Sustainable mobility and the interaction between policy and planning – a case study of Lindholmshamnen

AuthorsJohan WedbergLina MalmbergEmma PerssonLucas Guimarães GebrimMarcus Larsson.

CourseES 2428, Sustainable development: A case study approach – Spring 2018

ABSTRACT This research project concerns how sustainable mobility is addressed within spatial planning in the City of Gothenburg. The aim with the study is to identify how sustainable mobility is addressed and expressed in the interaction between steering documents and planning, using Lindholmshamnen as a case study area. Focus have been on spatial planning and mobility aspects within residential areas, such as Lindholmshamnen. The research project is not aimed at presenting an overall picture, but rather highlight examples with regards to the aim and research questions. The connected theory highlighted relevant aspects and concepts such as sustainable mobility, accessibility, different modes of transport, parking and spatial planning in relation to sustainable mobility.

There were three different types of data collected to achieve the aim, steering documents, detailed development plan of Lindholmshamnen and interviews with informants connected to relevant stakeholders. A thematic analysis was made with the collected material and four main themes were identified; 1) Prioritizing Pedestrians and Cyclists; 2) Planning for overall accessibility; 3) But what about the car?; 4) The more the merrier? We concluded that several of the objectives within the steering document level could be seen expressed in the detail development plan of Lindholmshamnen, but that the big quantity of documents and objectives was sometimes an obstacle for an effective implementation and achievement of the goals. In the conclusion, final remarks, relevant findings and further research suggestions are presented.

TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT II

TABLE OF CONTENT III

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 PROBLEM FORMULATION 31.2 AIM & RESEARCH QUESTIONS 31.3 LIMITATIONS 3

2 BACKGROUND 4

2.1 CASE STUDY AREA - LINDHOLMSHAMNEN 4SOURCE: HAR DU DEN EMMA?. 62.2 THE USE OF STEERING AND PLANNING DOCUMENTS IN THE PROJECT 62.3 SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY GOALS 8

3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 9

3.1 THEORETICAL CONTEXT 93.1.1 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 93.1.2 SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT AND SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY 93.1.3 SPATIAL PLANNING AND SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY 14

4 METHODOLOGY 15

4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN 15SOURCE: AUTHORS’ ADAPTION BASED ON BRYMAN (2012: 384). 154.2 RESEARCH METHODS 164.2.1 DOCUMENT DATA MATERIAL 164.2.2 INTERVIEW DATA MATERIAL 164.3 DATA ANALYSIS 174.4 METHOD DISCUSSION 17

5 RESULTS 19

5.1 THEME 1: PRIORITIZING PEDESTRIANS AND CYCLISTS 195.2 THEME 2: PLANNING FOR OVERALL ACCESSIBILITY 215.3 THEME 3: BUT WHAT ABOUT THE CAR? 24

5.4 THEME 4: THE MORE THE MERRIER? 26

6 DISCUSSION 30

6.1 PRIORITIZING PEDESTRIANS AND CYCLISTS 306.2 PLANNING FOR OVERALL ACCESSIBILITY 316.3 BUT WHAT ABOUT THE CAR? 326.4 THE MORE THE MERRIER? 33

7 CONCLUSION 35

8 REFERENCES 36

9 APPENDIX 39

9.1 APPENDIX A - DESCRIPTION OF STEERING DOCUMENTS 399.2 APPENDIX B - DOCUMENTS USED FOR ANALYSIS 40

1 Introduction

The fulfillment of the basic need to move from one location to another makes mobility one of the most essential and fundamental characteristics of modern societies. With many positive attributes, both for the individual user and for society as a whole, this has led to an immense growth in transport and mobility demand over the recent decades (Geerlings, Shiftan & Stead, 2012: 25, 34). As a key dynamic of urbanization, the infrastructure connected to mobility invariably shapes the urban form, a spatial imprint characterized by roads, transport systems, spaces and buildings. Access to places, activities and services has despite the inflated level of urban mobility become increasingly difficult. One influential factor to this is the urban sprawl. Due to the horizontal and low-density growth of cities stretching over expansive areas, the distances between important functions such as workplaces, administration offices, schools, shopping amenities and hospitals have increased. This has also led to a growing dependency on car-centered mobility, especially in regard to private transportations. Consequently, the current mobility patterns have an impact on urban life through negative externalities such as emissions and noise pollution (United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2012). As a response to this, the quest for creating more sustainable travel patterns is one of the great challenges for cities around the world in order to achieve a more sustainable urban environment.

With a share of 45 % of the daily personal transports made by car in 2017, Gothenburg is by no means an exception on this point (City of Gothenburg, 2017). All in all, the traffic situation of Gothenburg today needs to be changed in order to create a more sustainable urban environment. The city seeks to change the travel patterns of the residents so that personal transport to a lesser extent is dependent on car use. Since the demand for mobility due to the expected increase in population will continue to exist, and is even estimated to increase, a shift is needed towards an expanded use of public transportations, cycling and walking. In Gothenburg 2035 - Transport Strategy for a close-knit City. (City of Gothenburg, 2014), the car use as well as an increase of other modes of transportations are treated in three effect targets regarding travels. At least 35 percent of the travels in Gothenburg will be taken on foot or by bicycle. A minimum of 55 percent of the motorised travels in Gothenburg will be by public transportation, and the time between two random key destinations should not take more than 30 minutes using car or public transportation. The effect targets have been set to be reached by 2035 and implies a doubling of travels made on foot, by cycling or using public transportation. It also implies a reduction of car travels by a quarter (City of Gothenburg, 2014).

There is a general awareness that many different measures are needed to find a balance between accessibility and sustainability (Geerlings et al., 2012: 34). To find that balance constitutes a huge challenge for planners and policy makers. In Gothenburg 2035 - Transport Strategy for a close-knit City. (City of Gothenburg, 2014), different types of main driving forces affecting travel choices are highlighted. This is just one of the many ways to indicate

how difficult and how many aspects that need to be considered in order to create more sustainable mobility patterns in Gothenburg (see fig. 1). One of the driving forces highlighted in the model is spatial planning. Within spatial planning, mobility challenges can be addressed by encouraging compact cities and mixed-land use to increase accessibility and reduce the need for travels (UN-Habitat, 2012). Spatial planning can also be used in order to prioritize different modes of transports to create more sustainable mobility patterns. The challenge is to find efficient and attractive combinations that can both fulfill the needs of today's demand on transport as well as the need to change into more sustainable modes of transportation (Geerlings et al., 2012: 337).

Figure 1. Modell of driving forces that influence choice of travelmodeSource: Authors’ adaptation based on City of Gothenburg (2014).

In order to reach, or work towards getting closer to the effect targets that have been set, spatial planning of the physical environment will be of great importance. Gothenburg is facing a major transformation and redevelopment of extensive parts of the city. This includes the construction of the RiverCity (Älvstaden), which cover a large area of central Gothenburg (City of Gothenburg, 2012). Such a reconstruction opens up for great opportunities to influence how residents travel by making use of spatial planning. It also makes it interesting to investigate if and how the objectives set for the overall city are taken into consideration in the planning. One of the areas included in the developing process of the RiverCity is Lindholmshamnen. Lindholmshamnen is planned to be transformed into a residential area with approximately 700 new apartments and businesses, which will increase the demand for travels both within, to and from the area (City of Gothenburg, 2012).

1.1 Problem formulation

The interest of defining and working with concepts such as sustainable mobility in spatial planning is increasing. However, concept such as sustainable mobility does not describe a static situation, which makes it difficult both to explain and use. What's sustainable today may not be sustainable tomorrow. The current mobility patterns in Gothenburg is causing many problems for the city’s strive towards a more sustainable city. The ideas on how to create a more sustainable transport system are often expressed as visions or goals in steering documents. However, they provide little information on how to plan areas within Gothenburg so that these can be performed. There is a generally assumed idea that steering documents are important in the planning and development of more sustainable ways of living. But how much of the visions and goals is used in actual plans, and how are they interpreted? How the city’s goals and visions are portrayed by actors in the planning phase, and if this differs, is a central point of departure in this project.

1.2 Aim & research questions

By using the case study area of Lindholmshamnen, the aim of this project is to investigate how the interaction between steering documents and planning comes into expression in the

pursuit of achieving sustainable mobility in Gothenburg.

1. Which are the main objectives and ambitions concerning planning for sustainable mobility in transport related steering documents authored by the City of Gothenburg?

2. How are the main objectives and ambitions in the steering documents coming into expression in the detail development plans?

1.3 Limitations

This research project focus on residents daily transports. The transport of goods, international travel and ICT will therefore not be addressed. The strive towards more sustainable mobility patterns is a subject that could be approached from numerous perspectives. It is therefore important to highlight that sustainable mobility is addressed using a spatial planning perspective that focus on the planning state, not the implementation. Due to the fact that city planning, usage and construction of documents, involved actors and organizational structures differs from city to city - this research project is focused and based on the context and situation that are current in Gothenburg. This research project does not aim to describe the situation regarding how the City of Gothenburg works in relation to sustainable mobility as a whole, but rather highlight examples that are of interest. Even though the geographical demarcation on the detail development plan-level is set to Lindholmshamnen, mobility aspects of the area is however affected by features in the surrounding vicinity. Therefore, certain elements that can have an impact on the everyday mobility of people within the case study area, like the public transportation availability and the planned cable car, will to some extent also be acknowledged.

