chapter 6 qualitative and unobtrusive measures. qualitative measures qualitative research is any...
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CHAPTER 6
Qualitative and Unobtrusive Measures
Qualitative Measures
Qualitative research is any research that relies primarily or exclusively on qualitative measures
Qualitative research (i.e., measures) used to: Generate new theories or hypotheses Achieve a deep understanding of an issue Develop detailed stories to describe a phenomenon
Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Qualitative data consists of “words” Quantitative data consists of “numbers” All qualitative data can be coded quantitatively All quantitative data is based on qualitative
judgment
Qualitative Data
Includes any information that can be captured that is not numerical in nature (Miles & Huberman, 1994)
In-depth interviews (individual and group) Direct observation (respondent is not queried) Written documents (existing documents)
Qualitative Traditions
Ethnography studying a phenomenon in the context of its culture
Phenomenology studying how a phenomenon is experienced by participants
Field Research researcher observes a phenomenon in its natural state (“in
situ”) Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
to develop a theory (“grounded” in observation) about a phenomenon of interest
Qualitative Methods
Participant observation researcher becomes a participant (i.e., member) in the culture
being observed Direct observation
researcher not a member of the culture being studied but remains unobtrusive
Unstructured interviewing direct interaction between the researcher and respondent; no
structured interview or set direction Case studies
intensive study of a specific individual or specific context
Table 6-3 Criteria for Judging Research Quality from a More Qualitative Perspective
Traditional Criteria for Judging Quantitative
Research
Alternative Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research
Internal validity Credibility
External validity Transferability
Reliability Dependability
Objectivity Confirmability
Quality of Qualitative Research
Credibility establishing that the results are credible from the perspective of the
participant Transferability
degree to which results can be generalized to other contexts Dependability
description by the researcher of changes within the context that the research occurs and how these might affect conclusions
Confirmability degree to which others can confirm or corroborate the results
Unobtrusive Measures
Indirect Measures The researcher collects data without the
participant being aware of it Attention must be paid to ethical considerations
Possibility of deception Invasion of privacy No informed consent
Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
Content Analysis Systematic analysis of text in order to identify
patterns Thematic analysis of text Indexing Quantitative descriptive analysis
Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
Content Analysis (cont’d) May involve sampling from the population of
potential texts Identification of units of analysis Coding of units of analysis Limitations
Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
Secondary Analysis of Data Re-analysis of quantitative data May involve combining information from multiple
data sets Can be used for replication or to subject data to
other, more sophisticated analyses Limitations
Not everything that can be counted counts, and not everything that counts can be countedAlbert Einstein
Qualitative Research – some issues
What do you know about Qualitative Research? What have you heard or read about qualitative
research? Easy to do Not scientific Subjective
What do you know about Qualitative Research? What have you heard or read about qualitative
research? Inductive: Finding a theory to explain one’s findings Interactive research compared to quantitative:
spending time with respondents versus “drive byes.” Data collection methods can be somewhat involved
Credibility of Qualitative Inquiry
Dependent on three distinct but related inquiry elements: Rigorous methods
fieldwork = yields high quality data – which are systematically analyzed with attention to issues of credibility
Credibility of the researcher Dependent on training, experience, track record
Philosophical belief in the value of qualitative inquiry naturalistic inquiry, qualitative methods , inductive
analysis, purposeful sampling, holistic thinking
Comparing Quantitative & Qualitative Methodologies Which research methodology is represented by
these characteristics (Qual. or quant.)? Purpose of the study Pose problem/ raise Questions Define research population Develop time frame Collect & analyze data Present outcomes
Data Collection
Once you have identified that a qualitative methodology best fits your research question, there are numerous data collection strategies to select from….
Some considerations: Full & unqualified consent Site selection: Can be difficult. Knowing someone can help
get you in Should have more than one way of collecting data –
triangulation Establishing trust
Data Collection
Some considerations: Access:
Unqualified access = total access to the research site Qualified access = might need to select another research
site/participants Informants: insider who knows environment/politics Gate keepers (e.g. principal; dept chair, Ad) Negotiating: Notes/data belong to you/respondent = confidentiality What will you deliver??? Drafts of research writing, final paper, Entering with a problem statement does not mean that it will
remain the same throughout the data collection Emergent possibilities
Fieldwork
Possibilities & Pitfalls Anxiety producing Safe places Being unobtrusive
Researcher wants to be sure not to call attention to self…blending in is important…those observed should not even know your are there after a while
Did you come in with preconceived opinions?
Fieldwork
Possibilities & Pitfalls Establishing & Maintaining rapport
Rapport: Appearance, speech, behavior, must be acceptable to research participants
Know the others’ language Nonjudgmental Inoffensive Patient Sense of humor CONFIDENTIALITY
Subjectivity
Fieldwork
Observations How long are you going to be in the field? Field notes? Videotape?
