Table of Contents1. Epistemological and ontological positions ................................ ................................ .................. 1 Research designs................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 3 1.1 Ethical principles ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 5

Quantitative research ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 6 1.2 Reliability and validity ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 7

Sampling ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 8 1.3 1.4 Sample size ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 9 Non-probability sampling................................ ................................ ................................ .... 9

Structured interviews................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 10 Coding................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 10 1.5 Problems with structured interviewing ................................ ................................ ............. 12

Self-completion questionnaires................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 12 1.5.1 Steps to improve response rates ................................ ................................ ............... 13

Asking questions ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 13 1.6 1.7 Types of questions ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 14 Piloting and pre-testing questions................................ ................................ ..................... 15

Structured observation ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 16 Secondary Analysis and official statistics ................................ ................................ .......................... 17 Qualitative research ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 18 1.11 1.12 Main research methods associated with qualitative research................................ ............ 18 Main steps in qualitative research................................ ................................ ..................... 19 Grounded theory ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 19

1.12.1 1.13

Reliability and validity in qualitative research................................ ................................ .... 19 Alternative criteria for evaluating qualitative research ................................ .............. 19

1.13.1

1. Epistemological and ontological positionsEmpiricism Knowledge gained through experience Deduction Theory -> Hypothesis -> Data collection -> Findings -> Hypothesis confirmed/rejected -> Revision of theory Induction Observations/findings -> Theory

Epistemological positions Positivism Advocates application of natural science methods to study of social reality.y y y y

Only knowledge confirmed by senses can be warranted as knowledge (phenomenalism) Purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested (deductivism) Knowledge is arrived at through the gathering of facts that provide the basis for laws (inductivism) Science must be conducted value free (objective)

Realism Natural and social science should apply the same approach to data collection/explanation (same as positivism). There is an external reality.y y

Empirical realism Through the use of appropriate methods, reality can be understood. Critical realism We will only be able to understand and change the social world if we identify the structures at work that generate those events and discourses.

Interpretivism Verstehen, hermeneutic-phenomenological tradition and symbolic interactionism. Difference between people and the objects of the natural sciences must be respected. Scientist must grasp subjective meaning of social action. Ontological positions Objectivism Social phenomena confront us as external facts that are beyond our reach or influence (social phenomena are independent of social actors). Constructionism (constructivism) Social phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors. Paradigms Objectivist There is an external viewpoint which the organization can be viewed from. Subjectivist An organization is a socially constructed product. Can only be understood by the point of view of individuals. Purposes of scientific research within paradigms. Regulatory Purpose of business research is to describe what goes on in organizations. Radical Make judgments how organizations should be and how to achieve this. Functionalist Framework based on problem-solving orientation which leads to rational explanation. Interpretative Questions whether organizations exist beyond social actors, thus it must be explained through their experience. Radical humanist Views organization as a social arrangement. Radical structuralist Views organization as a product of structural power relationships.

Quantitative research Deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research. Testing theories. Incorporated practices and norms of the natural scientific model (positivism in particular). Views social reality as external, objective reality.

Qualitative research Emphasize on inductive approach. Generation of theories. Rejects practices and norms of the natural scientific model. Emphasis on how individuals interpret their social world. Views social reality as constantly shifting emergent property of individuals creation.

Reliability Results of a study are repeatable. Whether the measure is stable or not. Replication Replicate the findings of others. The procedures must have been spelled out in great detail. Validity Measurement (construct) Does the measure really reflect the concept it is supposed to? Internal Relates to causality. Whether a conclusion that incorporates a causal relationship between two or more variables holds water. Factor that has causal impact = independent variable, effect = dependent variable. External Whether the results of the study can be generalized beyond the specific research context. Ecological Whether or not social findings are applicable to people s everyday life, natural social setting. The more social scientists intervene in natural settings or create unnatural ones, the more likely the findings will be ecologically invalid. Hawthorne studies. Trusworthiness Credibility - = internal validity; how believable are the findings? Transferability - = external validity; do the findings apply to other contexts? Dependability - = reliability; are the findings likely to apply at other times? Confirmablility - = objectivity; has investigators values intruded to a high degree?

Naturalism View all objects of study (whether natural or social) to belong to the same realm/Being true to the nature of the phenomenon being investigated/Style of research that seeks to minimize intrusion of artificial methods of data collection.

2. Research designsClassic experimental design and validity Control group Eliminate possible rival explanations of a causal finding. Eliminate threats to internal validity.

y y y y y

Testing Subjects may become sensitized to the aims of the experiment (experimenter effect) History Make sure independent variable produces the change Maturation People change which may have implications for independent variable Selection Differences between two groups if they were selected non-randomly Ambiguity about the direction of causal influence Temporal sequence unclear, thus not possible to establish which variable affects the other

Threats to external validity, hence generalizabilityy y y y y

Interaction of selection and treatment To what social/psychological groups can a finding be generalized? Ethnicity, gender, social class etc. Interaction of setting and treatment Can the results of the study be applied to other settings? Interaction of history and treatment Can the findings be generalized to past and future? Interaction effects of pre-testing Subjects may become sensitized to the experimental treatment due to the pre-test. Reactive effects of experimental arrangements Awareness of people participating may influence how they respond