2 Background

This chapter serves as background for the research project. By providing information that are of relevance to the project, the aim is to give the reader a better insight and understanding to relevant aspects that have influenced both the project process and the outcomes. The sustainable mobility related objectives that are used in this research project, provided by the City of Gothenburg, will also be related to sustainability goals on higher scales.

2.1 Case study area - Lindholmshamnen

Lindholmshamnen is a detail development plan area situated at Lindholmen, one of the nine project areas that together constitute the basis of the collective development called the RiverCity. The RiverCity is located in central Gothenburg and runs along the river. It consists of large sections of the city that are planned to be transformed into mixed use and dense urban areas (City of Gothenburg, 2012). Located on Norra Älvstranden, Lindholmen is an area with a long history of harbour activities and served as a shipyard and port area when the shipbuilding industry in Gothenburg was active. Since then the activities have changed and today Lindholmen is described as Gothenburg's most knowledge-intensive and growing area. This is partly due to the development of Lindholmen Science Park, an area that since 2000 has grown by a large number of businesses and people each year and where development-intensive technology and media companies are collaborating with researchers and students. In 2017 over 21 000 people worked, studied or lived at Lindholmen, a number that the city is aiming to increase by completing the area with residential buildings (City of Gothenburg, n.d.a.).

Some of the proposed residential buildings will be built in Lindholmshamnen, a new residential area adjacent to Lindholmen Science Park. Lindholmshamnen is located south of Lindholmsallén and stretches along both sides of Götaverksgatan. The area have in recent years primarily been used as parking space for those working at Lindholmen. The new residential area creates a connection between Lindholmen’s eastern part and Lundbyvass, a relatively well-preserved former shipyard and industrial area. The ambition is to create comprehensible blocks and streets where Lindholmen and the space around Götaverksgatan transform into a rich and cohesive urban area, and where the previous transport related functions are converted and supplemented with new building to become more dense (City of Gothenburg, 2013a). Lindholmshamnen is divided in two sections, one west and one east of Götaverksgatan. The western part consists of four blocks, a square, a north-south narrow park and a larger office and center building along Lindholmspiren. The eastern part consists of one block with residential buildings, a centre and a pre-school along with a park. In total, approximately 700 apartments in different sizes are planned to be built (City of Gothenburg, n.d.b.).

Figure 2. Map showing the street network in LindholmshamnenSource: Authors’ adaptation based on Älvstranden Utveckling (2016)

Within Lindholmshamnen, Götaverksgatan will constitute the main corridor (huvudstråk) where the street are clearly divided into driving areas, green areas and lanes for pedestrians and cyclists. Including Götaverksgatan, a local street network based on corridors will enable mobility within and through the area as well as create a more extensive structure (see fig. 2). Some of the local streets, the ones between the blocks, will be designed as walking pace areas aiming to create an inviting environment to stay in as well as generating a low traffic speed. The streets within Lindholmshamnen will be accessible for all traffic types, but with a design that makes it evident that pedestrians and cyclists are prioritized. One of the corridors will be accessible by pedestrians and cyclists only. Many of the streets are planned to contain furnitures and plantings aiming at spatially divided and pleasant streets (City of Gothenburg, 2013b). A consortium was formed with members that will be responsible for the development of the area, including Älvstranden Utveckling AB, Skanska, Peab, HSB and Riksbyggen. The construction of public spaces and the blocks within Lindholmshamnen started in 2016 and is estimated to be completed in 2022 (City of Gothenburg, n.d.b.).

Figure 3. Map showing the location of Lindholmshamnen and public transport stopsSource: Google maps

Lindholmshamen can be reached with several modes of transportations, mostly through the main street of Lindholmen: Lindholmsallén, where cars, public transports as well as lanes for pedestrians and cyclists create a good access to the area. When built, Lindholmsallén was also prepared for the possibility to host future tram traffic (City of Gothenburg, n.d.b.). Lindholmshamnen is located between two stations, Regnbågsgatan and Lindholmen with a distance of around 150 m to both of them. Bus 16 runs between the city centre and Götaverksgatan with a travel frequency of 10 minutes during rush hours and around 8 minutes in travel time, but several other bus lines such as 45, 99 yellow express and the electric bus line 55 are available. Lindholmshamnen can also be reached by using the ferries Älvsnabbaren and Älvsnabben that crosses Göta Älv on a regular basis (City of Gothenburg, 2013a). Currently, a cable car is being planned that will connect all of Lindholmen with Central Gothenburg as a part of the RiverCity Vision. If implemented, the cable car will increase the accessibility to and from Lindholmshamnen (City of Gothenburg, n.d.d).

2.2 The use of steering and planning documents in the project

The aim with this project is to investigate how the interaction between steering documents and planning is emphasized in the pursuit of achieving sustainable mobility. In order to do so there is a need to define what is included in the terms steering documents and planning within the context of Gothenburg. The City of Gothenburg has many different types of plans and policy documents and divides them in two categories; Steering documents and planning- and construction projects (City of Gothenburg, n.d.c.).

In the City of Gothenburg, steering documents are the collective term for many different forms of document and are defined as documents that gives the organization the prerequisites for doing the right things in the right way. They indicate what boards, administrations and companies within the City of Gothenburg should do, who should do it and how it should be done. Steering documents can be exemplified by visions, programs, plans and policies. Based on the guidelines regarding steering documents set by the City of Gothenburg, a short description of the ones relevant in this research project is found in Appendix A (City of Gothenburg, n.d.e.). The second category, documents regarding planning- and construction projects contains documents which are part of, or are direct connected to, detail development plans and construction projects within Gothenburg.

In this project, these categories have been used in the same way as for the City of Gothenburg; to make a clear division between the different documents and their function. It also connects to the geographical scale that the documents in the two categories have. In order to clarify the comparisons made in the project, two levels have been created based on these categories; steering document level and detail development plan level (DP-level). Within the category of planning and construction projects, the detail development plan documents regarding the case study area of Lindholmshamnen are the ones being used. Detail development plans regulate the use and design of an area in a detailed manner and are legally binding. A detail development plan contains provisions on what may be built, sizes and sometimes also regulations regarding designs (City of Gothenburg, n.d.f).

The selection of documents and stakeholders is described in more detail in the methodological chapter, but an overview is given in fig. XX. To avoid misinterpretations and keep the names consistent throughout the text, original titles of the documents are used, even for those with english titles. For a full list of the documents used in this research project, see Appendix B.

2.3 Sustainable mobility goals

The ambition to increase the use of more sustainable ways of traveling is an important aspect and relates to many sustainability goals on several scales. On a global scale it is expressed in forms of Sustainable development goals (SDGs), where sustainable mobility is connected to goal 9 - Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation and especially to goal 11 - Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. Within goal 9 it is stated that efficient and sustainable transportation is an important source to generate employment, wealth and drive economic development (UN, n.d.a). Within the statements regarding goal 11, urban sprawl is highlighted as problematic and form the basis for one of the related targets (11.2) stating that:

By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with disabilities and

older persons (UN, n.d.b).

On the national level in Sweden, 16 national environmental objectives have been developed to strive for. Based on these, the City of Gothenburg has adapted 12 environmental objectives, aiming to create a good living environment both now and in the future. The goals show the state that the City of Gothenburg want to achieve and form the basis of local environmental efforts (City of Gothenburg, n.d.g). Of these, three of them are directly relatable to the strive towards sustainable mobility. These are objective 1 - Reduced climate impact, objective 2 - Clean air and objective 11 - A good built environment. Objective 1, reduced climate impact, emphasize the need for increase investments in energy efficiency for housing, premises and transport. Spatial planning and additional instruments are needed in order to reduce car traffic and promote options such as public transport and cycling. Within objective 2, clean air, road traffic is described as the source of emissions that affects the levels of air pollution at street level the most. A decrease of such emissions can be made by

reducing the need for travels. Objective 11, a good built environment, emphasize the need to create dense, mixed-use areas where traffic, settlements and green spaces interact. A dense, close-knit city form the base for creating an urban structure where sustainable modes of transport, such as walking and cycling, increase (ibid).

3 Theoretical frameworkThis chapter contains the link to theory that are of relevance to this research project and is divided into two sections, theoretical context and analytical framework. The theoretical context presents general concepts within which the research project and its focus are located. Then, a description of the theory that will be used for analysing the results are provided for in the analytical framework.

3.1 Theoretical context

3.1.1 Sustainable development

Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, partly because it comprises contradictions between the present and the future as well as the dynamic between economic, social and environmental considerations. Instead of giving the concept a clear definition, Waas, Huge, Verbruggen and Wright (2011) present four fundamental principles of how to interpret and use sustainable development. Firstly, they highlight that the concept is based on normativity, socially constructed as an expression of the kind of world we want to live in. Secondly, they underline that different forms of equity is a central aspect, such as social equity, geographical equity and intergenerational equity. Thirdly, sustainable development is closely connected to integration and the need for a holistic perspective where different aspect harmonize. Fourthly, sustainable development is not a fixed state but a process of ongoing changes (ibid).

