SAGARMATHA NATIONAL PARK: ADAPTATION TO CLIMATIC CHANGE

CHANDANA KONIDALA

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

SAGARMATHA NATIONAL PARK:

“Top of the world”, is what UNESCO named Sagarmatha National park, an

114,800 hectares national park that houses the Mt. Everest situated in the Himalayan

mountain range in Nepal (UNEP, 2011). Sagarmatha is a scenic beauty of dramatic

mountains and valleys. It’s a great reserve of rare animals species such as Red Panda,

Snow Leopard, also hosts over a thousand plant species. Along with the one of the

world’s highest ecological flora and fauna, it preserves the rich culture of Sherpa tribe

(Nepal S. K et al, 2002). The Sherpa culture is an important characteristic of the park,

which forms the foundation for sustainable protection and management. The strong bond

between Sherpa culture and the nature has enabled successful management of the park by

local communities.

Figure 1: Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal (UNESCO)

Sagarmatha is the first UNESCO world heritage site in Nepal with an area of 114,800 ha

that covers the high mountain ranges with deeply incised valleys and glaciers. With over

25 peaks out of which seven are above 7,000 m high (UNESCO, 2016), it’s an

outstanding natural beauty. It also covers the rivers Bhote Kosi and Dudh Kosi, which are

fed by the glaciers Nangpa and Ngozumpa respectively (Bhuji U.R et al, 2007). The

mountain range is geologically young formed since the convergence of India and Asia’s

tectonic plates about 50 million years back. The national park was created in 1976 under

the type II national park conservation criteria. It was given the status of a World Heritage

Site by UNESCO in the year 1979.

CONSERVATION VALUE OF SNP:

Sagarmatha national park (SNP) is not only a great landscape but also contains

several species of flora and fauna that have been categorized into 8 different types of

ecosystems and vegetations(UNEP, 2011). Being a newly formed mountain range, it only

contains 33 species of mammals, 208 species of birds and 13 species of

reptiles/amphibians but houses over 1000 species of flora. Some rare animal species

include the snow leopard, Musk deer, Red Panda, Impeyan Pheasant, Lammergeyer,

Bearded vulture, Snow cock, the Yellow-Billed Chough (UNESCO, 2016). Since 69

percent of the land is above 5000 m, the flora is spread over lower altitudes and

dominated by Black junipers, Sikkim willow, several creepers and grasses. Above 5000

m, the land is barren and is covered with snow.

Figure 2: Wildlife significance of Sagarmatha National Park. From left: Snow Leopard, Red Panda, Danfe Pheasant

The SNP is of high cultural significance owing to the Sherpa community living in

the area since early 1530s (Nepal S.K, 2002). They carry out agriculture and support life

with limited usage of resources. They have known to be originated from the Tibetan

province of Kham as a solace from political pressures. Since the community belongs to

the Nyingmapa sect of Tibetan Buddhism, several traditional monasteries can be found in

the national park, which signify culture value of the area.

Sagarmatha National park is one of the best tourist destinations for several

countries surrounding Nepal. The tourist population has increased from 1,400 in 1972 to

more than 20,000 in 2004 (UNEP, 2011). The entry fee for visit varies from 1500 to

10,000 dollars and it has become a main economic benefit for the Sherpa community and

other local residents. Several activities such as sightseeing guide service, porters, lodges

and trekking services provide employments for the local people. Along with the

economic benefits the park offers to the people residing, it also provides excellent

research opportunities for the ecological studies and studies related to natural hazards

such as earthquakes. It is also a subject for climate change studies since the direct effects

of global warming surface in pristine nature forms (Stevens, 2008).

The rich scenic beauty, ecological value, cultural significance and economic

benefits make Sagarmatha an area with high importance. It is a ‘Conservation

International Designated Hotspot’ and a UNESCO world heritage site. The park was

established under the National Parks and Wildlife conservation act of 1973 as type II

national park. The legal support is provided by the Himalayan National Park regulations

of 1979 and Buffer Zone management guidelines of 1996 and 1999. UNESCO

announced Sagarmatha as a world heritage area under natural criteria VII, which

addresses Sagarmatha as a superlative natural phenomena area of exceptional beauty and

aesthetic importance. In 2002, seven ecological corridors were established and a buffer

zone was added to the protected area. In 2007, the Gokya lakes were recognized as a

Ramsar site (UNESCO, 2016).

GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF SNP:

The park is managed by Sagarmatha National Park authority of the Department of

national parks and Wildlife conservation with an aim of sustainable protection of the

park, while safeguarding the livelihood of local communities. The management category

can be identified as Nested governance which involves official management by

Government and unofficial voluntary protection by the ICCAs (Lausche, B et al). Since

their settlement in the area, Sherpas have respected the land and sustainably utilized the

resources with a sense of responsibility (Nepal S.K, 1995). Along with respect for the

nature, the economic value generated by the park has encouraged local communities to

organize a park advisory committee of local leaders, village leaders and authority

representatives to improve management of the park. Several conservation projects such as

afforestation and regulation of firewood usage are regularly performed. The projects are

funded by several national and international organizations such as SNV Netherlands

Development Organization, UK DFID and The Himalayan Trust (UNEP, 2011).

ICCA GOVERNANCE:

The local community of Sagarmatha, the Sherpa community (also known as

Sharwa) is widely recognized and praised as the ideal form of ICCA governance by

several international organizations including IUCN and parties of CBD (convention on

biological diversity). The usual form of management by government restricts the local

communities from access to the resources of protected areas and these raise conflicts over

ownership between locals and authorities (Nepal S.K, 2002). The ICCA form of

governance is widely recognized because it exercises “predominant and exclusive control

and management” along with sustainable protection of the area. IUCN and CBD have

described ICCA as an integral and critical component of global conservation of

biodiversity (CBD, 2016). ICCA in Nepal has not received appropriate recognition due to

the poor status of indigenous people and has marginalized their power and authority.

However Sherpa community is seen as an “outstanding example of regional ICCA”

around the world (Heinen J. T, 1992). The SNP, christened as Khumbu by the local

people contains a rich diversity of endangered species of flora and fauna, aesthetic

beauty.

Figure 3:The Sherpa community in SNP involved in various activities that support their livelihood

Protection and natural resource management are not legally delegated by the

ICCA but are solely operated under the Department of National Parks and Wildlife

conservation (DNPWC). The Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation authorize the

conservation policies approved by the DNPWC (UNEP, 2011). The Sherpa community

leaders feel the need to protect SNP by dealing with both internal and external challenges

because they perceive SNP as their cultural identity, heritage and a representation of their

achievements (Nepal S.K, 2002). So the ICCAs operate as independent self-governing

culturally based organizations within the protected region. Since Sherpas view SNP as

sacred mountains with cultural values, the monasteries, caves, temples, shrines,

monuments and other cultural sites have been given exceptional protection. In some

villages Nawa (village officials) have enforced forest regulations to pay attention to

sacred forests (Stevens, 2008). Agro-pastoral management, a form of multi-zone system,

which allows specific areas to be used for human activities such as transhumant

pastoralism, multi-additional crop production and hay cutting. Other human activities

such as collection of deadwood, grazing, tree felling have also been regulated by

enforcing policies through customary village laws. Inclusion of buffer zone into the

protected area in 2002 has given rise to several buffer zone institutions that administer

permit systems for several activities. Some of the examples are firewood gathering by

local households restricted to no more than 2 seasons per year and decision making

process on dead wood gathering sites (Stevens, 2008).

Local households and residents actively participate in the administration and

governance by taking turns as Nawas of the villages. SNP protection by the active crowd

is a distinctive example of collaborative management between SNP administration and

Sherpa community (Nepal S.K, 2002). Along with local patronage, the Sherpa

community has been involved in international workshops and conventions to exchange

views on ICCAs and Nepal ICCA networks (Stevens, 2008). Some of the international

conventions they have attended are IUCN IVth World Conservation Congress, 2008; 10th

conference of the parties of the convention on biological diversity, 2010 and World

heritage site village of Shirakawa-Go, 2010. Though ICCAs have been largely

responsible for protection of the SNP, they are still trying to receive official acceptance

from the Nepal Government. Two national ICCA gatherings were held in Nepal in 2009

and 2010 and ICCA gathering is looking forward to creating a National Federation of

ICCA, which requires the participation of at least 6 organizations under the National

Federations Act of Nepal.