Quasi-experiments Studies with certain characteristics of experimental designs but do not fulfill all the internal validity requirements. Cross sectional design Often called social survey design. Surveys, structured observation, content analysis, official statistics and diaries are employed. Nomothetic statements are generated that apply regardless of time and place.y y y y

Collection of data on more than one case Researchers are interested in variation Single point in time in Data on variables of interest are collected simultaneously Collect a body of quantitative or quantifiable data Establish variation between cases Pattern association It is only possible to examine relationships between variables. Problem establishing direction of causal influence

Replicability To the degree that the researcher spells out procedures for selecting respondents, designing measures of concepts, administration of research instruments and the analysis of data . Internal validity Is typically weak since it is difficult to establish causal direction from the resulting data. External validity Is strong when the sample to collect data from has been randomly selected. Ecological validity May be jeopardized by the research instruments (self-completion questionnaires and structured observation schedules) since they disrupt the natural habitat . Longitudinal design

Used to map change. In terms of reliability, replication and validity it is similar to cross-sectional research. Panel study A sample, often randomly selection national, is focus of data collection on at least two occasions. Cohort study Cohort of people who share a certain characteristic are focus of data collection. Longitudinal designs are better able to deal with problems of ambiguity about the direction of causal influence that plague cross-sectional research. Case study design Detailed and intensive analysis of a single case.Single organization/location/person/event. Case study provides a vehicle through which several qualitative methods can be combined, thereby avoiding too great reliance on one single approach. The way they have been designed is heavily influenced by the epistemological tradition of positivism. Idiographic approach Researcher tries to elucidate the unique features of the case. Intrinsic cases Gain insight into particularities of a situation Instrumental cases Focus on using the case as a means of understanding a broader issue or allowing generalizations to be challenged. Particularization rather than generalization is the strength. Case study research is not representative for general cases but good at developing a deep understanding of one case. Types of casesy y y y y

Critical case Clearly stated hypothesis and the researcher uses the case to understand under which circumstances the hypothesis will hold and not. Unique case Common focus in clinical studies Revelatory case Opportunity to observe and analyze a phenomenon previously inaccessible to scientific investigation Representative or typical case exemplifies and everyday situation Longitudinal case How a situation changes over time.

Ethical principlesy

y

Harm to participants o Physical harm, harm to development of self-esteem, stress, career prospects or future employment, inducing to reprehensible acts. o Make sure individuals and organizations are not identified or identifiable. > Use pseudonyms Lack of informed consent o Disguised or covert observation where researcher s true identity is unknown. Participants are not given the opportunity to refuse to cooperate.

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es e y e e ese c cess se v ec es ec e e e ve o Diffic ies Eve y single iece f information is diffic lt to give When participants are aware of the researcher it is unlikely that all are similarly informed about the nature of the research. Invasion of privacy o Personal information concerning research participants should be kept confidential Deception is involved o When research is presented as something other than what it is o Researcher may want to do this to get participants to act more naturally o Knowledge might bias the respondent s subse u ent behavior

3. Qu

itative researcElaborate theory Devise hypothesis

Con pt building block of theory that represent the points around which business research is conducted. If a concept is employed in quantitative research it will have to be measured. Dependent/independent variable

Select research design Device measures of concepts Select research site(s) Select research subjects/respondents

Administer research instruments/collect data Process data Analyse data Develop findings/conclusions Write up findings/conclusion

nt allows us to delineate fine M su differences. Gives us consistent device or yardstick for making distinctions Ability to be consistent over time and with other researchers. Provides basis for more precise estimates of the degree of relationship between concepts (correlation). In order to give an operational definition to a concept it is necessary to have an indi to . Can be devised through: question observation schedule (recording of behavior) official statistics e amination of mass media content

It may be preferable to use multiple indicators and have a number of questions in an interview to tap a concept. Problem with single indicator y Incorrectly classify many individuals

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One indicator may capture only a portion of the underlying concept, or be too general Cannot make as fine distinctions

Reliability and validityReliability Consistency of measures Stability Measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables. Perform test-retest method and find high correlation between two observations. Internal reliability Indicators may not relate to the same thing lack coherence. Can be tested by split-half metodwhere correlation between two halves of indicators are calculated. Inter-observer consistency

Validity Whether a measure of a concept really measures that conceptFace validity Whether the measure reflects the content of the concept in question. Asking other people (experienced and with expertise) Concurrent validity Measuring job satisfaction with a criterion (that is relevant and known to differ) employed (absenteeism). To establish concurrent validity we check if people that are more satisfied are less likely to be absent. If lack of correspondence -> the measure might not be addressing job satisfaction. Predictive validity Future criterion (instead of contemporary as in concurrent validity). Construct validity Deduction of hypotheses from a theory that is relevant to the concept. Convergent validity Measure compared to measures of the same concept developed through other methods. If a measure is not reliable, it cannot be valid.

Preoccupations of quantitative researchers Measurement Carries a number of advantages. Validity and reliability a concern.Causality Not merely concerned about describing how things are but to say why things are the way they are. Independent and dependent variables -> causes and effects. Independent variable Manipulated when the experimental design is being employed. Generalization To say that the findings can be generalized beyond the confinces of the particular context in which the research was conducted.