For this research project, focusing on spatial planning as driving force for creating more sustainable mobility patterns, the third and fourth principle provided by Waas et al. (2011) is both crucial and problematic. Persson (2013) argues that the holistic approach, even though important to strive for, can be difficult to achieve in a Swedish context due to the fact that there are many actors to incorporate, both within the municipalities as well as outside. In addition, the spatial planning and all aspects within it must be balanced based on the local circumstances. A holistic view includes both including many aspects but also planning for what is needed in the current context. The fourth principle, that sustainable development is an ongoing and changing process makes it hard for spatial planners due to the fact that reconstruction of places mostly are set to last for a long time. This creates a state where planners have to make own interpretations regarding what is sustainable and what is not as well as include guesses and estimates regarding what will be sustainable in the future (ibid). 3.1.2 Sustainable transport and sustainable mobility

Due to the fact that both sustainable transport and sustainable mobility often are used in regards to issues related to sustainable travel, there is a need to distinguish the difference between these terms. This however, is not an easy task. Terms such as sustainable mobility, sustainable transport and sustainable urban mobility transport are constantly used freely and in similar ways, both in scientific literature as well as in motivation and problematization of related sustainability goals (see Geerlings, Shiftan & Stead, 2012: 29, 34; Johansson, Tornberg, & Fernström, 2018; Banister, 2008; UN, n.d.a). According to Johansson et al.

(2018), research related to sustainability and transport has paid a lot of attention on the transport system and argues that there is a need to shift the focus in transport planning and policy to mobility. One definition of transport is described as the movement of goods and persons from place to place and that this can be achieved by using motorized vehicles (Nationalencyklopedin, n.d.a). Geerlings et al. (2012: 29) argues that the concept of sustainable transport supply guidance and direction for long-term decision making and improve mobility, especially for vehicles, but lacks to consider broader impacts. In this research project, sustainable mobility is used as the main term in regards to sustainability and transport due to the emphasis on all modes, including walking (see Bannister, 2008).

3.2 Analytical framework

3.2.1 Sustainable Accessibility

Accessibility is often regarded as a positive value to strive for in most societal development contexts, both for economical values, as well as values connected to social features (Östh, J., Dolciotti, M., Reggiani, A., Nijkamp, P, 2018). In regard to people's ability to interact with its geographical surrounding, accessibility is one of the key concepts of relevance. Apart from the fact that a journey can conceal intrinsic values of its own (Beyazit, 2013), it is accessibility that is the desirable entity when conduction mobility actions. However, it is a concept that have many definitions and because of this a conceptual demarcation has to be done in order to define how accessibility should be understood within the context of this research project. Here, accessibility is defined by using the framework outlined by Haugen (2012), where it is understood as an entity of proximity (or distance) and mobility, see figure XX. According to Haugen (2012), accessibility can be increased either by overbridging distance through mobility or by the reduction of distance. It should be noted that the use of the concept in this research project revolves around enabling accessibility, not analysing the degree of accessibility, as this could be argued for as something highly subjective and hard to analyse from the focal point of spatial planning processes.

Figure XX. Theoretically simplified representation of the spatial dimensions of the accessibility concept Source: Haugen, 2012.

Today, the achieving of accessibility has brought along ecological, social and economical problems. It could be argued that this unsustainable situation is a result of the overuse of unsustainable modes of mobility, like cars and aviation. In regard to the illustrating model in figure XX, this implies that a more sustainable accessibility can be achieved by increasing proximity, thus reducing the need for mobility, or/and by using more sustainable modes of mobility. Within the framework of urban spatial planning, there is a couple of main measures that are identified as desirable in the strive for sustainable accessibility, both through increased proximity and more sustainable mobility. These are outlined in the sections below.

Sustainable accessibility through increased proximityMany scholars argue that increased urban density can be used to increase proximity, which is a planning strategy that has been adopted as a development strategy by many cities in the last decades (Burton, Jenks & Williams, 1996; Williams, 2005). By squeezing more people and the services that they require together on a smaller surface, the demand for mobility can be decreased with maintained accessibility (Banister, 2008; Gärling et al., 2014; Burton, Jenks & Williams, 1996). Rode et al. (2014) do for example state that, when controlling for other factors, there can be a difference of more than 40% in distance travelled per capita between low-density areas and high-density areas. Another measure that can be used to increase proximity is mixed land use. Earlier planning traditions favoured functional separation were workplaces, residential areas and commerce were to be divided in separated areas. This spatial structure created large distances between different points of interest. By mixing and integrating different types of land use, like housing, commercial and leisure activities the distances that is required to reach different points of interest, like services and workplaces, can be heavily reduced (Wang, Chau, Ng and Leung, 2016).

Sustainable accessibility through more sustainable modes of mobility The other way in which accessibility can be enabled is by mobility. The challenge within this distance-bridging accessibility context is to make sure that the modes of mobility become more sustainable in the future. Banister (2008) argues that one role of spatial planning in distance-bridging accessibility revolves around promoting a transition from unsustainable modes of mobility to more sustainable ones. In order to create a setting that makes this transition possible it is important to know what kind of main factors that influences individuals’ choice of mode. According to Berge and Amundsen (2001) the following ones are the most important in hierarchical order:

● Travel time (especially perceived)● Frequency of service● Reliability● Comfort● Perceived safety● Price● Information

In the context of daily personal transport in Gothenburg, the modes of relevance are active modes (walking and cycling), public transport and car. The first two mentioned are in this

research project regarded as sustainable and should thus be promoted in order to achieve a more sustainable accessibility. Cars on the other hand are regarded as unsustainable and should therefore be counterbalanced. This division is done in the light of the local context of this research project. The City of Gothenburg has pointed out the extensive car use within the city as problematic, not just for the emissions of greenhouse gases and local pollutant, but also for its negative effects on the perceived urban environment and area inefficiency, see figure XX. Active modes and public transport are on the other hand being pointed out as a solution to overcome these negative externalities while maintaining distance-bridging mobility (City of Gothenburg, 2014). At the same time, the car is superior in terms of accessibility through travel time (City of Gothenburg, 2013).

Figure XX. Space demanded by different modes of transport.Source: Stangeby & Norheim, 1995.

Active modesThere are a lot of attributes in the physical environment that have an impact on the probability that urban inhabitants will use active modes of transport like walking and cycling. Wang et al. (2016) identifies several aspects that should be avoided or counteracted in order to create a supportive environment that increases the usage of active modes for personal mobility. A lack of residential density increases the distances that needs to be overbridged to reach places of interest and thus reduces the overall usage of active modes. A lack of diversity in these places is also something that have a negative impact in this matter. Increased proximity, or decreased distances to places of interest through densification and mixed land use makes the promotion of active mobility easier. Other aspects that have a negative impact according to Wang et al. (2016) is the lack of adapted infrastructure like pedestrian friendly pathways and cycling lanes. An inadequate connectivity in the network of this infrastructure, caused by for example dead ends and traffic is also an obstacle. In addition, increased exposure to car traffic is also negative in this matter. Poor quality of the physical environments that are important for active modes is also disfavouring. Here features like bad aesthetics appearance and improper built environment design are included. For

cyclist, path obstructions and elevation are particularly disfavouring. Another study by Song, Preston & Ogilvie (2016) suggests that promoting a supportive environment is beneficial for increasing usage of active modes, however it may not be enough alone to promote active modes of travel since the people using the new infrastructure already shifted towards more sustainable active modes of travel.

Public transportThere are a lot of aspects that are of importance when public transport should be promoted. From the perspectives of spatial planning in a residential context, the essential aspects lie in the accessibility to the public transport stops. It is the accessibility to these facilities that are of importance for residential spatial planning. García-Palomares, Gutiérrez, Sousa Ribeiro, and Sá Marques (2018), concludes that a long distance to the nearest public transport station is one of the greatest enemies for the promotion of public transport. Proximity is thus one of the most important features. What proximity means varies however between different groups in society and between different places. To put it in a perspective, García-Palomares et al. (2018) states that the usage of public transport is highest at the closest possible location from a station and then declines linearly with increasing distance, to be almost non existing at 1,500 meters. The structure of the routes is also of importance. It has been shown that many turns and obstacles along the route, like traffic lights with low passing frequency and unsafe environments also decreases the use of public transport. Thus, a straight pathway toward public transport stations, with lots of shortcuts and an absence of obstacles can further encourage the use of public transport (ibid).

