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Industrialization and the Rise of the Modern City in

England

The early industrial cities of Britain such as Leeds andManchester attracted large number of migrants to the textilemills set up in the late 18th century.

In 18 th century most of the people were employed in Clothingand footwear , Wood and furniture ,Metals and engineeringPrinting and stationary

During the First World War (1914-18), London beganmanufacturing cars and electrical goods. The number of largefactories increased until they accounted for nearly one-thirdof all jobs in the city.

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Special features of the city of London in the year1750 were :(i) Colossal city or Metropolis, densely Populated, the

capital of the region.(ii) Population 6,75,000.(iii) Rate of growth of population from one

million in 1810 to four million in 1880.

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Marginal Groups Women

Lost their industrial jobs owing to technological developmentsand were forced to work within households.

A large number of women used their homes for increasingfamily income by taking lodgers or through such activities astailoring, washing or matchbox making.

In the 20th century, women got employed in wartime industriesand offices and withdrew from domestic service.

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Children

Large numbers of children were pushed into lowpaid work by their parents, while many becamethieves.

The Compulsory Education Act of 1870 and theFactory Act of 1902 kept children out of industrialwork.

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HOUSING

Factories or workshops did not provide housing to the migrantworkers. Instead, individual landowners put up cheap, andusually unsafe, tenements for the new arrivals.

The unhygienic condition of slums highlighted the need ofhousing for the poor.

There was widespread fear of social disorder, especially afterthe Russian Revolution in 1917. Workers mass housing schemewere planned for preventing the London poor from turningrebellious.

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Attempts were made for decongesting localities, creatingopen spaces and reducing pollution. Large blocks ofapartments were also built.

Rent control was introduced in Britain during the First WorldWar for easing the impact of severe housing shortage.

Between the two World Wars, the responsibility for housing

the working classes was accepted by the British state, and amillion houses, most of them single-family cottages, werebuilt by the local authorities.

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Leisure and Consumption

Various methods of recreation were adopted by the working class

people in the 19th century. These included

1) Cultural events such as opera,theatre and classical musicperformances.

2) Working classes met in pubs tohave a drink, exchange news and

sometimes for organizing politicalaction.

3) Libraries, art galleries andmuseums provided a glimpse ofthe British history.

By the early 20th century, cinema became the great mass

entertainment for mixed audiences.

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POLITICS IN THE CITY London Riots : 1886 winter witnessed a 10,000 strong crowd of poorpeople marching to London from Deptford. They demanded relief from

terrible conditions of poverty; dispersed by the police.

1887 riot or the Bloody Sundayof November was the brutalsuppression by the police of asimilar march.

1889 was the year when dockworkers went on a 12-day strike to gainrecognition for their union

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Bombay: The Prime City of India Bombay was a group of sevenislands.

1661: The control of Bombaypassed into the British hands

after the marriage of BritainsKing Charles II to the Portugueseprincess.

Bombay became the principalWestern port for the East IndiaCompany. At first, Bombay wasthe major outlet for cottontextiles from Gujarat.

It became an important administrative and industrial centre of Western

India.

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1854: First cotton textile mill was established in Bombay

With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis ofhousing and water supply became acute by the mid-1950s.

More than 70% of the working people lived in the thickly-populatedchawl s of Bombay. Chawls were multi-storeyed old structures.

Merchants, bankers and building contractors owned these chawls. Eachchawl was divided into one-room tenements with no private toilets.

Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live inshelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.

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Land Reclamation in Bombay

The need for additional commercial space in the mid-19th century led tothe formulation of several government and private plans for the

reclamation of more land from sea.1864: The Back Bay Reclamation Company won the right of reclaimingthe Western foreshore from the tip of Malabar Hill to the end of Colaba.The city expanded to about 22 square miles.

As population started growing in the early 19th century, every bit of theavailable area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from thesea.

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Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema andCulture

1896: Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar shot a scene of a wrestlingmatch in Bombays Hanging gardens and it became Indias first movie.

1913: Dadasaheb Phalke made Raja Harishchandra

By 1925 , Bombay became the film capital of India.

Many people in the film industry were migrants from cities such as Lahore,Madras and Calcutta.

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Cities and the Challenge of the Environment

Large quantities of refuse and waste products polluted air and water, while

excessive noise became a feature of urban life.Black fog engulfed the towns owing to pollution, thereby causing badtemper and smoke-related illnesses.

The Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1853 did not work to clean the air

as smoke was not easy to monitor or measure.

By 1840s: Towns such as Derby, Leeds and Manchester had laws forcontrolling smoke in the city.

In Calcutta, high level of pollution was a consequence of the hugepopulation that depended on dung and wood as fuel, and also the use ofsteam engines that ran on coal.

The railway line introduced in 1855 introduced a new pollutant-coal fromRaniganj.