Probability sampling Researchers seek to generate representative sample to eliminate bias (the sampling is random) Replication Results should be unaffected by the researcher special characteristics and expectations. Important to be highly explicit about the procedures.

Criticism of quantitative research y Fail to distinguish people and social institutions from the world of nature o Turning blind eye to the differences between the social and natural world. People interpret the world around them which objects of natural science don t. y The measurement process possesses an artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy o Measurement by fiat , E.g. respondents are presumed to interpret the key terms of a question similarly y Reliance on instruments and procedures hinders the connection between research and everyday life o Methods rely heavily on administering research instruments to subjects or controlling situations to determine their effects. y The analysis of relationships between variables creates a static view of social life that is independent of people s lives o Interpretivist epistemological (meaning from individual s point of view) orientation and constructionist ontology (social world is product of individuals, not something beyond them)

4. SamplingBiased sample One that does not represent the population from which the sample was selected. Non-probability/non-random sampling Human judgment will affect the selection process Inadequate sampling frame Not comprehensive or inadequate ->Cannot represent the population Non-response Those who choose to participate may in some way differ from those that don t Sampling error over/underrepresentation of a variable in the sample

Simple random sampling 1. Define population (N) 2. Select/device comprehensive sampling frame 3. Decide sample size (n) 4. Randomize Systematic sample Take every 1 out of 20 employees

Stratified random sampling Sample exhibits proportional representation of e.g. the different departments of a firm. Population is stratified by a criterion and a simple random/systematic sample is selected from each strata. Multi-stage cluster sampling Primary sampling unit is not the units of the population to be sampled but groupings of those units. These aggregations are known as clusters.y y

group 100 largest UK companies by market capitalization sample one company of each of the twelve SIC categories etc.

Sample sizeAffected by time and cost. It is the absolutesize of the sample that is important, not the relative size. Increased sample size = increased precision (sampling error decreases) The more heterogeneous a population is the larger sample is needed.

Non-probability samplingSamples that don t use probability sampling

Convenience sampling Sample is available to the researcher by virtue of its accessibility. May be impossible to generalize the finding because we don t know what population the sample represents.Probability sampling involves a lot of preparation, so it is often avoided because of the difficulty and cost.

Snowball sampling y Initial contact with small group of people relevant to the topic and then uses these to establish contact with others. y In no sense random. It is very unlikely that the sample will be representative of the population. y Better fit with theoretical sampling of qualitative research Quota sampling y Used intensively in commercial research y Sample is produced that reflects a population in terms of relative proportions of people in different categories (age, gender, ethnicity, religion etc)Criticismy y y y

Choice is left to interviewer, may be unduly influenced by perceptions -> cannot be representative People may not be typical (underrepresentation of full-time workers etc) Interviewer makes judgments about characteristics which sometimes will be incorrect Difficult to assign people to a certain class

y

Impossible to calculate standard error etc

Arguments in favory y y y y y

Cheaper and quicker than probability sampling Don t have to call back to people that did not answer Easier to manage since you don t have to call back Much faster Usefully employed in relation to exploratory work from which new theoretical ideas can be generated Probability samples may be biased too

Generalization Even when probability sampling has been employed the findings can only be generalzed to the i population from which the sample was taken. Error in survey research y Sampling error Unlikely one will end up with truly representative sample y Non-sampling error Arises from activities related to the sampling process (inaccurate sampling frame and non-response) y Data collection error poor question wording, poor interviewing technique, etc. y Data processing error faulty management of data, errors in coding of answers

5. Structured interviewsError has an adverse effect on validity of a measure Intra-interviewer variability Interviewer is not consistent in the way questions are asked/answers recorded Inter-interviewer variability Interviewers are not consistent with each other about questions/recording of answers Closed question Respondent is given a limited choice of possible answers. Potential for interviewer variability is reduced. Facilitate processing of data. Open question answers need to be sifted and coded so that the data can be analyzed quantitatively

Coding Introduces another source of error, coding framemay be flawed.Intra-coder variability coder varies over time Inter-coder variability coders differ from each other Presence of a second interviewer is unlikely to add value.

Telephone y Cheaper and quicker y Geographically dispersed sample is possible y Easier to supervise than personal interview y Respondents replies will not be affected by interviewer characteristics to the same extentLimitationsy y y y y y y y y

Lower-income household don t own a telephone, some people may be ex-directory Length of phone interviews cannot be as long as personal interviews Slightly lower response rate than personal Fare less well for the asking of sensitive questions Mobile phones, answerphones etc Telephone interviewers cannot engage in observation Difficult to ascertain if the correct person is replying Cannot employ visual aids Quality of data may be lower

Introduce the research credible rationale Tips:y y y y y

Be prepared to call back if respondent is not available Be self-assured, may increase response if you presume they agree Reassure that you are not a sales person Dress in a way that is acceptable Find a time that suits the respondent

Rapport Establish relationship quickly so that the respondent wants to participate. Cues of friendliness and smiling, eye contact

Probing Standardized probes Tell a bit more about that , Any reasons you think that? , Mmmmm . Repeat fixed choice alternatives to make it apparent that one must be chosen Don t try to guess a number from something the respondent said (don t put the numbers in his mouth) Prompting Occurs when the interviewer suggest a possible answer to a question to the respondent. All respondents must be given the same prompts!Unacceptable to ask open question and then prompt possible answers to only some.