The climate of Sagarmatha varies from semi-arid subtropical to a temperate

season with rainfall, and a mean temperature of 0.40C in the coldest temperatures with

heavy snowfall (UNEP, 2011). Since the mid 1970, global warming has caused increase

in the average temperature by 10C which is twice as the average rise in temperature

around the world. This increase has resulted in glacier melting, which eventually leads to

lake outbursts and floods due to falling ice-breaks (Dawadi A, 2013). Loss of snow

reduces the water available to people in India and also alter the growth of vegetation and

may also trigger alien pest and diseases. A change in the management plan is necessary to

deal with the increasing effects of climatic change. This paper aims to discuss the impact

of climatic changes on governance and management system of the Sagarmatha national

park.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS EFFECTS:

Climatic change is one of the biggest environmental challenges in the planet that

has affected several natural areas including the highest peak on earth, Mt. Everest. The

Himalayas are a pristine form of nature and are currently being affected by the increasing

temperatures. Temperatures have increased by 10C since 1977, double of global

temperature increase, which is 0.6 C. IPCC and OECD, project an increase of 1.2 C by

2013 and 1.7 C by 2050 (Sherpa A, 2013). Since three fourths of the Himalayas are

covered with snow, increase in temperatures poses a danger to the ice caps, glaciers and

lakes arising out of the glaciers. Currently, Nepal’s glaciers are melting at an alarming

rate leading to most outrageous lakes. High rains, which usually accompany the melting

glaciers, might lead to catastrophic effects in the country. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods

(GLOFs) are a major threat to SNP. Deglaciation and growth of glacier lakes, lead to

weakening of the walls of lakes, and have the potential to cause severe floods. In the past

90 years, the Sagarmatha has declined 330 feet vertically owing to the glacier melting

and formation of new glaciers (Dixit A, 2016). Several GLOF incidents are expected in

future in dangerous lakes such as Tsho Rolpa, Imja, Thulagi and Barun which are biggest

and most prone to GLOFs (Sherpa A, 2013).

Glacier melting has also affected wildlife and ecology in the area disrupting the

entire ecosystem of the national park. Along with melting of glaciers, increase in

temperatures has led to severe changes in climatic conditions and have caused ice storms,

droughts and wind hails. Glaciers melting can directly affect human life in the area by

reducing the fresh water available for human consumption and other activities (Dawadi,

2013). This can be result of rivers eventually drying due to insufficient volumes available

for constant make-up of ice on the mountains. According to the WWF 2003, the

freshwater from Himalayan region serves around 2 billion people living in Nepal and

India through several rivers such as Ganges and Brahmaputra. Any deficit in the fresh

water can affect about one-third of the world’s population.

The climatic change also affects the development scenario in SNP. As the tourism

increases in SNP, human pressure also increases day by day. The number of amenities

and concrete structures aimed at visiting travellers and trekkers add to the deteriorating

Himalayan aesthetics (Kaur K, 2014). Along with added pressure from human activities,

the climatic differences affect the protection and development goals of the SNP

protection agencies. The ICCAs protect the area but can also be viewed as major threat to

the virginal beauty of the park.

RESPONSE TO CLIMATIC CHANGE:

Several attempts have been made to analyze the cause and effects of climate

change in the Himalayas by the Nepal government. Some of the policy frameworks that

were established to address the climatic change effects are National adaptation Plan of

Action (2010), National framework for local adaptation plans for action, LAPA (2011)

and the climate change policy (2011) (GoN, 2011). The government established Ministry

of Environment in 2011 under the leadership of Nepal Prime Minister Madhav Kumar,

which prepared LAPA for adaptation programs. To participate and collaborate in the

action plan and adaptation measure, several private players, academia, donors and

organizations joined with the ministries to form Climate change initiatives collaborative

committee (MCCICC). Funding efforts are in the process to develop robust adaptation

procedures to meet the climatic change effects.

Some other efforts to address the issue are tabulated below:

ACTION PLAN DATE AND PLACE OBJECTIVES

Summitteers’ Summit December 11, 2009 Draw attention of international community towards the impacts of climate change on the Himalayas

Kalapatthar Cabinet Meeting

December 4, 2009 Commitment of Nepalese government towards the burning issues of climatic change and the mountain environment

Eco Everest Expeditions

2008,2009,2010 Encounter climbers to climb in eco-sensitive manner, promote usage of alternate energy solutions like parabolic solar cookers, and SteriPENS for water purification

Beat the GLOF action run

June 18, 2009 Create international and local concern on the risks posed by GLOF in SNP

Table1: Efforts to manage climatic change in SNP (Ref: Sherpa A, 2013)

ICCA RESPONSE TOWARDS CLIMATIC CHANGES:

Indigenous communities and local communities have been voluntarily involved in

SNP protection for cultural and economic interests (Dawadi, 2013). To make the local

communities be further involved and aware of situations, several community efforts have

been organized such as “Beat the GLOF Action Run 2010” and Save the Himalayas-

”Khumbu festival”(Sherpa A, 2013). The Sagarmatha Buffer Zone management

committee, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal Tourist

Board, WWF Nepal, Asian Trekking, The Himalayan Trust and Agri Airlines, have

supported these efforts. GLOF action run focused on the risks of GLOF both locally and

internationally. The run was held at places where local population can participate. Locals

were made the focal point of the run such that they motivate and encourage the campaign.