Car Apart from a “carrot approach” to the strive for sustainable mobility, which means promotion of alternative modes in order to make these relatively more favorable in relation to the car, there are suggestions in the scientific literature on “stick-measures” that seek to make the car as mode of mobility absolute less favorable. In the context of spatial urban planning for residential development, parking management is one of the central ones. The effectiveness of this groups of measures is due to the fact that parking is a part of every movement that is conducted with cars, all car journeys starts and ends with a parking place (Christiansen, Engebretsen Fearnley and Hanssen, 2017). Christiansen, Engebretsen and Hanssen (2015) found in their study on residential parking measures in Norway that the distance to the residential parking facilities affects the probability of car use, were a short distance to parking promotes car use. However, if the distance is longer it increases the alternative modes relative advantage in travel time and reduces car use. The effect were found to be particularly prominent if the distance were above 100 meter. Christiansen et al. (2017) found that this relationship was true when checking for a range of geographical and socio economic factors. Urban density and mixed land use even gave rise to synergies that made these measures more effective that they would have been on their own. The authors also determine that increased distance to residential parking facilities does not decrease the number of trips being made, just the choice of mode. Christiansen et al. (2015) also found that privately owned parking

places could increase the incitament to use the car as a mode of mobility. If the parkings didn't were privately designated, the uncertainty whether a place could be found at any given time acted as a barrier, not just for car use but also for car ownership. 3.2.2 Spatial planning and sustainable mobility

In the relation between spatial planning and sustainable mobility, the related documents and the ones conducting the plans is what ultimately has the greatest influence on what is planned. Objectives related to sustainable mobility distinguishes several, sometimes seemingly opposing, goals, which hence makes it a very difficult task to find synergy between these different goals (Geerlings et al., 2012). According to Persson (2013) Sweden has, on a national level, no formal institute for spatial planning which makes the planning for sustainable spatial development a local discretion where the municipalities have a key role. The major instruments for sustainable planning is the steering documents. Even though such documents are not legally binding, they state how the municipality will steer future developments concerning urban land use. Due to the fact that there is a vagueness with sustainable related terms, the interpretation of what sustainability entails are an influencing factor to how the planning of areas are conducted. Persson (2013) argues that it can be questioned weather steering- and planning documents really handles the occurrence of compromises regarding sustainability in a good way, and in a transparent way shows that the road for achieving sustainability is filled with conflicts. As a conclusion, he states that there are clear limitations when goals and policies are too vague and allows for alternative meanings.

4 Methodology

This section contains the methodology of the research project and describes the procedure that have been used. The research design and approaches used in the project, as well as methods for answering the research questions, are presented. The chapter ends with a critical discussion regarding the methods applied in the project.

4.1 Research design

This project is designed based on a case study approach. To clarify what it means in this particular context, we have chosen to define case study as an intensive study of a single case, with the aim to generalize results that can be implemented across a larger scale of the same general type (Gerring, 2006: 19). Due to the use of several documents and strategies as well as interviews with different actors, multiple observations within the case have been made. The project can be seen as both synchronic, with spatial variations, and diachronic with temporal variations within the case. As with many other case studies, the spatial boundaries given by the delimitation to Lindholmshamnen, were more apparent in this project than its temporal boundaries. A temporal boundary was difficult to define since it included a variety of documents that stretched from past to future. A temporal boundary could therefore had have a negative effect on the results and create problems instead of giving clarity. However, it is important to clarify that temporal variations within the case do occur, as well as using documents and strategies that varies in scale and extent (Gerring, 2006: 27).

In order to answer the research questions, a qualitative approach was adopted. Bryman (2012: 384) describes the qualitative research process in different steps, see figure XX, which are the same steps that have been used during this project. The process of the project has been of inductive character with deductive tendencies. This is due to the ways that the relationship between interpretation of data and theoretical framework has been dealt with in this study. This interplay has played an important role in the process of the project. Bryman (2012: 26) calls this process iterative, a strategy that involves weaving back and forth between data and theory.

Figure XX. Bryman's model of the qualitative research process in different steps

Source: Authors’ adaption based on Bryman (2012: 384).

4.2 Research methods

Within the research project, two different sources for gathering primary empirical data were used; steering- and DP-documents, and semi-structured interviews with informants connected to relevant stakeholders.

4.2.1 Document data material

The steering documents and DP-documents were gathered based on a purposive sampling with a typical case sampling approach (Bryman 2012: 418). Of relevance were official steering documents concerning mobility of individuals that had an influence on the planning process of Lindholmshamnen. On the steering document level, this resulted in a sampling that were organized in two steps. Step one was to find the steering documents, adopted by administrations within the City of Gothenburg, that concerned mobility of individuals. The second step was to identify which of these documents that had a relation to the detailed development plan area of Lindholmshamnen. For the detail development level, a similar sampling structure was adopted. Step one was to identify which documents that concerned mobility of individuals. The second step differed slightly and concerned relevance. The making of a detailed development plan is a dynamic process and through influence of different actors, substantial parts of the plan usually change. Since the planning of Lindholmshamnen has been going on since the 1990’s, documents have been replaced or updated with new versions. Obsolete ones were not used in this research project.

4.2.2 Interview data material

The interviews were in-depth and conducted in a semi-structured manner. This made it possible to adequately steer the interviews in the desired direction, while allowing for reflective thoughts and reasoning from the informants (see Bryman 2012: 11). The length of the interviews ranged from 30 to 60 minutes. All of the interviews were conducted with individual interview guides, then recorded and transcribed. The data from the interviews that were used in the results were anonymised. This was important in order to prevent identification of individuals. Also, the important aspect of the interview data was the content, not who said what. The informant sampling differed slightly between the two levels, but could in general be categorized as a purposive sampling with a sequential approach (see Bryman, 2012: 418). Some of the interviewees were involved both on steering document level as well as DP-level.

The informants interviewed on steering document level were connected to the following stakeholders:

● City Planning Authority● Urban Transport Administration● Älvstranden Utveckling

The informants interviewed on DP-level were connected to the stakeholders are listed below. Due to the fact that the developers (byggherrar) operates on the premises of the detailed development plan, their thoughts and reflections regarding mobility aspects in Lindholmshamnen were of relevance.

● Urban Transport Administration● City Planning Authority● Älvstranden Utveckling● HSB● Riksbyggen

4.3 Data analysis

In order to narrow the data down and make it relevant to the research questions, a method based on thematic analysis was used. In this research project, the process of the thematic analysis has been formed using the framework outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006). The first step was included within the data collection process and involves transcriptions of interview data and extensive reading of document data material. In the second step, initial codes were generated based on the entire data set. The third step started with tagging the large amount of codes so that they would be more easily interpreted and helped maintain the context of the code. As an example, codes that described objectives where tagged with an O. From these codes, preliminary themes where arranged. Bryman (2012: 580) recommends looking for eight different aspects of the coded material when searching for themes. Out of these eight, four where found to be of relevance within this project; repetitions, similarities and differences, missing data and theory-related material. A review of the preliminary themes took place in the fourth step. This included a merge of two similar ones due to fact that there was no clear distinction between them. In the fifth step four final themes were established. The sixth and last step consisted of producing the report. It is important to highlight that this process were not totally linear, and that movement back and forth between the phases were constantly made along the course of the project.

4.4 Method discussion

In Gothenburg, sustainable mobility is a subject that spans across a multitude of documents and involves many actors, both within the municipal organisation and outside. This created a need to make a selection, both in regards to documents being used as well as for the limitation of stakeholders. In this research project, more documents and more stakeholders could have been included, but due to the limited time a selection based on what was thought to be of most relevance was made. This research project could also have been made by just using documents. The reason for conducting interviews beside the document analysis was partly to broaden the understanding of how the steering documents are influencing the detailed development process and partly to gain knowledge regarding the discourses that they are based on. The interviews were conducted using different interview guides. On one hand, this turned out to be difficult when combining and analysing the data material. On the other,

individual actors approach and work with mobility related questions in different ways. Therefore, different interview guides turned out to be most efficient for collecting relevant data, which also affected the length of the interviews. The informants that were interviewed had different responsibilities which may have affected the data. It was also difficult to make a clear division between stakeholders opinion and personal opinions. Therefore, the interviewees have been referred to as informants with connection to the stakeholders.

Using a thematic analysis was proven to be both useful and difficult in this research project. One of the difficulties when conducting a qualitative research project as this one, with both document analyses and interviews, is that it generates a lot of data. In this sense, using a thematic analysis proved to be beneficial. The use of themes also enables a comprehensible way to present the results. The difficult aspect of using thematic analysis was the evident impact of subjectivity. This made the process time consuming, but also became a basis for discussing and clarifying the purpose and aim of the research project. So, the richness of data in the thematic analysis both became a friend and foe.

Where do we put this research project within a scientific context and how can it be used? Some factors need to be considered in relation to the validity. This research project is highly influenced on using the case study area of Lindholmshamnen as well as the circumstances within and around the area. The local focus makes the results in some ways difficult to transfer or generalize into other contexts. In addition, making the interview material anonymous when presenting it in the result have in this project been favorable. However, the backside is the negative effect on confirmability. The ambition has been to be as transparent and open with how the process have developed as possible. In light of this, some could argue that the credibility of the research project increases along with the openness. Several different sources, analysts when analysing the data as well as multiple theoretical perspectives have been used. These are all important in order to assore finding as true to reality as possible, given the conditions and limitations that has formed this research project.

5 Results

This chapter presents the themes identified during the analysis of our collected data through the interviews and documents. The interviews are used throughout the theme presentation by presenting meaningful insights that can add value to the text and are anonymous. For the purpose of this analysis, the name of the documents were used to reference to the data source.

5.1 Theme 1: Prioritizing Pedestrians and Cyclists

Planning for pedestrians and cyclists is an essential part of urban planning. It relates to how the documents emphasise the need to prioritize other more sustainable modes of transport. The need to prioritise pedestrians and cyclist is very evident in documents from both steering level as well as from documents on the detail plan-level.