Critical incident method Asking respondents to describe critical incidents.Analysis of near-disaster situations.

Projective methods, pictoral and photo elicitation Inkblots, sentence-completion test, express how they see the identity of the organization by drawing pictures Verbal protocol Think aloud while they perform a task. Elicit the respondents thought processes while they make a decision or judgment or solving a problem. Repertory grid technique Identify the interpretative process whereby an individual constructs meaning in relation to his/her social context.

Problems with structured interviewingCharacteristics of interviewer Ethnicity (people asked by black interviewer more likely to mention black actors) Response bias People respond to series of questions in a consistent way but one that is irrelevant to the concept being measured. Acquiescence Tendency to consistently agree/disagree with a set of questions or items. Social desirability bias Answers to questions are related to their perception of the social desirability to those answers. Frame question; imagine what a peer might do instead of what respondent would do. Problem of meaning When humans communicate they draw on meanings and simultaneously create meanings.

6. Self-completion questionnairesQuestions have to be easy to answery y y

Fewer open question Easy-to-follow designs to minimize risk of failure to follow filter questions Shorter to reduce respondent fatigue

Advantages of self-completion over structured interviewy y y y y

Cheaper to administer Quicker to administer Absence of interviewer effect (social desirability, sensitive subjects, interviewer characteristics) No interviewer variability Convenience for respondents

Disadvantagesof self-completion over structured interview

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Cannot prompt no one present to help if respondent have difficulties Cannot probe no opportunity to elaborate an answer Cannot ask many questions that are not salient to respondents More likely to become tired Difficult asking other kinds of questions (avoid complex structures such as filter) Questionnaire can be read before answering first question -> answers not independent Do not know who answers Cannot collect additional data Difficult to ask lots of questions Not appropriate for some kinds of respondents Greater risk of missing data Lower response rates

Steps to improve response rates y Write good covering letter, explaining reasons for research, importance, why recipient was selected, sponsorship, guarantee confidentiality y Provide stamped addressed envelope y Reminders work, send to non-respondents in two weeks y Shorter questionnaires tend to achieve better response rates y Clear instructions and attractive layout y Do not allow questionnaire to appear unnecessarily bulky y Begin with more interesting questions y Should comprise as few questions as possible y Provide monetary incentivesDo not cramp presentation attractive layout is important! Make sure it is easy on the eye Vertical format more clearly distinguishes questions from answers. Easier to code. Provide clear instructions for how to answer. Tick one box that best represents Never split up a question so that it appears on two pages.

7. Asking questionsOpen question respondents can reply however they wish Closed question presented with a set of fixed alternatives

Open questions Advantages y Answer in their own terms y Allow unusual responses to be derived y Do not suggest certain answers y Useful for exploring new areas or ones in which researcher has limited knowledge y Generating fixed-choice format answers Disadvantages y Time consuming for interviewers to administer

y y y y

Answers must be coded, can be unreliable process, variability of coding -> measurement error and hence lack of validity Require greater effort from respondents Variability between interviewers in the recording of answers Tape-recorded transcription immensely time-consuming

Closed questions Advantages y Easy to process answers y Enhance comparability of answers y Clarify the meaning of a question for respondents y Easy for interviewers/respondents to complete y Reduce possibility of variability in the recording of answers Disadvantages y Loss of spontaneity in respondent s answers y Difficult to make forced-choice answers mutually exclusive y Difficult to make forced-choice answers exhaustive y Respondents might interpret answers differently y Irritating when respondent is not find any category that applies to them y Impersonal feel to the interview

Types of questionsy

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Personal factual o Age, gender, employment, income etc. o Questions about behavior Factual about others o Personal information about others Informant factual o Size of firm which they work at etc. o Characteristics of an entity of which they have knowledge About attitudes o Likert scale About beliefs o Whether they believe something is true or false About normative standards and values o Indicate what principles of behavior influence them Questions about knowledge

Important to bear in mind the different types of questions. They force you to clarify in your own mind what you are asking about. It guards against asking questions in an appropriate format. When building Likert scale it is best not to mix different types of questions.

Rules of thumb y Questions should always be geared towards asking research questions y Decide exactly what it is you want to know

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Put yourself in the position of the respondent Avoid terms such as regularly , often etc. Avoid long questions o Respondent might feel tempted to omit Avoid double-barreled questions o Question that asks two things Avoid very general questions o Lacking a frame of reference How satisfied are you with your job? Avoid leading questions o Do you agree with ? Avoid questions asking two questions o When did you last discuss with supervisor/line manager? Avoid questions that include negatives o Easy to miss the word not Avoid technical terms Does the respondent have the requisite knowledge? Make sure that there is symmetry between closed questions and its answers o Yes/no questions should have matching answer (Definitely/Not at all) Make sure that the answers provided for a closed question are balanced o Choices balanced, middle answer should be neutral Memory problems Don t know/no opinion o If not included may force people to express a view they don t hold o If included they might tick not to be bothered to think about the issue

Vignette question Presenting respondent with one or more scenarios and then asking them how they would respond when confronted with the situationy y

