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The Industrial Revolution

(ca. 1750s - 1914)

Causes of the Industrial Revolution (conditions

of pre-industrial Europe pre-1750): Factor 1: “The Agricultural Revolution”

– New Crops (from the New World): Corn and Potatoes

– New Farming Methods:

Enclosure Movement in Britain - Parliament passed laws to

allow landowners to fence off land

– Allowed owners to better practice new farming methods

– No more “common lands” - Smaller farmers and gleaners forced

out of rural lands/villages (forced to move to the cities)

New Technologies and knowledge to improve yields

– Crop Rotation and Soil Mixing

– Turnips - food source that also replenishes soil (pioneered by Lord

Charles Townshend)

– Selective breeding of animals - e.g. stronger horses and fatter,

woollier sheep (pioneered by Robert Bakewell)

– Seed Drill - machine that planted seeds deeper and in regular

rows (pioneered by Jethro Tull)


of pre-industrial Europe pre-1750):

Factor 2: “The Domestic System”/Cottage

Industry

– Small Scale Industry (done in people’s homes)

Most rural people were farmers - craft

production done to supplement income during

parts of the year when farm duties could not be

done

– Mostly involving the production of textiles (cloth) -

mostly made of wool

– Many men, women, and children skilled in the

various stages of producing cloth/clothing

(spinning, weaving, dying, etc.)


of pre-industrial Europe pre-1750):

Factor 3: New Economic Conditions

– Increase of trade and demand for manufactured

products

– New Theory – Capitalism (which we’ll discuss

later)

The Industrial Revolution Begins in Great

Britain by the 1780s - Why?

Reason 1: Abundant Natural Resources

and Food

– More food because of the Agricultural

Revolution

– Lots of coal and iron deposits

– Waterways

Harbors and rivers = transportation

rivers = natural power sources for mills

– Britain had colonies that supplied lots of

additional raw materials - e.g. India

supplied cotton (a new, cheaper material

for textiles)



Reason 2: Large Labor Supply

– Rapidly growing population!

– Agricultural Revolution caused lots of

people to move to the cities looking for jobs

Due to the Domestic System, many of these

people had experience in small-scale textile

manufacturing

Reason 3: Britain’s Favorable

Government

– Parliament passed laws to promote

investment in businesses



Reason 4: Britain’s Prosperous Middle

Class

– Entrepreneurs begin to invest in business

and open up factories and start

corporations

– Successful merchants - sell the products

throughout Britain and the rest of the world


Britain by the 1780s - Why? Reason 5: New Inventions + Already Thriving Textile

Industry = Faster Production

– Major Inventions to Speed Textile Production:

The Flying Shuttle (1733 - John Kay)

Spinning Jenny (1764 - James Hargreaves)

The Water Frame (1769 - Richard Arkwright)

The “Spinning Mule” (1779 - Samuel Crompton)

An Effective Steam Engine (1882 - James Watt)

Power Loom (1787 - Edmund Cartwright)

The Cotton Gin (1793 - Eli Whitney)

– The Factory System:

Machines + Workers + Overseers = more efficient production

Division of Labor (based on one of Adam Smith’s ideas)

– Puddling (1780s Henry Court) => better quality iron

(impurities removed)

Flying Shuttle Spinning Jenny

Water Frame Spinning Mule

Power Loom Cotton Gin

Puddling Furnace

Steam Engine



Reason 6: Major Inventions to Speed

Transportation:

The Locomotive/Railroads

– Richard Trevithick (1804)

– George Stephenson (1830s) - “The Rocket”

Liverpool to Manchester railroad

Canals and Steamboats (Robert Fulton -

Clermont (1807))

“The Second Industrial

Revolution” (1870s - 1914)

What it means - Second, more

advanced wave of industrialization

involving

– Steel (stronger than iron)

– Chemicals

– Electrical and Petroleum Power (more

reliable and easier to use than steam

power)



New Developments

– Electric Streetcars/Trolleys (1880s)

– Hydroelectric power (1910)

Electric Lights (Thomas Edison)

Factories - conveyor belts/assembly lines; electric lights

= 24 hour operation

– Communication

Telegraph (1830s - Samuel Morse)

Telephone (1876 - Alexander Graham Bell)

Wireless Telegraph/Radio (1895 - Guglielmo Marconi)



New Developments

– Internal Combustion Engine

Gasoline powered (1880s - Gottlieb Daimler)

Oil-mix powered (1880s - Rudolf Diesel)

– Petroleum-powered Transportation

Dirigible/Blimp (1890 - Ferdinand von Zeppelin)

Airplane (1903 - Wright Brothers)

Mass-produced Automobile (1913 - Henry

Ford)



New Developments

– Mass Production - now a wide range of

consumer products (e.g. sewing machines,

typewriters, firearms) and industrial

machinery could be produced quickly,

cheaply and in large quantities!