“Give pedestrians and cyclists priority. Humans in motion is the lifeblood of the city and contributes to higher safety, gives more room for service and constitutes more than anything

else the kind of attractivity we associate with cities.” – Cykelprogram, 2015, p. 20) To promote cycling and walking, the thought is that people should want to use these modes of transports by making them more attractive with improved parking for bicycles and better and separated bike and pedestrian lanes. The steering documents also state that building dense with mixed land use allows for more walking and cycling. “A higher density gives the opportunity for more people to walk and bike” – (Översiktsplan

1, 2009, p. 38) Many of the travels done by foot today are shorter than 2 kilometres, and according to Trafikstrategin, there is great chances for improvement here. This should be researched accordingly to create measures that will allow and people to walk further distances. One of the interviewees mentioned the possibility for the improvements of walking and cycling in the case of Norra Älvstranden, regarding the planning for sustainable mobility and the fact that it could have been more effective: “If you should plan for sustainable mobility, you should plan concentric, you start to create a

dense core, and then you work your way out towards the periphery and while doing so you are using the benefits of the short walking and bicycle-distances in the attractive urban environment in the central parts of the city (…) Norra Älvstranden is problematic in this sense, they started in the wrong direction with developing Sannegården and Lindholmen

which is quite far from the core of the city, I think this is a fundamental problem.”

On the DP-level the prioritization of pedestrians is evident for example due to the planning of constructing walking speed streets within the area. When asked if the construction of walking speed streets is an effective way of prioritising pedestrians, one of the interviewees said:

“Yes I believe so. Everyone wins by getting as little traffic in the areas as possible,(...) it is in everyone's interest that we have as little traffic as possible (…) We hope that there will be families with children and a mixed clientele living there so I think there is a positive attitude towards the fact there we don’t want to have any heavy traffic(...) I hope and think it will be appreciated, and that it does not discourage anything when using walking speed streets ”

The development of infrastructure surrounding bikes and pedestrians is another recurring subject. Cykelprogrammet states that when developing new areas, corridors for fast biking are of high importance. The ambition to include fast bicycle corridors within the infrastructure was highlighted by one of the interviewees: “We are talking about that we want to highlight nodes of interest. Between these, we want to maintain a high speed and fast traffic with public transport and bikes, here we want to build

main corridors for bikes(...)”

In the data it is also possible to identify the ambition to increase the amount of cycle parking. This is evident in interviews with developers that are building apartments in Lindholmshamnen, one of them stated:

” …apart from the demands from the municipality regarding parking spaces for cars, they are also having demands on parking spaces for bikes, roughly three per apartment. This is a

lot of bicycle parking, they take up much space and sometimes we joke about if we are building apartments or cycle parking?”

However, there are contradictions in the documents. One of them would be how walking and cycling are presented as one mode of transport in many cases, since the two of them are usually mentioned together and share infrastructure. It contradicts Cykelprogrammet. The document makes a clear distinction between the two modes, to a much larger extent. The document states that bikes should be separated from other types of traffic if possible, pedestrians included. It is also important to state that there currently is a pedestrian program in development.

“The bike is its own mode of transport and it need its own infrastructure” - (Cykelprogram, 2015 p. 20)

Another contradiction between the documents is that many documents suggest that different modes of transport should be separated such as Kvalitetsprogrammet. If the modes are to be separated, bicycles and pedestrians needs to be defined as separate modes. This is important for many factors, one of them that there are many conflicts between pedestrians and bicyclists and poor separation between them is considered one of the main reasons behind this.  This

leads to another contradiction, when it comes to walking pace areas (gångfartsgator) because they do not separate traffic. In the context of Lindholmshamnen, this will be expressed with the adoption of walking pace areas. The conflict between separation and interaction might be confusing but is however the essence of a breathing city, different modes of transport will eventually need to share the same space under the same circumstances.

5.2 Theme 2: Planning for overall accessibility

The second subject that permeates the several sources of this work’s data is accessibility. It can be seen both in the steering documents and the DP-level document and it’s defined as “The easiness by which the inhabitants and business sector can reach what they demand”, according to Parkingspolicyn. The documents expressed the need for improvements in the accessibility in two main aspects – urban land use and public transport improvements.

Most documents mention mixed land use as a way to achieve a higher degree of accessibility, arguing that neighbourhoods with a greater variety of uses such as businesses, services and housing will be an important part of creating not only a more vibrant city life, but also areas that provides possibilities like living and working in the same neighbourhood. Some examples of the subject can be clearly seen as a guideline in the steering documents:

“The urban spaces between buildings need to be designed to promote a mixed urban life” + (Vision Älvstaden 2012, p. 17)

“The comprehensive plan strives to create a mixed and dense city” (Översiktsplan, 2009, p. 41)

The guidelines promoted in the steeringsteering documents can be seen expressed in many of the DP-level documents in more detail. Kvalitetsprogrammet expresses that the area should aim to be a coherent urban space with mixed use.

Another good example is given by Planhandlingen. This text goes deeper into explaining what mixed use in the area means. The plan states that Lindholmen is currently mainly a business and education place with large undeveloped areas, such as Lindholmshamnen, that could potentially become residences, small business and offices and other different uses. The plan also explains that the “mix” will further be expressed through different types of tenancy.

“More housing with mixed forms of lease, rent and tenant-owner rights means that the area has a more heterogeneous population composition” (Planhandling, 2013, p. 24).

An additional concept that is widely used throughout the data is “densification” and converting the street function. The street should be transformed from a space of transport with cars into an urban space with more functions than transportation. Densification are usually brought together with mixed use of urban space and several times they are combined in order to achieve some common objectives, for example creating a lively city environment and specially shortening distances to create bigger accessibility. Other specific objectives can be found in the documents. At the steering document level an example of objectives to be

achieved regarding density can be found in Trafikstrategin, which approaches the concept of densification as one of its strategies to promote an attractive urban environment by:

“Creating a denser and more interconnected network of streets without barriers”- (Trafikstrategi, 2013, p. 6)

Trafikstrategin also mentions that the strengthening of local squares will reduce travel, and by doing so creating a more lively urban space. One of the interviewees mentioned positive attitudes towards the street as an urban space for activities:

“(…) it is in everyones interest that we have as little traffic as possible (…) We hope that there will be families with children and a mixed clientele living there so I think there is a

positive attitude towards the fact there we don’t want to have any heavy traffic.”

Even though the steering documents widely promote densification, there is also acknowledgements of the possible risks that could originate from a badly planned dense area, such as street space competition:

“This increased density, along with a large number of residents and workers, will give the city a more urban character and imply competition over street space.” - (Trafikstrategi,

2013, p. 34)

In the DP-level documents, the desire to create a denser city environment seen in the steering documents is expressed both in Planhandlingen and Kvalitetsprogrammet. The first document acknowledges the process when talking about air quality and modes of transport:

“A densification of housing and urbanization means a certain increase in traffic. In addition to the area, there is well-developed public transport and cycle path.” – (Planhandling, 2013,

p. 34)

Kvalitetsprogrammet talks about transforming the old transport related area into a dense and mixed area. The densification would also serve to “create clear neighbourhoods and streets” in Lindholmshamnen, since the vacuous spaces makes it hard to identify the character of the neighbourhood. The RiverCity Vision highlights the ambition of the pulse and human activity in the new urban space:

“There should be activities and initiatives on squares, streets, quaysides and parks. There needs to be space for things large and small; for planned or spontaneous cultural events and

installations.” – (Vision Älvstaden, 2012, p. 15)

This is also argued for on the DP-level in the case of Lindholmshamnen. Kvalitetsprogrammet states that streets and squares should feel safe and attractive and also be used for recreation and meeting other people.

“The earlier transport related functions are converted and supplemented with new constructions containing offices, hotels, housing, shopping and between the buildings, the streets, squares and parks are becoming new urban spaces.” - (Kvalitetsprogram, 2013, p. 24)

The collected data not only identify changes and improvements in the urban structure as ways to achieve more accessibility. Improvement in public transport are also an important part of the analysed material. The first thing identified in the steering documents is the need to focus on public transport, which is identified by Översiktsplanen. Other objectives stated in most of the steering documents are increased attractiveness, good and faster connections, bigger availability, environmental-friendly vehicles, reduction of high energy individual transport and others. An example of the public transport Gothenburg wants to achieve is exemplified in many of the steering documents.

“The transport strategy will create the conditions for an attractive, efficient and sustainable transport system that supports urban development and makes inhabitants, visitors and

activities perceive Gothenburg as easily accessible.” – (Trafikstrategi, 2013, p. 29).

“As the regional centre grows, the need for efficient, accessible, public transport will increase.” – (Vision Älvstaden, 2012, p. 32).

The role of public transport as a way to reduce car use and other energy intensive means of transport is highlighted in Översiktsplanen:

“An expanded and reliable public transport system, which provides multiple travel options, is a prerequisite for reducing the need for individual transports with high energy

consumption.” - (Översikstplan, 2009, p. 61)

The DP-level documents briefly incorporate the role of public transport in their contents, being most prominent in Planhandlingen, which highlights the good connections of the area, the good access to public transport and infrastructure. The document highlights the busses and ferry connections and also the possibility of a tram connection in the future.