Reduces possibility of unreflective replies Scenarios must be believable

Piloting and pre-testing questionsy y y y y y y y y

To ensure that survey questions operate well. Also ensures that the research instrument as a whole functions well. Open questions can be asked in the pilot to generate fixed-choice answers Piloting provides interviewers with experience of using the schedule and can infuse them with a greater sense of confidence If virtually everyone answers a question in the same way it is not a variable. Find out if respondents feel uncomfortable with certain questions Questions that seems not to be understood Determine the adequacy of instructions to interviewers Should not be carried out on people that might be part of the sample

Using existing questions

y y y

Have been piloted for you Measurement qualities known Allows for comparison with other research

8. Structured observationSystematically observing the behavior of individuals Observation scheduley y y y

Clear focus necessary exactly who/what to observ Forms taken by any category of behavior must be mutually exclusive (not overlap) and inclusive Recording system must be easy to operate Problem: Observation schedules sometimes require interpretation by the observer

Observing behaviory y y y

Record in terms of incidents Observe and record in terms of short periods of time Observe and record for quite long periods of time. Watch and record continuously. Time sampling

People sample on a random basis Time If certain people are sampled more than one time, don t always observe them the same time of the day If a structured observation study is conducted over a relatively short span of time, issues of the representativeness of findings are likely to arise.y y y y

ad libitum sampling observer records whatever is happening at the time focal sampling specific individual observed for set period of time scan sampling group is scanned at regular intervals and everyone s behavior is recorded behavior sampling entire group watched and observer looks for particular behavior

Compared to interviews and questionnaires y Provides more reliable informations about events y Greater precision regarding their timing, duration, and frequency y Greater accuracy in the time ordering of variables y More accurate and economical reconstructions of large-scale social episodes Reliability y Inter-observer consistency is a concern y Intra-observer consistency Application of the observation schedule may vary over time y No easy matter to achieve reliability in structured observation. y Observer fatigue and lapses in attention y Observers can be trained

Validity y Is the observation instrument administered as it is supposed to be? o Variability between observers , measure unreliable thus not valid y Do people change behavior because they are observed? o reactive effect Criticism y Risk of imposing inappropriate or irrelevant framework on the settings being observed. o Solution to precede with unstructured to set variables and categories y Structured observation is rarely able to get at intentions behind behavior. Observer cannot get a grasp of the meaning. y Generate lots of bits of data, difficult to see the big picture. y Neglects context within which behavior takes place y Not all behaviors can be observedMay work best accompanied with other methods Interviews and questionnaires more flexible, offers the opportunity to reveal both attitudes and behaviors.

9. Secondary Analysis and official statisticsData that have been collected by other researchers or by other organizations in the course of their business.

Advantages secondary analysisy y

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Cost and time Tiny fraction of the resources High-quality data o Rigorous sampling procedures o well established procedures for following up non-respondents o national samples covering wide variety of regions o generated by experienced researchers o control procedures to check quality of the data Opportunity for longitudinal analysis Subgroup or subset analysis specialized categories of individuals Opportunity for cross-cultural analysis More time for data analysis Reanalysis may offer new interpretations o Certain variable s impact on other variables o New theoretical ideas may suggest new analyses o Alternative method of analysis Wider obligations of business researchers

Limitations secondary analysisy y

Lack of familiarity with data Complexity of data

y y

No control over data Absence of key variables

Official statisticsy y y

Data have already been collected, saves time and expense. Can give more complete picture if not based merely on sample. Problem with reactivity less pronounced Cross-sectional and longitudinal and sometimes cross-cultural

Process by which official statistics are generated involves element of interpretation. Problem with convergent validity. the dark figure .

Reliability and validity Reliability seems jeopardized because definitions and policies regarding the phenomena to be counted vary over time. Ecological fallacy Problems of validity. Variations may be due to other factors than those measured.

10. Qualitative researchTends to be concerned with words rather than numbers.y y y y

Inductive view of the relationship between theory and research; former generated out of the latter. Epistemological position described as interpretivist. Stress is on understanding the social world by examining the interpretations by the participants of that world Ontological position described as constructionist. Social properties are outcomes of the interactions between individuals. Distinctiveness not solely absence of numbers.

Main research methods associated with qualitative researchy y y y

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Ethnography/participant observartion Qualitative interviewing Focus groups Language-based approaches to the collection of qualitative data o Discourse analysis o Conversation analysis Collection and qualitative analysis of texts and documents

1. General research question

2. Select relevant site(s) and subjects

3. Collection of relevant data

4. Interpretation of data

5. Conceptual and theoretical work

6. Writing up findings/conclusionsDistinction between definitive and s nsiti in concepts. By quantitative research a concepts becomes fixed through elaboration of indicators. = straitjacket on social world.Gr unded t eor Allowing theoretical ideas to emerge out of one s data (Check Pettigrew)

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Trustwort iness Credibilit Ensuring that research is carried out according to the canons of good practice and submitting research findings to the members of the social world who were studied for confirmations that the investigator has correctly understood the social world.Respondent/ ember validation.

Transferabilit The research tends to be oriented to the contextual uniqueness and significance of the particular case that was studied. Researcher are encouraged to produce thi k des riptions - rich accounts of the details of a culture.

