chapter 5 learning. copyright © 1999 by the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. 2 defining learning...
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 5
Learning
Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2
Defining Learning
• Learning– a relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs through experience
• Fixed action patterns– behaviors that are driven by genetic inheritance
and are species-specific
Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 3
Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning– a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus
becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response
• Reflexes– automatic stimulus-response connections that
are “hardwired” into the brain
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How Classical ConditioningWorks
• Unconditioned stimulus (US)– a stimulus that produces a response without
prior learning
• Unconditioned response (UR)– an unlearned response that is automatically
associated with the unconditioned stimulus
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How Classical ConditioningWorks
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)– elicits the conditioned response after being
paired with the unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Response (CR)– the learned response to the conditioned
stimulus that occurs after CS-US association
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Classical ConditioningPhenomena
• Generalization– the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to
the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response
• Discrimination– the process of learning to respond to certain
stimuli and not to others
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Classical ConditioningPhenomena
• Extinction– the weakening of the conditioned response in
the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
• Spontaneous recovery– the process by which a conditioned response
can appear again after a time delay without further conditioning
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Applications in HumanClassical Conditioning
• Phobias
• Counterconditioning– a classical conditioning procedure for
weakening a conditioned response of fear by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response that is incompatible with the fear
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Evaluation of ClassicalConditioning
• Stimulus substitution– CS substitutes for the US
• Information theory– the key to understanding classical conditioning
is the information the organism obtains from the situation
– latent learning
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Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)– a form of learning in which the consequences
of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence
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Operant Conditioning
• Thorndike’s Law of Effect– behaviors followed by positive outcomes are
strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened
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Operant Conditioning
• Skinner’s Operant Conditioning– Reinforcement
• increases the probability of behavior
– Positive reinforcement• response is followed by a stimulus
– Negative reinforcement• response either removes a stimulus or involves
avoiding the stimulus
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Operant Conditioning
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Operant Conditioning
• Punishment– a consequence that decreases the probability
that a behavior will occur
• Shaping– rewarding approximations
• Chaining– technique used to teach a complex sequence of
behaviors
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Operant Conditioning
• Primary reinforcement– reinforcers that are innately satisfying
• Secondary reinforcement– acquires its positive value through experience
• Partial reinforcement– intermittent reinforcement
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed-ratio schedule– reinforcement of a behavior after a set number
• Variable-ratio schedule– a timetable in which response are rewarded an
average number of times, but on an unpredictable basis
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed-interval schedule– reinforcement of the first appropriate response
after a fixed amount of time has elapsed
• Variable-interval schedule– reinforcement of a response after a variable
amount of time has elapsed
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Observational Learning
• Observational learning– learning that occurs when a person observes
and imitates someone else’s behavior
• Mentor– a role model who acts as an advisor, coach, and
confidant
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Cognitive Factors inLearning
• S-O-R model– a model of learning that gives some importance
to cognitive factors– S=Stimulus, O=Organism, R=Response
• Bandura’s cognitive model– self-efficacy
• the expectation that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes
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Cognitive Factors inLearning
• Cognitive maps– an organism’s mental representation of the the
structure of physical space
• Insight learning– a form of problem solving in which an
organism develops a sudden understanding of a problem’s solution
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Biological Factors in Learning
• Preparedness– the species-specific biological predisposition to
learn in certain ways but not in others
• Instinctive drift– the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive
behavior that interferes with learning
• Taste aversion– the conditioned avoidance of certain substances
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Cultural Factors in Learning
• How does culture affect learning?– Degree to which these learning processes are
used– Determines the content of learning