The interviewees also highlighted the good connectivity with the area through public transport, one of the interviewees stated:

“…you have very good public transport and we even have a ferry connection here and maybe

there will be a cable car eventually.”

One of the developers also highlighted the attractiveness of Lindholmshamnen on a public transport perspective:

“It’s going to be a very good area for mobility, all because we have quite good public transport in the area, we have the ferry across to the other side and hopefully we will have a

cable car being built close by”

This is however a conflict in the urban space context as being mentioned in the Trafikstrategi. Fast and effective public transport is jeopardizing the attractive urban space. However, in the context of the detail plan area Lindholmshamnen, public transport will not have that kind of direct impact on the urban space, since public transport is not planned inside the area.  

“There is a conflict of aims between fast public transport at the ground level and an attractive urban space – bus and tram lines create barriers and road safety risks. Increased

travelling means more frequent timetables, longer vehicles and larger stops, which also increases those effects.” – (Trafikstrategi, 2013, p. 34)

5.3 Theme 3: But what about the car?

A central aspect of the steering documents is that Gothenburg’s transport system needs a change in order to become more sustainable and the car is definitely thought to have a smaller role in the future. Trafikstrategin states that its impact goals imply a 25% reduction of the number of trips made by car in 2035 in comparison with the 2011 values. A huge challenge since the overall daily travel is thought to increase by 27% during the same period. It is easy to believe that the car will be heavily disfavoured and counteracted by forcing instruments because of this while some of the steering documents point out some measures that will directly negatively affect mobility by cars. Most of them concerning parking management. The prioritization of urban environments over surface parking is highlighted both by Trafikstrategin and Parkeringspolicyn.

“Surfaces like squares, green places, courtyards, certain streets, quaysides, etc. ought to be freed from car parking” – (Parkeringspolicy, 2009, p.13)

The latter one also points out that parking in street zones (gatumark) should be avoided and that the parking requirements for detailed development plans should be provided within development districts (kvartersmark) for the same reasons. It also suggests separation between homes and associated residential parking, where the parking facilities should be located on an equal or larger distance from the homes than the nearest public transport. Preferably also in joint facilities, which could reduce the overall demand for parking. Apart from parking management measures it is also suggested, both by the traffic strategy and the cycling programme, that cycling should generally have a higher priority over cars

“In areas where bicycle and motor vehicle traffic have to be mixed or intersect, bicycle traffic is given priority and speeds adapted to bicycle speeds” – (Trafikstrategi, 2009, p.33)

Besides this, there are few suggested forcing instrument that seek to decrease the usability and accessibility of cars in the steering documents of Gothenburg. However, this does not appear to be the aim of the overall strategy either and many documents highlight the importance of good accessibility with all modes of transport, including cars. It should be possible to access virtually all places with cars that can be accessed with other modes in a simple and reliable way. Overall, the message clearly is that the car will still be an important mode for travel in the future Gothenburg.

“Good opportunities to access different parts of the city with public transport, car and bicycle are basis for the accessibility” – (Parkeringspolicy, 2009, p.13)

“Road traffic still has a role to play in the city” – (Vision Älvstaden, 2012, p. 17)

But accessibility in this sense does not necessarily means fast accessibility. The introduction section of the transport strategy states that transport planning in Gothenburg should be target-led, rather than prognosis-based. As one of the informants on the steering document level explains, this could mean that an estimated increase in car traffic flows is not going to induce more investments in road infrastructure, as is the case within prognosis-based planning. Instead, investments will be done in other modes like cycling and public transport in order to make these more attractive and steer the mobility patterns towards a designated travel objective.

“Even if we see that a street is heavily submitted to congestion, which in prognosis-based planning would signal actions against this, our target-led planning means that we are going to have to live with this, we aren’t going to do anything about it. We will build cycling lanes

instead. Crassly speaking, it will take longer and longer time to drive your car because it will become more congested and then the alternative will become more interesting for every

single private citizen”

One thing still becomes apparent here: The strategy to achieve sustainable mobility in Gothenburg doesn’t include forcing instrument to a very large extent.

Many exemplifying connections from this can be made to the detailed development plan of Lindholmshamnen. The parking facilities designated for the residents will be located in the development districts in garages underneath the houses, away from greeneries, squares and courtyards, which goes well in line with some of the aforementioned directives in the parking policy. As pointed out by one of the developers, from an accessibility point of view, this solution is very beneficial for car use.

“It is perfect, you cannot get it much better, you drive straight from the street to a garage port, you drive down and take the elevator to your apartment”

The overall accessibility to the area in general could also be considered very good. Almost all the streets within the study area will allow car traffic, but for the most part in the form of walking pace areas, which means that the speed will be adapted to pedestrians and cyclist. In conclusion, the notion to provide door-to-door accessibility for car traffic, but on cyclists’ and pedestrians’ terms, in the spatial planning processes in Gothenburg could be regarded as greatly satisfied in Lindholmshamnen. There are however two observed measures that contradict some of the directives in the strategy documents. Firstly, the plan does allow some short-term parking on street. Secondly, the parking spaces for cars are much closer to the homes than to the nearest public transport stop. However, it should be noted that this is not possible to achieve inside the DP-area due to its, in this matter, small size. One of the developers also stated that the City of Gothenburg is very strict with the demand for parking facilities within the development districts.

“The municipality makes very clear demands on what to arrange within the development district”

The emphasization on improving infrastructure for more sustainable modes of transport in order to make them more competitive is also something that is evident in the detailed development plan, as mentioned in themes 1 and 2 and highlighted by many of the informants on both levels stressed as well.

“This is an area that is central, it is located right next to the river, a cable car is planned, it is intensive boat traffic, there are buses and a tram is planned. All these together forms

perfect conditions for a quite minimal need for the car”

5.4 Theme 4: The more the merrier?

One thing that became apparent during this project was the diversity that exist in the steering documents in the city of Gothenburg. For multiple reasons, this appear to create certain problems for planners in Gothenburg when they try to pursue the visions and implement the measures and directives outlined in them. A critique that arose during the interviews with the DP-level stakeholders concerns the fact that there are so many documents. Most of them are also very extensive, making them very hard for planners and city officials to grasp and overview, given the limited time that appears to be available for these types of activities.

In the day-to-day work you have very limited amount of time to sit down and read large thick documents, and I don’t think that those who work on a higher level either have that much

time for this”

Many of the objectives that were noted in this research project were very similar. However, they do sometimes highlight different perspectives and aspects of the importance to promote walking and cycling for example. Nonetheless, many of the steering documents gave an overall repetitive image in some respect. As an exemplification, these following objectives could be found within trafikstrategin alone.

“People have to perceive it as quick, simple and safe to commute to work by bicycle.” – (Trafikstrategi, 2013, p. 33)

“Nearby access to everyday functions creates the conditions for lively and attractive neighbourhoods, and vice versa. Transport planning contributes to these developments by

focusing on improvements for pedestrians and cyclists” – (Trafikstrategi, 2013, p. 37)

“The cyclist is also important in the city’s transport system. The bicycle is an efficient and fast means of transport that contributes to an attractive urban space with more life without

being noisy or polluting the air. Priority for cyclists in the urban space means that it is clear

where and how to cycle, and that the design of both paths and intersections are adapted to cyclists’ demands for ease of passage” – (Trafikstrategi, 2013, p. 45)

The steering documents are also very repetitive when comparing them to each other. Often the same objectives and formulations are found in several of them. They often start by outlining in detail the main directions for the urban development strategies in Gothenburg, which do take up substantial amount of space. Because of this, it has been suggested by a stakeholder at DP-level that some of them could have been combined together, especially since they were developed during roughly the same period of time.

“I think that these should be combined, there are quite many documents and many of them arrived at the same time, like the green strategy, the transport strategy and the development

strategy”

Another aspect that appear to make the application harder is that many of the steering documents heavily emphasize the visions and objectives that the spatial planning process should contribute to achieve. Making it virtually impossible to take all of them into consideration in individual development projects meaning that in every one of these projects compromises have to be done.

According to some informants, the emphasis on visions and objectives is a weakness because there are not any clear guidelines to follow. In addition, the large abundance of objectives makes it hard to achieve all of them. What could be implied from the interviews is that the interpretations and extensive prioritizations that have to be done in order to put the documents into practice will depend on individual planners, administrators and developers. Different informants in both levels expressed opinions on it, such as:

“I think that much could be gained on having a more clear-cut traffic strategy that would give a more clear-cut traffic principle in urban areas”

As it is now, it probably is a little serendipitous which matters that are being emphasized in different development projects, depending on the interest of the participants”

“The ones holding the pen have some influence on how to compromise, and it probably needs to be that way because if not, we won’t be able to build anything anywhere. In the end it is based on the individual, it needs to be good people who have understood and worked with

these questions in an ambitious way.”