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Alternative criteria for evaluating qualitative researc Should be valued and evaluated based on different criteria

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Ext n l li bilit degree to which a study can be replicated Int n l li bilit whether or not, when there is more than one observer, research team agree about what they see and hear (inter-observer consistency) Int n l lidit whether or not there is a good match between researchers observations and the theoretical ideas they develop. Congruence between concepts and observations. Ext n l lidit degree to which findings can be generalized across social settings.

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5a. Tighter specification of the research question(s)

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Dependability Should adopt an auditing approach. Ensuring that complete records are kept of all phases of the research process. Confirmability Complete objectivity is impossible but the researcher should have acted in good faith. Should be apparent that he/she overly didn t allow personal values. Authenticityy y y y y

Fairness represent different viewpoints among members of social setting? Ontological authenticity Help members to arrive at better understanding of their social world? Educative authenticity Better appreciate the perspectives of other members of their social setting? Catalytic authenticity Has research acted as impetus to members to change their situation? Tactical authenticity Has research empowered members to take steps for action?

Points of affinity with action research.

Preoccupations of qualitative researchersAt the level of epistemology qualitative researcher are more influenced by interpretivism. Seeing through the eyes of the people being studied People can attribute meaning to events and to the environment. Goal of seeking to probe beneath surface appearances. Description and emphasis on context Provide a great deal of descriptive detail when reporting the fruits of their research. Often full of seemingly trivial details, but they are important. It is recommended to provide thick descriptions of social settings, events, and often individuals. Emphasis on process Tends to view social life in terms of processes. Show how events and patterns unfold over time. Flexibility and limited structure Many qualitative researchers are disdainful of approaches that entail imposition of predetermined formats on the social world. Qualitative research tries not to delimit areas of enquiry too much and asks fairly general rather than specific questions. Concepts and theory grounded in data Usually inductively arrived at from the data that are collected.

Critique of qualitative researchToo subjective Impressionistic and subjective. Findings rely too much on researcher s unsystematic views about what is significant and important.

Difficult to replicate Unstr ct red and reliant pon the researcher s ingen ity.Very diffic lt to replicate.Responses of participants likely to be affected by characteristics of the researcher. Interpretation will be infl enced by s bjective learnings of the researcher. Problems of generalization How can j st one or two cases be representative of all cases. Findings of q alitative research are to generalize to theory rather that to populations Lac of transparency It is often not obvio s how the analysis was cond cted.

Contrasts Quantitative vs QualitativeNumbers Point of view of researcher Researcher distant Theory/concepts tested in research Static Structured Generalization Hard, reliable data Macro Behavior Artificial setting Words Point of view of participants Researcher close Theory/concepts emergent from data Process Unstructured Contextual understanding Rich, deep data Micro Meaning Natural setting.

Similarities - Quantitative and Qualitativey y y y y y y y y

Both are concerned with data reduction Both are concerned with answering research questions Both are concerned with relating data analysis to the research literature Both are concerned with variation Both treat frequency as a springboard for analysis Both seek to ensure that deliberate distortion does not occur Both argue for the importance of transparency Both must address question of error Research methods should be appropriate to the research question

Action research y Experiments are on real problems within an organization and are designed to assist in their solution. y Involves iterative process of problem identification, planning, 1. Problem identification action and evaluation. y Leads to re-education, changing patterns of 4. thinking, and action 2. Planning Eval ation y Intended to contribute both to academic theory and practical action

3. Action

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It should have implications that relate to situations other than the one that is studied Should be usable in everyday life, should also be concerned with theory Should lead to the generation of emergent or grounded theory Action researchers should recognize that the research will have practical implications and they must be clear about the take aways from the project.

Can involve the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data. The investigator becomes part of the field of study. The report is seen primarily as a discussion document, which presents a number of action strategies from which collaborators will jointly select a course to take.

Cognitive mapping Complementary to action research. Maps can be used as a problem -solving device by researchers. Commonly used management consulting technique.Primary function: Reflective thinking about problems to enable steps to be taken towards its solution Enable managers to understand the way others in the group perceive a problem.

Ethnography and participant observationOrganizational ethnography (writing about people/culture) concerned with social relation that are related to certain goal-oriented activities. Ethnographic approach implies intense researcher involvement in the day -to-day running of an organization, so that the researcher can understand it from an insider s point of view.

Access Most difficult step is to gain access to the social setting. Strategic planning, hard work and dumb luck.y y y y y y y y

Friends contacts colleagues, academics Champion within organization Through top management Offer something in return Provide clear explanation of your aims and methods and be prepared to deal with concerns. Be prepared to negotiate Be honest about the amount of people s time you are likely to take up Hanging around, loitering

Covert not disclose the fact that you are a researcher. Ethical considerations.

Ongoing access y People will have suspicions of you y People worry what thay say may get back to bosses or colleagues y May sabotage, engage in deceptions, misinformation and not allowing access to back regions

Smooth the path Play up credentials Be non-judgmental when things are said about informal activities

Roles for ethnographersomplete participant Participantas-observer bserver-asparticipantr s r

omplete observer

Fully functioning member of the social setting. His true identity is not known.

Same as complete participant but members aware of the researcher

Researcher is mainly an interviewer. Some observation but little involves participation

The researcher does not interact with people. Unobtrusive forms of observation.