Can be highly problematic in schools
Data Collection Types/Aspects
Participant-Observation (wide range of possibilities) Helps researcher develop “trusted person” status Allows researcher to observe how observed person’s
actions correspond to observed person’ words Allows researcher to see the unexpected Assists in the development of interview questions –
connecting to known behaviors you have observed
Data Collection Types/Aspects
Continuum of Participant-Observation: Mostly observation to mostly participation Where on the continuum you place yourself is directly
related to the questions you are asking, context of study, and your theoretical framework
Main Goal of Participant-Observation: To understand the research setting, participants and their behaviors
Data Collection Types/Aspects
Participant-Observation Process: Systematic observation & detailed recordings of
environment Constant analysis of observations – “What’s
happening here?” Evidence of personal bias: Am I being judgmental?
Data Collection Types/Aspects
Observation General methods…
Studying the setting Describing it in detail “Making the familiar strange.” What do you notice about the participants in their natural
settings? interactions? Comparing their words/beliefs to their
actions Non verbal feedback? Gestures?
Field notes
Notebook form Needs to be detailed & thorough Time consuming when done correctly Descriptive and analytic
Field notes
Field notebook – primary recording tool (confidential) Describes environment, people, events, activities,
interactions, researcher ideas, reflections, questions, exploring researcher bias
After observation, researcher returns to notes to complete detailed summaries and expand upon observations
Descriptive and analytic: Accuracy without being judgmental Such detail that you can visualize the moment a year later
Field Notes
Poor example of Field Notes: “The class was disorderly and noisy”
Good example of Field Notes: “The 5th grade class contained 15 girls and 12 boys.
When I entered they were in groups of 6. One group of 4 girls were trying to see who could blow the biggest bubble with their gum. A group of 5 boys began imitating a martial arts movie they had seen on TV…”
Field Notes
Analytic Notes: Observer comments
Observer Comments to researcher – informal statements the respondent makes
Daily reflection Thoughts, concerns the researcher has with the setting,
study, emerging themes, etc. Researcher acknowledges feelings, problems, ideas,
etc.
Interviewing
Questions: Should be reflective of observations
What did you learn as a participant-observer? Developing questions - Where should your questions
come from? Format? RAPPORT Structured? Open Ended? Probing? Non- Verbal Messages from respondent
Interviewing
Requires skill and practice Types of questions asked (Patton, 2002)
Experience and behavior interview questions: What respondents do or have done
Opinion and value questions: How respondents think about their behaviors and experiences
Feeling questions: Questions that elicit how respondents react emotionally to or feel about their experiences and opinions
Continued…
Interviewing
Types of questions asked (Patton, 2002) Knowledge questions: What respondents know about their
worlds Sensory questions: elicit descriptions of what and how they
see, hear, touch, taste, smell the world around them Background and demographic questions: Quest. That elicit
respondents’ descriptions of themselves
Interviewing
Other aspects of interviews Key informants: possess special knowledge
May add information that researcher would otherwise not have access too.
Can sensitize the researcher to aspects of the particular culture being investigated
Possibilities of interviews: rich data, etc. Possible pitfalls:
Interruptions redirecting poor questions researchers inability to follow up/probe
Interviewing
Sequencing of Questions facilitates completeness/comprehensiveness
Interviewing is not for everyone Nature of interactions will change Strengths/weaknesses Need to be a good listener
Documents
Interviewing
Where will interview occur? A convenient location for respondent? When will you meet? Time of day is important- tired /rushed How long do you anticipate it will last? How often will you meet? Audiotaped? Interruptions? Transcribing interviews-long , but meaningful process
Documents: Curricular guides, newsletters, transcripts – corroborate
observations/findings LEADING TO trustworthiness
Data Analysis
Organizing what you have seen, heard, and read, so that you can make sense of what you have learned.
Ongoing throughout study: permits researcher to focus and shape the study as it
proceeds Rudimentary Coding Scheme
Counting or enumerating items means they must defined and located within data records
Categorizing; dividing & subdividing Field notes are coded, audiotapes are coded
Data Analysis
Voluminous Computer programs Trustworthiness (Reflect on data –What is data
telling you?) TRIANGULATION of data sources
Use of multiple data collection techniques = data collected in 1 way can be cross checked for accuracy with another
Prevents researcher from accepting to readily the validity of initial impressions
Assists in correcting biases that occur when the researcher is the only observer
Data Analysis
Trustworthiness (continued) Observations, interviews, documents, etc. Researcher bias – continual alertness Peer debriefer
someone who reads your field notes, transcriptions, interpretations
Member Checks data sources provided to participants for their review,
comments, expansion of thoughts
Telling the Story
Maintaining confidentiality – Highest priority “Writing is a political act” (Glesne & Peshkin):
Intended and Unintended consequences Can respondents be subjected to unwanted publicity? Keeping at it….
Include…Narratives/vignettes/direct quotations … support the claims one makes in their findings