LEARNING

1

A DEFINITION OF LEARNING2

A relatively permanent change in behaviour potential that results from experience.

Learning verses performance Experience required Internal processes (behaviour is the manifestation)

Learning reflects a change in the potential to behave. Motivation, maturation, illness, fatigue may cause

changes in behaviour but this is not learning. Behavior changes that learning causes are not

always permanent. New, competing behaviors, may be learned.

HISTORICAL ORIGINS3

Several schools of thought have contributed to the the study of learning processes. Functionalism Behaviourism Associative Cognitive

Functionalism4

Early school of thought in psychology that emphasized instinctive origins and adaptive function of behavior.

Antecendents Dualism Darwin’s Natural Selection

René Descartes(1594-1660)

“Man as part machine”

Descartes’ Dualism5

Stimulus Involuntary Action

Nonhuman6

StimulusInvoluntary

VoluntaryAction

Human

Charles Darwin

Natural variation Some characteristics are selected

John Dewey

Father of functionalism Suggested that reflexive behaviors of lower

animals had been replaced in humans by the mind In humans, the mind had evolved as the

primary mechanism for survival Mind enables individual to adapt to

environment

8

9

The main idea of Dewey’s functionalism was that the manner of human survival differs from that of lower animals.

William James

Argued that the major difference between humans and lower animals is in the character of their inborn or instinctive motives Humans possess greater range of instincts that

guide behavior than do lower animals These include “social” instincts, which directly

enhance our interaction with the environment and our survival

Instincts are both purposeful and directional

10

11

The concept of instincts was strongly criticized based on: Anthropological observation of differences

in values, beliefs, and behaviors among cultures

Widespread and uncritical use of the instinct concept did not advance the understanding of human behavior.

12

By the 1920’s, psychologists had moved away from the instinct explanation and began to emphasize the learning process.

Psychologists who viewed experience as the major determinant of human actions were called Behaviorists

13

These criticisms lead to the Behavioral Revolution

Behaviorism14

School of thought that emphasizes the role of experience in governing behavior

Behaviorists believed that the important processes governing behavior are learned

Major goal of behaviorism was to the determine the laws governing learning

15

An important influence on Behaviorism came from Aristotle’s concept of Associationism

Associationism16

Aristotle was the earliest advocate of associationism. Aristotle’s associationism had an important

influence on behaviorism. Aristotle proposed that associations

develop from two events that are contiguous, physically similar, or polar opposites.

17

John Locke, a 17th century British philosopher, expanded on Aristotle’s ideas Claimed that there are no innate ideas

All ideas result from experience Distinguished between simple ideas which

are based on sensory input and complex ideas which are combinations of several simple ideas

David Hume

Proposed three principles of association connect simple ideas into a complex one: Resemblance Contiguity Cause and Effect

18

Thorndike

19

Edward Thorndike Unlike Locke and Hume, who were

philosophers, Thorndike was a scientist Work with cats in the puzzle box led to Law

of Effect Law of Effect stated that a response made

in the presence of a stimulus that leads to a satisfying result will strengthen the bond between the stimulus and the response.

19

20

21

Law of Readiness stated that the organism must be motivated to develop an association or to exhibit a previously established habit.

It is noteworthy that, in Thorndike’s formulation, the consequence or reward was merely a facilitator to strengthen the stimulus-response relation. Future behaviorists would hypothesize about the

importance of the role of the motivation

21

22

Thorndike also proposed the concept of Associative shifting or the gradual changing of the stimulus could result in the association of that response to a totally new stimulus.

Pavlov23

Pavlov believed that rules of association determine which behavior occurs in the learning situation. Was trained as a physiologist studying

digestion, using the dog as a model He noticed that the dogs started to secrete

stomach juices before the food was placed into their mouths

He concluded that the dogs had learned a new behavior

24

25

Unconditioned stimulus An environmental event that can elicit an instinctive

reaction without any experience Unconditioned response

An innate reaction to an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus

A stimulus that becomes able to elicit a learned response as a result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus

26

Generalization Responding in the same manner to similar

stimuli Extinction

The elimination or suppression of a response caused by the removal of the conditioned stimulus

Watson27

John B. Watson demonstrated the importance of Thorndike and Pavlov’s learning principles to human behavior. His belief that abnormal as well as normal

behavior can be the result of learning led to the Little Albert Study.

Little Albert Study28

Subject: 9 month old boy (Albert) UCS or US: loud noise CS: White rat Initially, the boy was not afraid of the rat.

Then, each time he reached out for the rat, Watson & Raynor sounded a loud gong behind his back, causing a fear response

Eventually, Albert showed a fear response to the white rat alone

Thus, Watson & Raynor demonstrated that phobia could be learned.

29

30

One of Watson’s students, Mary Cover Jones, demonstrated that phobia could be “unlearned”.

Peter and the Rabbit31

Subject: Three year old Peter Problem: Peter was afraid of rabbit Procedure: Mary Cover Jones first brought

the rabbit into a room where Peter was at ease and eating. Eating produced a positive emotional state

whereas the rabbit produced a negative emotional state.

She kept a comfortable distance but gradually brought the rabbit closer and closer. Eventually Peter could touch the rabbit without fear.

32

The process was called counterconditioning. Counterconditioning: the elimination of a

conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is paired with an opponent or antagonistic unconditioned stimulus.

This played an important role in the development of the behavior modification technique of systematic desensitization.

33

Led to the Cognitive “Revolution”

Are all forms of learning associative?

Adding Cognition into the Picture

Conditioning

Implicit

Classical InstrumentalSkills

Explicit

Semantic Episodic

HabituationThinking/Reasoning

Multiple Forms of Learning

Sloman’s Evidence

1) Dissociations“H.M.”“Unconscious Sequence Learning”

2) Simultaneous Contradictory Belief“Linda Problem”“Visual Illusions”

H.M.

Sequence learning

Nissen & Bullemer (1987) –

Serial Reaction Time

*

A B C D Experimental Group = fixed sequence of locations

D – B – C – A – C – B – D – C – B – A -

circular sequence, 10 times per blockControl Group = random sequence of locations

Violated Sequence

Subjects are sensitive to the presence of the sequence even when they deny knowing that there was a sequence

Linda Problem

Linda is 20 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majors in philosophy. As a student, she is deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and participated in the Occupy Wall Street Movement.

Which of the following is more probable?

(1) Linda is a bankteller. (2) Linda is a bankteller and a member of the NDP.

Müller-Lyer Illusion

Why Study Animal Learning?

1) precise control2) start simple3) use potent stimuli 4) model behavioural dysfunctions5) avoid subjective data6) interest in its own right

Learning

3 Types of Questions?

1) Can it be learned?2) What conditions encourage/hinder learning?3) What is the underlying mechanism?

Learned: Delayed Responding?Rats: 10-sRacoon: 25-sDog: 5-minHuman

1-year: 24-s2-year: 50-s6-year: 20-min

Hunter (1913)

ChoiceLocation 1Location 2Location 3

Cue

Location 2

Conditions: Delay of Reinforcement

StartDelayChoice Goal

Reward or No Reward

Grice – (1948)

Grice (1948) Results

2030405060708090

100

25 100

175

250

325

400

475

550

625

700

Trials

Per

cen

t C

orr

ect

0s

5s

2s1.2s

0.5s

10s

Mechanism: Insight or Trial and Error?

Kohler (1914)

Is Sultan reasoning through

to the solution?