Most sampling in qualitative research entails purposive sampling of some kind. Theoretical sampling Better for qualitative research than probability. Aims to discover categories and their properties and to suggest the interrelationships into a theory. Grounded theory advocates that you sample in terms of what is relevant and meaningful for your theory.

Interviewing in qualitative researchDifferent from interviewing in quantitative research!y

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Less structured than quantitative (structured interview) which is supposed to maximize the reliability and validity of measurement of key concepts. In qualitative there is an emphasis on greater generality in the formulation of initial research ideas and on interviewees own perspectives. Much greater interest in interviewee s point of view. Rambling or going off tangents is often encouraged. Interviewers can depart significantly from any schedule or guide that is being used. The researcher wants rich, detailed answers. Interviewee may be interviewed more than one, sometimes several occasions.

Unstructured interview Interviewee is allowed to respond freely, interviewer follows up on points that seem worthy. Preferred if the researcher is to gain a genuine understanding of the world views of the members. Semi-structured interview List of questions on fairly specific topics to be covered, interview guide Preferred if the interviewer is in the beginning of the investigation with a fairly clear focus. Formulation of research question should not be so specific that alternative avenues of enquiry that might arise during the collection of fieldwork data are closed off.

Prompting Get the interviewee to think more about the topic and provide a more detailed response Qualitative researchers are often interested also in how the interviewee says things. Therefore recording might be good but it may also disconcert respondent who become alarmed at the prospect of their words being preserved. When tape recorder turned off Unsolicited accounts source of revealing information or views.

Advantages of participant observation vsqualitative interviewingSeeing through other s eyes Prolonged immersion in a social setting makes the researcher better equipped to see as others see. Learning the native language In order to understand a culture, the language must be lerned. The ta en for granted Matters interviewees take for granted are less likely to surface Deviant and hidden activities Much of sabotage, resistance at work and criminal activity is known from participant observation Sensitivity to context Allows the context of people s behavior to be mapped fully Encountering the unexpected and flexibility Unstructured nature makes it more likely to uncover unexpected topics or issues. Naturalistic emphasis Has potential to come closer. Interview is a disruption of normal flow of events.

Advantages of qualitative interviewingvsparticipant observationIssues resistant to observation Some issues are not amenable to observation Reconstruction of events Ethical considerations Hidden hardware etc Reactive effects Presence of participant observer will result in reactive effects. Observers disturb the situation. Less intrusive in people s lives Participant observation takes up lots of people s time Longitudinal research easier Limits to the amount of time a researcher can devote to observation.

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Greater breadth of coverage Researcher is not limited to the restricted range of people, incidents and localities Specific focus

Focus groupsy y y y

Emphasize specific theme or topic to be explored indepth Can save time and money instead of carrying out individual interviews Practitioner interested in the way which individuals discuss a certain issue as members of a group Researcher aims to provide a fairly unstructured setting

The dynamics of focus groups could make individuals define business problems in new and innovative ways.y y y y

Understand why people feel the way they do Participants are able to bring to the fore issues they deem to be important Individuals argue with each other and challenge each other s views The way individuals collectively make sense of a phenomenon can be studied. Can be regarded more naturalistic

Criticism of reliability and lack of realism. Moderator can vary Variation in the interpretation of transcripts Better representativeness can be achieved by stratifying the population and greater reliability can be achieved with different moderators.y

Focus group will work best if recorded. o The researcher interested in who expresses views. o Makes it possible to study the processes by which meaning is collectively constructed. o Interested in both what people say and how they say it.

Theoretical saturation, perhaps twelve to fifteen. More groups will increase complexity.

Size Six to ten Groups more than eight difficult to manage Consciously over-recruit since people might not show up. Smaller groups demand more since every participant must contribute more Moderator Not intrusive or structured May be necessary to refocus if it goes off at a total tangent. Allow discussion to flow freely/intervene to bring out salient issues

Participants Snowball sampling Only natural groups not always possible Natural groups may also not bring up taken-for-granted assumptions

Limitations of focus groupsy y y y y y

Researcher has less control over proceedings than with individual interviews Data hard to analyze. Huge amounts quickly produced Difficult to organize. Persuade people to turn up at particular time Recordings time-consuming to transcribe Possible problems of group effects Not appropriate when they might cause discomfort among participants

Language analysisConversation analysisFine-grained analysis of talk as it occurs in interaction in naturally occurring situations. Indexicality The meaning of an act, spoken words or utterances, pauses, sounds, depends upon context they are used Reflexivity Spoken words are constitutive of the social world in which they are located. Recordings of naturally occurring conversations and their transcription for the purpose of intensive analysis of the sequences of interaction revealed in the subsequent transcripts.

Three assumptions of CA y Talk is structured y Talk is forged contextually y Analysis is grounded in dataCA fails to capture body movements Adjacency pairs Talk involves linked phases. Question followed by an answer; invitation response; greeting returned greeting.

Discourse analysisForms of communication other than talk. Company mission statements; websites; email messages Anti-realist denies that there is an external reality Constructionist Recognition that in the process particular depiction of reality is built up Discourse shapes the rules that determine how we speak and act in relation to a given topic.y y y

Reading the detail Looking for rhetorical detail: ways in which arguments are constructed Looking for accountability

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Cross-referencing discourse studies

Narrative analysisElicitation and analysis of language that is sensitive to the sense of temporal sequence that people, as tellers of stories about their lives or events around them, detect in their lives and surrounding episodes and inject into their accounts.