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Printing in chinaThe earliest print technology was developed in China, Japan andKorea. From AD 594 onwards, books in China were printed byrubbing paper.China remained the major producer of printed material by printingvast numbers of textbooks for the civil service examinations held forrecruiting its personnel.

Academicians and merchants used print in their everyday lives. Manypeople started to read and write.Shanghai became the hub of new print culture, catering to theWestern-style schools. There was a gradual shift from hand printing to

machine printing.

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Print in Japan

AD 768-770: Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-

printing technology to JapanThe Buddhist Diamond Sutra was the oldest Japanese book.

The illustrated collections of paintings depicted an elegant urbanculture involving artisans, courtesans and teahouse gatherings.

In the 18th century : Edo (Tokyo) published illustrated collection ofpaintings, showing urban culture; hundreds of books published oncooking, famous places, women, musical instruments, tea ceremony.etc. From Japan, this art travelled to Europe and the USA.

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Print Comes to Europe 11th century: Chinese paper reached Europe through the silk route

In Italy, Marco Polo brought the knowledge of print.

The handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy the ever increasingdemand for goods because the manuscripts were fragile, awkward tohandle and could not be carried around or read easily.

By the early 15th century, woodblocks were being widely used inEurope for printing textiles, playing cards and religious pictures withsimple, brief texts.

Gutenberg and the Printing Press 1430s: Johann Gutenberg developed the printing press

The first book printed on Gutenbergs printing press was the Bible. Ittook three years to print 180 copies of the Bible.

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Printed books at first closely resembled the written manuscripts inappearance and layout.

1450-1550: Printing presses were set up in most countries of Europe.20 million copies of printed books flooded the European marketsduring the second half of the 15th century.

The time and labour required for producing each book decreased andmultiple copies could be produced with greater ease.

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It was not just a development and a new way of producingbooks but also transformed the life of people. It also change their relationship with information andknowledge. It influence popular perception and opened up new ways oflooking at things. Access of books created a new culture of reading. Earlierreading was restricted to elites.

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1517: A religious reformer, Martin Luther wrote Ninety-fiveTheses criticizing many of the practices and rituals of the

Roman Catholic Church.Luthers writings were immediately reproduced in vastnumbers and read widely. This led to a division within theChurch and to the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.Several scholars think that print brought about a newintellectual atmosphere and helped spread the new ideas thatled to the Reformation.1558: The Roman Church, troubled by effects of popularreadings and questionings of faith, imposed several controls

over publishers and booksellers and began to maintain anIndex of Prohibited Books.

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Reading Mania

By the end of the 18th century, literacy rates in Europe were

as high as 60 to 80%.Churches of different denominations set up schools invillages, carrying literacy to peasants and artisans.

New forms of literature appeared in print that targeted newaudiences.

There were almanacs or ritual calendars, along with balladsand folktales.

In England, penny chapbooks were carried by petty pedlarsknown as chapmen. They were sold for a penny and could beafforded even by the poor.

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Print Culture And the French Revolution

Print popularised the idea of Philosophers likeRousseau, Voltaire.Print created a new culture of debate and dialogue.Literature raised question about the existing social order.Print helped to spread the ideas of the philosopher.People widely read it and influenced by their ideas.

Print opened up the peoples mind to think differently.

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India and the world of Print

India had a rich and old tradition of handwritting manuscript.

In the mid 16th

century Printing came to India with PortugueseMissioneries.In 1579 Catholic priest first printed the Tamil book.In the late 17 th century East India company Brought the first printingpress to India.In 1780 James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gagette .Gangadhar Bhattacharyaa was the first Indian who published thenewspapper Bengal Gagette.

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New Forms Of Publications

Novels and other literary books published. Itopened up a new world of experience.Short stories,essays were published in greatnumbers and they reinforced the new emphasison human lives.Painters like Raja Ravi Verma produce images formass circulation.By the 1670s, Caricature and cartoons werepublished in journals and newspapers.

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Print and poor people

In 19th century very cheap and small books were available to market.

From the early 20 th century public libraries were set up mostly in towns,cities and prosperous villages.

Jyotiba Phule wrote about the injustice of women in Gulamgiri in 1871.

In the 20 th century B.R. Ambedkar, E.V.Ramaswamy Naicar wrotepowerfully about castism.

Bengal millworkers set up libraries to educate themselves.

Print culture helped to begin nationalism in India.

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Women And Print

Liberal husbands and fathers began educating their womenfolk at home

and sent them to schools.Many journals began carrying writings by women and explained why

women should be educated.Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed and

Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by readingUrdu romances.1876: Rashsundari Debis autobiography, Amar Jiban , was published. It

was the first full-length autobiography published in the Bengalilanguage.From 1860s: Few Bengali women such as Kailashbashini Debi wrotebooks highlighting the experiences of women.In 1880s (Maharashtra): Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote

with passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu

women, especially widows.

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