Another related aspect is that every mode of transportation is not given equal attention on how to manage these in the steering documents of Gothenburg. Cycling, public transport and even trains have their own strategy document within the municipality, the last two in collaboration with the county council. A walking programme is also out on referral at the time for this research project. There is however no strategic document on the same level concerning cars, as is pointed out by one of the informants on steering document level. The

lack of directives in this matter also make a consistent approach hard to achieve and creates uncertainties. It is, along with the relatively sparseness of measures directly addressed to cars, also something that could negatively affect the transition towards a mobility pattern that is less dependent on cars for personal transport.

“If we really would have been serious about this, we would also have to make a car programme that states how the motoring will find its new, lower prioritized, role. This is equally important as it is to prioritize other modes of transport, and this we haven’t done

yet”

There is an exception among the steering documents however and that is Parkeringspolicyn. It appears as more concise and not that repetitive than the other steering documents reviewed in this research project. The reasons for this is unclear, but the fact that parking provision is a matter that the municipalities explicitly are responsible for according to the Planning and Building Act (SFS 2010:900). This makes this type of document much more common and established among urban municipalities throughout Sweden, and thus maybe more “standardized”. Due to Parkeringspolicyns relative clarity, it is a more appreciated steering documents among some of the stakeholders on steering document level.

“I do think that it is more precise in that it is more limited and more concrete … so in a way it is easier to handle and better as a steering document”

The many different administrations within the city of Gothenburg is also an aspect that adds this complexity. The City of Gothenburg has divided the spatial planning function into two departments; the City Planning Authority that is responsible for the comprehensive- and detailed development planning, and Urban Transport Authority that is responsible for mobility affairs in spatial planning. In addition to this, the different departments are also responsible for their own steering documents. This division appears to create problems for the coordination in the planning process, as one informant on DP-level expresses:

“All these authorities have their own steering documents, visions and strategies and so on. It works in theory, but in practice I don’t think that we have the ability to integrate this in a

good way so we lose much along the way”

This is also apparent in the detailed development plan investigated within this research project, according to one informant on that level:

“The detailed development plan hasn’t been unanimous with the traffic suggestion, and not only concerning parking, but also the footpaths, cycling paths, streets and car mooring. It is

unfortunate when the minicipality’s different documents aren’t concurrent”

In addition to the problem with multiple administrations involved in the detailed development process, the individual plans are often done in absence of a more general combining plan between the detailed development plan and the comprehensive plan, which result in “postage

stamp planning”. This means that it becomes harder to steer the development of an area in an overall designated direction. Many of the objectives, like the equivalent walking distance between residential parking and public transport stops, do in most cases require planning on a larger level of scale in order for them to be achievable. This might be one of the reasons why some stakeholders would favour more comprehensive planning on a city district level. One stakeholder on the steering document level stated:

“In many contexts and for many reasons it would be very beneficial if you could work out a structural plan for an area, before the initiation of detailed development plans or the land allocation agreement as in this case. I think that it should often come in this order, especially in central areas like Lindholmen”

6 Discussion

This chapter contains the analysis of the result in connection to theory as well as an more open discussion regarding the findings within this research project. The chapter is outlined based on the four themes that were identified using the thematic analyse, the same ones used when presenting the results.

6.1 Prioritizing pedestrians and cyclists

One of the most evident objectives according to the analysed material, both on steering document level and on the DP-level is to promote active modes of transport. On steering document level, the focus on creating urban spaces where streets that are adapted to lower traffic speeds and where it is both safe and appealing to walk, cycle and dwell is a reoccurring ambtition. At Lindholmshamnen and the development plans related to the area, one way of expressing this ambition is by planning many of the local streets as walking pace areas. This means that all modes of transportation in the area will be limited to the speed used by pedestrians. According to one of the interviewees, walking pace areas is probably something that will be positive for the residents living in the area due to the limitation and reduction of heavy traffic. This also goes in line with Wang et al. (2016) findings that more pedestrian friendly pathways is beneficial for promoting walking.

The use of walking pace areas within Lindholmshamnen could be seen as a contradiction between the ambition to create an effective street network with high and fast accessibility while still prioritizing pedestrians. However, the function between different streets differs and the main purpose of the streets within the blocks is not to go from point A to point B as fast as possible, but rather create a safe environment for pedestrians and residents. The speed and accessibility aspect might be more relevant for Götaverksgatan for instance, where separation of different modes of transportation becomes more important. One could therefore conclude that the use of walking pace areas is a good compromise between accessibility and prioritizing pedestrians.

Another evident finding in regards to prioritizing pedestrians and cyclists is that there sometimes is different views within the steering documents on how to do so. One reason for this can be that different documents have different purposes, and some have more concrete approaches than others. Within Cykelprogrammet, a connection is made to what is being said in for example Översiktsplanen, that walking and cycling should be promoted. They then develop this ambition and problematize it by stating that the two of them often are combined, and that a separation and more clear distinction between them are needed which also is supported within the scientific literature (see Wang et al., 2016). However, this is again something that has to be balanced with the street functions and their purpose. The separation between pedestrians and cyclists are therefore mainly something that could be relevant for Götaverksgatan within the study area, where this according to the development plan documents also are being planned for. However, Song et al. (2016) suggest that construction

of infrastructure that promotes biking and walking might not be sufficient alone and that people using that infrastructure already is leaning towards sustainable mobility patterns. It was stated in some of the interviews that some of the developers imagined that people moving in to their apartments was young adults, with little or no need at all for the use of the car, but also families. The car usage might be more important for families and the accessibility to the car is more or less important depending on what stage in the life you are in.

6.2 Planning for overall accessibility

The concept of accessibility is present in many of the documents and is a large concern from the regional to the neighbourhood level in the Gothenburg context. There is great interest to increase the levels of accessibility in the Gothenburg, which is usually recognized for its discontinuity and sprawled areas. One of the ideas behind redeveloping Lindholmen and the former shipyard area is precisely to densify and bring the city together as whole. Especially when it comes to a central location like Lindholmen with large undeveloped areas and closeness to the water.

Lindholmshamnen can be seen as an answer to the visions and needs demonstrated in the steering documents concerning accessibility. Several studies concerning urban planning point out that increased urban density and increased mixed use of land are important factors when planning for sustainable accessibility (Burton, Jenks & Williams, 1996; Williams, 2005; Wang et al, 2016) and the area contributes to both - firstly by increasing the amount of dwellings in the area, therefore increasing the land-use mix in a predominantly services and offices environment and secondly by increasing the density in the area (a former parking lot) by adding approximately 700 apartments to Lindholmen. One of the possible outcomes can be the increased possibility of not only residing and working in the area, but also having a bigger variety of services available on walking or cycling distance.

Another important factor highlighted in the steering documents is the need to improve public transport links around the city of Gothenburg. Accessibility from different areas differ considerably and the river is usually considered a barrier that needs to be overcome. In order to achieve the desired sustainable mobility, Lindholmshamnen needs to be served with effective public transport that will make it possible for the residents to reach other parts of the city fast and comfortably and ideally, that they will not need to use a car. Even though Lindholmshamnen has no public transport stops in its detailed development plan, it is important to highlight that it has several good connections by bus and ferry to the city centre and that there are different plans to increase the accessibility to the area with the possible construction of new tram lines and a cable car.

Spatial features that could increase the use of public transport can also be found within the DP-level documents. García-Palomares et al. (2018) highlight the importance of a short walking distance to the nearest public transport stop. The distance of 150 meters in the case of Lindholmshamnen implies that the prerequisites in this matter are good. The pathway to

the stops also runs in a straight line along Lindholmsallén. Apart the reduction in travel time that it creates, which is the most important feature for individuals choice of modes (Berge and Amundsen, 2001), this spatial structure also increases the likelihood that people will use the public transport system in comparison to a tortoise pathway with an equal distance (García-Palomares et al., 2018). In this sense it could be argued that the open block structure also benefits the usage of public transport because it allows for people to take shortcuts in a straight line through the area. This would not have been the case if the area had been designed in a closed block structure instead.

6.3 But what about the car?

Berge and Amundsen (2001) highlights that the most important attribute when choosing mobility mode is travel time. This implies that walking, cycling and public transport has to become equally fast as the car. Both in absolute- and perceived travel time in order to be truly competitive. Can this be achieved in Gothenburg? Maybe. The accessibility should indeed be maintained for car users, but with a speed that is adapted to pedestrians and cyclists, as is the case within large parts of Lindholmshamnen, which presumably also will improve the comfort and the perceived safety. This however probably requires larger parts of the city to be adapted in order to get more systematic effects throughout the city. Increased travel time due to increased levels of congestion that will not be counteracted within the new goal-oriented planning paradigm will future reduce the time disadvantage for the sustainable modes that exists in large parts of the city today (City of Gothenburg, 2013c).

However, an obvious fact about the development project of Lindholmshamnen is that it lacks one of the few forcing instruments directed at cars that are suggested by the steering documents. This is the equal distance between the parking facilities and the nearest public transport. If this would have been arranged, the parkings would had to be located at a distance of at least 150 meters from the residential buildings. This would have been far enough for the project to be able to take advantage of the benefits that is created by separation of the residential buildings and the related parking places, as is pointed out by Christiansen et al. (2015). The lack of separation also means that the potential synergy effects described by Christiansen et al. (2017) that could have been created with the density and mixed land use of the area is lost. However, as previously stated, this means that the parking facilities would have needed to be located outside the DP-area in order to fulfill this requirement. The combination of the fact that the municipality of Gothenburg is very strict and that most detailed development plan areas for residential housing are quite small, could mean that these two measures are quite hard to combine in reality. The fact that many of the detailed development plans are made in relative isolation with relatively few comprehensive perspectives, as is highlighted in the fourth theme as “postage stamp planning”, probably complicates the matter even further.