Rhetorical analysisAnalysis of argumentation, literary devices (metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy and irony) Contrast Subject is described in terms of opposite to reinforce a point List together we are strong, together we can make progress, together we Headline-punchline/puzzle-solution Position-taking Pursuit, repetition, alliteration

Documents as sources of dataCriteria for assessing the quality Authenticity Genuine and of unquestionable origin? Credibility Free from error and distortion? Representativeness Typical of its kind? Meaning Clear and comprehensible? Organizational documents Likely to authentic and meaningful, but may not be accurate representation of how different actors perceive the situations. Documents linked to other documents Disagreements may be suppressed Documents are texts written with distinctive purposes in mind

Semiotics Sign, signifier etc.Focuses on the way that messages are communicated as systems of cultural meaning. Uncover the hidden meanings that reside in texts as broadly defined. Hermeneutics Understanding/interpretation of texts. Bring out the meaning from the perspective of its author. Historical analysis Documents and other artifacts to trace history of an organization.y

Understanding of contemporary organizations relies on having an awareness of how they developed historically.

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Historical analysis can reduce the ideological biases that are embedded in current fasionable trends in organization theory and practice. Historical analysis enables interpretation of existing organization arrangements as the result of intentional or implicit decisions made in the past Theories can be subjected to more radical test.

Breaking down the quantitative/qualitative divideResearchers perceive that there is a difference between qualitative and quantitative research in terms of strategy.

Natural science model and qualitative researchDifficultiesy y

No agreement on the epistemological basis of natural sciences Researchers don t do and write the same things

Similaritiesy y y y

Empiricist overtones theory grounded in datat constitute a manifesto for empiricism Specific problem focus Qualitative research can be employed to investigate specific, tightly defined research questions. Hypethesis- and theory-testing Analytic induction or grounded theory Realism Epistemological basis of the natural sciences.

Quantitative research and interpretivism Quantitative researchers frequently address meanings. Quantitative research and constructionism Construction of social world. Conventional quantitative content analysis can be useful for this. Epistemological and ontological considerations Carry with them a cluster of commitments. However there is no perfect correspondence between research strategy and matters of epistemology and ontology.

Problems with quantitative/qualitative contrastBehavior vs meaning Quantitative research frequently involves the study of meanings in the form of attitude scales. Qualitative research frequently entails examination of behavior in context Theory tested in research vs emergent from data Survey-based studies are often more exploratory than simply theory-testing Numbers vs words Qualitative researchers sometimes undertake limited amount of quantification of their data. many , often , some

Artificial vs natural Naturalism of focus groups is assumed rather than demonstrated. Participant observation, the researcher can be source of interference that makes situation less natural.

Quantification in qualitative researchThematic analysis Implicit quantification when identifying themes and the elevation of some themes over others. Quasi-quantification frequently , rarely .

Combating anecdotalism Give numbers to do this

Mixed methods researchArguments against mixing Epistemological commitments integration of research strategies ignores assumptions underlying research methods and transforms qualitative inquiry to procedural variation of quantitative inquiry . Separate paradigms Values, methods, assumptions are incompatible between paradigms. Integration will be at superficial level within single paradigm.

Triangulation Cross-check results of one method by employing another method associated with the other research strategy.When triangulation is undertaken, there is a possibility of a failure to corroborate the findings.

Qualitative research facilitates quantitative research Providing hypotheses helpful as a source of hypotheses or hunches that can subsequently be testedAiding measurement In-depth knowledge acquired through qualitative research can inform the design of survey questions.

Quantitativeresearch facilitates qualitativeresearch Prepare selection of people to interviewed, or companies to be selected as case studies.Filling in the gaps Static and processual features Quantitative research tends to bring out a more static picture of social life, qualitative is more processual Qualitative facilitates interpretation of relationship between variables Influenced by the independent variable but which has effect on the dependent variable. Qualitative research can provide explanation. Study different aspects of a phenomenon Macro vs macro 1 Solving a puzzle Outcomes of research are not always easy to anticipate 2. Mixed methods research, like mono-method, must be completely designed and conducted.

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3. Must be appropriate to the research questions or research area with which you are concerned 4. Best to be explicit about why you have conducted mixed methods research 5. Mixed methods should not be thought of like it is made up of separate components 6. Provide sufficiently detailed account of all methodological details. 7. Any research project has limited details. 8. Not everyone are skilled to carry out both types

Internety y y

Try many keywords New websites are continually appearing or disappearing Websites are changing Usually more economical in terms of time and money Can reach large number of people Distance is no problem Data can be collected and collated very quickly Face-to-face interviewers are better able than online interviewers to maintain rapport with respondents. Greater commitment and motivation are required for completing an online interview Online interviewer has less impact on successfulness of interview Online interviewee s answers tend to be better formulated, they have more time to ponder their answers and can tidy them up Follow-up probes are possible in both cases

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Sampling issuesy y y y y y

Many people have more than one email address Email addresses more fleeting than postal addresses People use more than one ISP Households may have one computer for several users Internet-users are a biased sample of the population Sampling frames difficult to acquire (from ISPs) and may be expensive