Interchangeable Parts (developed from ideas

by Eli Whitney)

Assembly Line (Frederick Taylor in the 1890s,

Henry Ford by 1913)

The Social Consequences of

Industrialization

Population Shifts

– Huge Population growth (due to agricultural revolution and

better health care)

– Urbanization - huge shifts from rural areas to cities

Due to factories (more jobs in cities)

Many cities (like London) grew in size tremendously

Some new cities (like Manchester, England) develop

Big problem: fast city growth many problems:

– Overcrowding

– Lack of sanitation

– Epidemic diseases


Industrialization

New Social Classes

– The (Industrial) Middle Class - usually lived very comfortably

and were fairly wealthy

– The Working Class - miserable/dangerous conditions

Working conditions

– On average, 14 hour days, 6 days per week

– Men, women and children worked

– Accidents common

– Unsanitary – dirty air (coal, lint)

Lived in slums (many times owned by their employers)

Some people resorted to rioting to protest

– Luddites


Industrialization

Positive Effects of the Industrial

Revolution:

– Average wealth and standard of living

increased

– Better produced and cheaper

products

– Eventually rights and conditions of

workers improved (which we’ll talk

about later)

The Spread of Industrialization

At first, Britain tried to prevent the spread of

industrialization to other countries - Why?

– If Britain produced more, its prices would be

cheaper and therefore its businesses would

outcompete the other countries’ businesses

– Parliament passed laws forbidding the

sale/sharing of industrial secrets and the leaving

of machinery or craftworkers

By 1824, the philosophy and laws changed:

– The new idea - profit from selling industrial

knowledge and technology and/or setting up

factories in other countries


The USA – 1790 – Samuel Slater and Moses Brown opened a

spinning factory in Rhode Island

– 1813 – Francis Lowell opened a textile factory in Massachusetts

Success allowed Lowell to open other factories in other Massachusetts towns

Most of Lowell’s workers were young, single women who worked extremely hard for long hours

– 1865 – early 1900s: Rapid industrialization of USA

Rise of corporations (who sold stock)

– Carnegie Steel (Andrew Carnegie)

– Standard Oil (John D. Rockefeller)

– Railroad Companies (e.g. New York Central Railroad – Cornelius Vanderbilt)


Western Europe

– Belgium Technology smuggled from Britain by William Cockerill in 1799

Many other corporations set up soon afterward

– Germany Industrialization in the Ruhr Valley in 1830s

Kaiser Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck encouraged industrialization once Germany unified in 1871

– France Napoleon III encouraged industrialization and development of infrastructure


Other Areas:

– Japan Meiji Restoration (1860s – 1880s)

Government and private investors began to build factories, infrastructure and mines

– Zaibatsus – monopolistic companies that controlled a bank, raw material production, and large factories producing one type of product

– Mitsubishi (founded in 1870 by a former Samurai named Iwasaki Yataro)

– Russia Czar Alexander III supported industrialization and let foreign companies build factories and railroads there


Why Did These Places Industrialize (and not others)?

– These countries had governments favorable to industrialization

helped to fund new factories and build infrastructure (railroad lines, canals, training schools, etc.))

– These countries were generally as wealthy (in terms of resources, population, and money) as Britain

– Migration of British people (like Slater and Cockerill) and/or technology to these places

The Major Impacts of Industrialization

Industrialized countries richer than non-industrialized ones

– Western Europe and USA (these societies largely prospered)

– Southern And Eastern Europe (source of food)

Industrialized countries become colonizers of non-industrialized societies (in Africa and Asia)

Reform Movements in Industrialized Countries to attempt to solve social inequality

Reforming the Industrial World

Old Ideas that Supported Industrialization

– Capitalism Pioneered by Adam Smith - The Wealth of Nations (1776)

A Few Main Ideas

– Governments should not interfere with free trade and business - “laissez faire” economics

Only supply and demand should “control” prices and the success/failure of companies - “the invisible hand”