Local communities also came forward to flaunt their culture such that the tourist

and youth are motivated towards protection of the Himalayas. Khumbu festival was held

in 2009 and focused on the rich cultural values of the tribe and the traditions of mountain

communities. It was performed to instill a sense of inspiration in the younger generation

who are majorly responsible for area protection in the future (Kaur K, 2014). Several

stalls, native cultural activities, local delicacies and handmade products were displayed to

display the rich cultural value of the Sherpa community of Nepal to the tourists and

foreigners.

Global warming and other climatic changes are a result of human actions from

several decades and cannot be changed or reversed over a night. The effects of climatic

change can be managed and the Himalayas can be protected from further damage by

proper administration of human activities. This requires collective effort by locals,

government, tourists and other involved people to prevent further damage. Creating

awareness is one of the best possible ways to bring change in the minds of stakeholders

involved.

CLIMATE CHANGE INFLUENCING THE LEGAL PROTECTION AND ACTION

PLAN:

The drastic changes in climate and urgent need for protection and prevention from

catastrophic results require rapid adaptation in the governance of SNP area. The results of

climatic changes such as Drought, floods, GLOF threat and loss of vegetation form basis

for developing different strategies in management. Nepal’s action towards climatic

change began in 2007, since when the government started forming policy and regulations

to address the issue.

Prior to 2007, the government was involved in promoting tourism and

encouraging local communities for conservation (GoN, 2011). When climatic change

concerns were included in the protection plan, the government started actively

participating in improving the condition of Himalayas. Prime Minister heads the Ministry

of Science, Technology and Innovation (MoSTE), which is responsible for coordinating

the action plan against climatic change and allocated finances for the activities. Under the

LAPA, several local bodies and climatic change units operate towards conservation

techniques (GoN, 2011). Several stakeholder including the private players, bank and local

bodies are grouped under thematic work groups, which are involved in separate

functions.

So far Nepal has largely changed its protection plan to adapt to climatic changes (Kaur,

K, 2014). The government has developed and approved NAPA for resilient planning and

local disaster management. Development plans are divided into two sectors: agriculture

and forest, and LAPA forms steps and methods for considering local interests and

priorities to national developmental processes. Finances are separately received from the

total GDP (3.1 percent) every year to deal with the climate change activities. Local

participation is encouraged and Nepal is in the way to achieve sustainable protection

strategies.

Along with government strategies, autonomous adaptation is an important tool to

combat climatic changes. Autonomous approaches include individual and collective

responses by the locals, business holders (Dixit A, 2016). These kinds of adaptation

strategies are voluntary actions and are informal without the involvement of the

government. The Sherpa communities have several businesses and perform agriculture in

the SNP area. They depend on the park for living and protection of the Khumbu region is

important for their own survival. Addition of buffer zone to the SNP region in 2002 has

been very helpful in inspiring the locals towards sustainable living strategies.

ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS:

Sagarmatha National park was privileged as World heritage site in the year 1979

for its aesthetic and natural beauty. It was the first world heritage site for its natural

beauty in Nepal and the status has gained immense attention from tourists and visitors

from around the world. The Khumbu region consists of upper and lower Khumbu which

contain Dudh Kosi, a 1,200 sq.km renowned trekking destination famous worldwide

(Salerno F et al, 2010). The Sherpas have settled farming villages in the valleys and have

protected the high altitude regions from risk, crop losses and loss of animal habitat

(Sherpa A, 2002). Eventually, economic profits increased to the local businesses and now

the entire community lives from the natural resources from SNP and tourism profits. This

prestigious world heritage status has not only increased economic benefits from the park

but also inspired the local communities and governing bodies towards conservation.