Due to the relative shortness of other instruments directly addressed to car use, a concluding statement can be said; the strategy to achieve sustainable mobility in Gothenburg is not to actively force the drivers out of their cars using spatial planning as a measure. The following

question becomes how the spatial planning process is going to help accomplish a less car dependent city if car travel is not going to be decreased by forcing regulations? The answer appears to be promotion and improvements of other modes of transport, which is broadly covered in almost all of the analysed steering documents. Through shorter distances and adaptation of the physical environment, modes like walking and cycling will become more competitive and provide a larger basis for public transport investments. All in all, the strategy for transition to more sustainable modes of travel emphasizes the carrot in a much larger extent than the stick and is thus based on voluntarism. The alternative modes will become so attractive that the inhabitant will want to shift away from car use. With the very good condition for sustainable travel, Lindholmshamnen will be a great testing site for this carrot weighted strategy. If the incentive to use sustainable modes of transport is proven to not be enough to voluntarily draw car users out of their vehicles, then the potential for the strategy to be successful in other parts of the city is probably low.

6.4 The more the merrier?

One notion that appeared in an early stage of the research project was the fact that the City of Gothenburg works with a large number, as well as different kinds, of steering documents aiming at giving clarification to how the city should be developed. Another thing that became apparent when finding relevant stakeholders was that there is also many different actors, both within the municipal organization in forms of different administrations but also external actors such as developers, all of which in different ways affect the spatial planning of areas such as Lindholmshamnen. The fact that there are many documents as well as many actors have been mentioned by interviewees. When it comes to the vast content in steering documents, both in regard to number and quantity, there seems to be a general agreement that the large amount of information in combination with limited amount of time is troublesome. In order to really get a comprehensive view of the visions and objectives outlined in the documents, one could ask if there is a need for them to be that sizeable. Reducing the repetitiveness within the documents, and maybe even combine a few, could make it easier to work with these in the detail development planning.

In addition to the fact that it is hard to get a good overview of the city's visions and objectives, the great amount makes it hard, or even impossible, to achieve all of them everywhere. Within the steering documents, mobility modes and aspects are differently approached and related to. Some, such as cycling and parking, are more clear due to that documents such as Cykelprogrammet and Parkeringspolicyn provide for more detailed information, while programs regarding pedestrians or car-use are currently not available. The many different administrations within the city of Gothenburg, and the fact that they have their own steering documents, is also an aspect that adds to the complexity of a combined spatial planning. This was also highlighted by one of the interviewees; that it ultimately creates problems when integrating this into a single plan for an area, like Lindholmshamnen.

Persson (2013) argues that the road to sustainability within spatial planning is filled with compromises, and that these are not in a transparent and open way described. With the

amount of sustainability goals, steering documents and actors affecting the process of spatial planning in the City of Gothenburg, it becomes quite clear that compromises are needed in order to execute plans and actions. In one way, it could be favorable to facilitate and clarify how these compromises should be done. In another way, that relates to what one of the interviewees expresses; to have trust in that the planners of the city do their best to interpret objectives and make compromises that are good for all, might just be as important as having clear-cut descriptions.

7 Conclusion

The aim with this project was to investigate the connections between steering documents and planning in the pursuit of achieving sustainable mobility. Initially, we thought that there would be difficult to see a clear interaction between the levels. However, the connection between the different steering documents turned out to, in some cases, be more unclear than between the levels. What was found was that the main objectives were the prioritization of cyclists and pedestrians, the increase in accessibility in the city and an eventual reduction in the car’s role in the transport system. Several of the objectives within the steering document level could be seen expressed in the detail development plan of Lindholmshamnen, such as the walking pace street that prioritizes pedestrians, the maintenance of the accessibility by car but at the same time seeking to reduce the travels made by car. Another example is the clear focus on building dense areas and enable for mixed-use areas. Within the car theme it was clear that the City of Gothenburg did not want to reduce accessibility, but to reduce the travels made with cars. However, it was identified in the research that no concrete measures are being taken to discourage car use, the closeness to parking spaces is an example of this. Instead, it could be seen that it was preferred to increase and stimulate other modes of transport in Lindholmshamnen.

During the research, it became clear that the amount of both documents and actors sometimes became a problem. Even though it was not as clearly connected to the aim, it still felt like a contributing aspect to address. One of the findings was that, even though some of the objectives could be seen expressed, compromises and prioritizations were made in both levels. The flexibility of how to interpret and use sustainable mobility objectives was both regarded to as positive and negative. How these compromises are made, and if the planning system and documents used within the City of Gothenburg are really efficient in achieving their goals could be an interesting aspect for future investigations. To see if the interaction between steering documents and the detail development of Lindholmshamnen regarding sustainable mobility is done in a good way or not, a comparison with another detailed planned area can also be useful for further research. In addition, a study on the success of the policies after the implementation in the area are interesting to be assessed in further research.

Spatial planning is just one way of addressing sustainable mobility. In reality, all of the driving forces are interconnected and hard to divide. Aspects such as economy, society and technological improvements and how these will develop or change, will have a big impact on how to address sustainable mobility within spatial planning. It should also be reminded that the concept of sustainability is an ongoing and changing process, not a fixed state. Therefore, what is sustainable today may not be sustainable tomorrow, but we should always continue to pursue it.

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9 Appendix

9.1 Appendix A - Description of steering documents

Based on the guidelines regarding steering documents provided by the City of Gothenburg (City of Gothenburg, n.d.e.), a short description of each form that are of relevance to this research project is described below.

VisionA vision is a concise strategic document aiming at describing a desirable future state, capturing common interests and serves as a motivation guiding principle. A vision should not contain targets, nor state any course of action for execution, measures or methods. It may contain a few long-term and comprehensive strategies.

ProgramA program is a strategic document aiming at establishing a political will for what is to be achieved within a certain area, geographically or operationally, for a period of time. Programs should contain a few goals and indicate priority strategies or orientations on how to achieve the objectives. A strategy is defined as a long-term approach for achieving long-term goals or realization of a vision. When strategies are set, plans to operationalize these can be made. According to the guidelines, programs and strategic documents are basically the same, even if both terms often are used when naming documents. Programs should not go into detail on implementation or contain any new visions.

PlanA plan should specifically state what should be achieved within a certain area for a period of time. A plan should indicate what activities, actions and measures to use and possibly also how to use them. A plan should clearly state who or whom that is responsible for the implementation and when. Plans may constitute the concretization and operationalization of e decided program, or to realize a vision, but there are different varieties of plans depending on the function for different occasions. A plan may contain a few goals and associated indicators.

PolicyA policy should be a concise and comprehensive document that provides values and basic principles for controlling the City of Gothenburg's actions in a particular area. A policy should not provide any fixed rules but contribute with principles that serves as guidance in a particular area. If necessary, a policy can be concretized by underlying regulatory steering documents, such as guidelines. A policy should not contain targets and is applicable until further notice but should be reviewed on a regular basis.

9.2 Appendix B - Documents used for analysis

Steering document-level

Översiktsplan (adopted 2009)Shows how the municipality wants water and ground areas to be used and acts as a guidance for decisions within the municipality and other departments. It contains three parts and is adopted by the City Council. Part 1 and part 3 have been used in this project.

Trafikstrategin (adopted 2014)Based on the Översiktsplan together with Grönstrategin and Strategi för utbyggnadsplanering and acts as a base for implementations and actions for future plans and programmes regarding traffic. Adopted by the Urban Transport Comittee

Vision Älvstaden (adopted 2012)Acts as a basis for future work regarding the development of RiverCity Gothenburg. It provides a guidance for a sustainable development of the area and was commissioned by the City Council under the leadership of the City Executive Board.

Parkeringspolicy (adopted 2009) Developed in a collaboration between City Planning Authority, Urban Transport Administration, Göteborgs Stads Parkering AB, Property Management Administration and Environmental Administration and adopted by the City Council. Sets the direction for how changed preconditions for parking should be handled and how the accessibility to different parts of the city should be catered for through parkings.

Cykelprogram (adopted 2015)Acts as a deepening and concretization of Trafikstrategin. It emphasizes the need of a holistic approach to the development of cycle city Gothenburg.

Detail development-level

Planhandling (adopted 2013)The detail development plan for the area of Lindholmshamnen.

Kvalitetsprogram (adopted 2013)Quality program for the detail development area of Lindholmshamnen. The aim is first and foremost to ensure social, architectonic and environmental qualities in order to create an attractive area.

Samrådsredogörelse (2013)

Consultation report on the consultation held with stakeholders regarding the detail develop plan of Lindholmshamnen.

Utställningsutlåtande (2013)Opinions from the exhibition of the suggested detail development plan of Lindholmshamnen.