Competition and Free trade between people & countries

– Many people working together in one workshop concentrating on separate component tasks of making something leads to faster production factories

Other Supporters of Capitalism:

– Thomas Malthus – wars and epidemics are natural to maintain balance of population

– David Ricardo – “Iron Law of Wages”: as population increased, pay should decrease (and there should always be a poor, working class)


New Philosophies develop addressing the problems:

– Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill) –

governments should pass laws and work to benefit the most

amount of people possible

– Utopianism (Robert Owen) - promoted communal living and

cooperation on small scale

– Socialism (Charles Fourier) – the public should own all

businesses and work for everybody’s good

– Communism (Karl Marx and Frederich Engels) - promoted

global social revolution and total social equality

“The Communist Manifesto” (1848) - the proletariat (working

class) will rise up and overthrow the bourgeoisie (middle class)

These ideas were promoted by some socialist

organizations/parties in Europe

Robert Owen and New Harmony, Indiana


Major Reforms (partially based on these

philosophies):

– New Laws in Britain

Factory Act of 1833 - reformed working conditions for

Children (minimum ages, working hours reduced)

The Ten Hours Act of 1847 - reduced hours for women

and children workers

– Labor unions & political parties

Formed to speak for rights of workers in government and

to businesses

Organized strikes as protests to gain more rights

– Chartist Movement

Organized to increase voting rights for working class men

in Britain

By 1884, most adult men could vote in Britain


Major Reforms (partially based on these

philosophies):

– Urban Reforms

Public Sanitation – sewer systems, running

water, health codes/inspectors, garbage

collection, hot water

Public housing communities

– Octavia Hill

– British Housing Act

Police and Fire departments

Parks – e.g. Central Park, Hyde Park


Major Reforms (partially based on these philosophies): – Abolition of Slavery in mid to late 1800s

William Wilberforce (“Amazing Grace”)

– Public Education for All Children (Horace Mann) Done by most industrialized countries (USA & Western Europe)

– Funded by the government

– Required for all boys and girls (from all classes) between 6 – 12 yrs old

Why?

– Demand for more skilled laborers and workers in many fields

– Instill nationalism in its citizens

Main Results

– More opportunities for Women to be educated and work in educational jobs

– Increase in Literacy mass media (newspapers)

Gender Relations and the Family

Working Women

– Remember that men, women and children of the

working classes all worked!

– New Jobs for Women:

Caused by number of white collar jobs and shortages of

available male workers

Examples – clerk, typist, secretary, telephone operator,

teachers, nurses

Drawbacks – relatively low pay, monotonous jobs

Benefits – new opportunities to better status, escape

from the factory/farm work


Marriage and Family Issues

– Ideal for the Middle Classes (The Institution of Family)

Husband Worked

Wife did not (or worked side jobs) and took care of children

(seen as desirable and necessary for women to marry and be

“taken care of”)

Children

– go to school

– Games and play at home/at friends – healthy childhood

– Obey and respect parents

– An Improvement: decline in birthrate for many classes

– Improvement for Working Class between 1890 – 1914: high

paying jobs in heavy industry => less need for women and

children workers

– Results:

Development of more consumerism

Development of Compulsory Education


Women’s Rights Movements (Feminism) – Origins: French Revolution and

Liberalism/Socialism

– New Rights by 1900: Seek Divorce

Own/inherit property

New Occupations (once reserved for men) – Teaching

– Nursing – Florence Nightingale, Clara Barton, Amalie Sieveking

– Jane Addams – Settlement Houses (Hull House)

– Suffrage (right to vote) Movement Major English Movement – Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters began The Women’s Social and Political Union (in 1903)

– Carried out acts of civil disobedience to draw attention

Finally comes to pass after World War I

Leisure Activities

Industrial changes and reforms cause new leisure opportunities – Shorter work week and days (weekends, evenings)

– Railroads and Steamboats – better/faster ways to travel Beginnings of Compulsory, Public Education (1870 – 1914)

New or Newer Leisure Activities: – Vacation/”Holiday”/Tourism – for upper and middle classes

– Musicals and Vaudeville Theatre

– Motion Pictures (silent, at first)

– Professional and amateur sporting activities and leagues:

The Olympics

Professional Sports Leagues in Europe and USA

Recreational sports – croquet, bowling, amateur sports leagues

– Consumerism/Shopping for luxuries

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