As climatic changes started showing effects in the Himalayan region, which has

less than 0.25% of the world population, several international organizations responded

towards appropriate action (GoN, 2011). The world’s highest peak Mt. Everest is seen as

world heritage and the status has attracted several communities to participate in the

process of adaptation. Formal establishment of SNP was a recommendation by the FAO

Wildlife management advisor in 1971, which was officially declared in 1976. The REDD

programme (Reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) in developing

countries has shown interest in increasing funding for the Nepal forest considering the

improvement in the conservation techniques (UNEP, 2011).

Since the establishment of World heritage site, Nepal ICCAs had minimal contact

with UNESCO and are now trying to reach out for formal recognition and formalization

of KCCA (Khumbu community conservation area). The international organization,

particularly IUCN and UNESCO have encouraged the ICCAs towards active

participation in the governance of SNP (Stevens, 2008). They support ICCA and involve

the Sherpa management lessons in several conferences and meeting to provide substantial

support for recognition by government and also inspiration for the locals. Until 2002,

ICCAs living area was not included in the SNP after which a buffer zone was created.

Government of New Zealand funded the SNP conservation for a 5 year period from 1975

restricted ICCAs from entry into the park after which the park advisory committee

loosened the rules and allowed access to forest resources (UNESCO, 2002). The Asian

Development Bank, World Wildlife fund, Eco Himal and the Himalayan Trust have

funded conservation procedures in SNP and have aided the ICCAs in protecting their

native territory. International organizations such as The “Sagarmatha International

Organization” gather people from several countries to support the Sherpa community for

their livelihood and well-being. This has not only protected the ICCAs but also protected

their interests in SNP conservation.

CONCLUSION

Sagarmatha National Park is renowned for the excellent ICCA governance even

without formal recognition. The Sherpas have protected their cultural value and

ecosystem by using sustainable practices since the sixteenth century. As the SNP started

attracting tourists and adventurers from around the world, tourism flourished in the park.

The local communities adapted to the changing scenario and received formal acceptance

into the park through buffer zone inclusion in 2002. The intention of buffer zones is

additional protection of the protected areas and Sherpa buffer zone in SNP was aimed to

encourage the community towards better conservation practices. However, it can be

noticed that as the tourist population increased in the area, Sherpas started settling in the

park by setting up businesses and other forms of income generating jobs. This has

immensely increased the revenue generated from the park and have provided a better

livelihood to the Sherpa community.

Climatic change is global, but the effects of climatic change can be observed the

most in pristine areas where human activities are considerably less. Sagarmatha National

park is considered such a model for analyzing climatic change. As the human pressures

increased, the land has become more vulnerable to impacts of anthropogenic activities.

More concrete for the roads and residential or commercial construction, usage of plastics

and other non-renewable energy sources have made a negative effect on the pristine

beauty. This cannot be named as the reason for climatic change in the Himalayas but is a

significant contributor to damage of aesthetic beauty of the park. Effects of warming on

the park are very catastrophic and have the potential to directly affect several billion

people. Therefore, immediate response to changing climate is necessary and several

efforts have been made by the government, international organizations and local

communities to protect the park.

To deal with the negative effects of climate change in the Himalayas, the Nepal

government has developed governance policies and measure by involving several

stakeholders and communities. But the GoN (Government of Nepal) has not officially

recognized Sherpa tribe or their dedication towards conservation of natural park. Even

though their efforts and conservation techniques have been globally acclaimed, they are

still lobbying for their rights in the country. However, the GoN interacts with the ICCAs

to operate at the community level. This has been possible only because of the voluntary

action of Sherpa community and their respect towards nature and preserved culture.

Further official recognition by GoN and allotment of specific responsibilities to the

ICCAs can improve the adaptation process. It also has to probability to decrease negative

effects of excessive human pressure on SNP if local businesses are made to follow

sustainable practices.

To ideally deal with the dramatic effects of climatic change, the entire world

should aim to take control of the situation. Climate change is a reaction to unsustainable

practices over several decades and immediate prevention of the effects is not practically

possible. Till the entire globe responds to growing global warming, its effects can affect

any pristine natural form.

However, measures taken by the GoN towards climatic change are challenging

and require collaborative effort from all sectors involved. The direct measures should

include resource management techniques, public awareness, adoption of sustainable and

eco-friendly products and practices and regulation of human pressures. The most

practical approach would be promotion of sustainable practices to local businesses as

well as trekkers and tourists visiting the park. Attracting international organizations to

invest in ecosystem and cultural preservation approaches can be useful for raising

funding. Some other advanced approaches such as institutional development, GHG

measurement and technology development are useful to convey the information about

“alarming effects of climate change” and promotion of conservation methods.

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