objects, which can be accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards
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SELF-CONTROLSteps:1) Define the
problem2) Set up a
behavioral contract3) Honestly self-
monitor
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IMPROVING STUDY HABITSStop when feeling
distractedStudy in new areasApply all 3 major
learning styles (CC, OC, SL)