philippines national policy on climate change (sud … national policy on climate change* (sud-net...

Philippines National Policy on Climate Change*

(SUD-Net Cities in Climate Change Initiative

Noel C. Duhaylungsod and Raymundo B. Mendoza, Jr.

* This policy overview is part of four-country modeling work on climate change adaptation by the Training and Capacity Building Branch, United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), UN Office in Nairobi. The findings, interpretations, and recommendations expressed herein are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the UN-HABITAT. January 2009.

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Summary The physiography and location of the country is intrinsically calamitous, becoming more obvious with the increasing intensity and occurrence of disasters due to climatic changes. The Philippines’ Initial National Communication on Climate Change (PINCCC) and a few research studies have systematically presented the devastation that typhoon, storm surge, drought, flood, and sea rise could create to natural resources in the forests, agriculture, and the seas. These intrinsic risks of the Philippine archipelago are characterized as active land forming mass with numerous islands just above sea level, young erodible soils, and a typical tropical typhoon route (Chapter 3). Indeed, the Philippines’ record of 104,573,592 affected persons or an average of 1,025,231 persons suffering every year due to climatic events from 1905-2007 is staggering. Bulk of the PINCCC document is an inventory of the greenhouse gas emission of the country, which is minimal compared to other countries (Chapter 4). In the last section is the matrix of recommendations to reduce/remove and monitor GHGs. The long list of unearthed policies that are directly and indirectly related to the CC issue suggests the scale of work done by the various sectors and government. Some of these policies were issued much earlier than the current discourse on climate change. Notable policies include the Environmental Impact Statement System and Disaster Risk Management issued in the 70s. The Clean Air Act, Ecological Solid Waste Management Act, Clean Water Act, Urban Development and Housing Act, Renewable Energy Act, and Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act were passed from mid 90s until present. In general, the policies are directed on CC mitigation, contrary to the UNFCCC’s recommendation, that developing countries categorized as Non-Annex 1 like the Philippines, should logically prioritize for adaptation measures. The table below shows the institutional creations for CC. Table 1. Institutional bodies addressing climate change concerns.

Date

Policy action

1978 Established the National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) as response/adaptation 1991 Created the Inter-Agency Committee on Climate Change (IACCC) 1992 Established the Philippine Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD) 2005 Assigned the DENR as the Designated National Authority for Clean Development

Mechanism (DNA-CDM) 2007 Created the Advisory Council on Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and

Communication (ACCCMAC) 2007 Created the Presidential Task Force on Climate Change (PTFCC) 2008 Created the Presidential Adviser on Global Warming and Climate Change (PAGW&CC)

The shift to the sustainable development paradigm from late 80s has influenced policies to promote partnership between the public and private sectors. This spirit of multi-stakeholderism was carried for the issue on climate change, but on varying levels of appreciation. Quite revealing is that LGUs are under-represented, basically making the policy making formulation as a top-down function. Such is divergent to well-established approaches like the EPM process which places emphasis on the LGU as a pivotal stakeholder on sustainable urban development. Guaranteeing implementation of a CC policy is when the LGU and its constituency own the policy. This “ownership” principle of development is consistent with sustainable development advocacies of empowerment. However, on the main,

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the Philippines has fulfilled its global commitments on addressing the impacts of climate change. Under the current policy environment, there is greater push for adaptation measures. The policy overview has also raised significant subject areas for future consideration. To cite a few, papers from the ADB, WB, the UN and other international organizations observed, that while relevant national policies are in place, these are wanting implementation, particularly with regard to synchronically involving the various community stakeholders. There is now a growing concern on coordination between national bodies assuming the mandate to combat CC. Particular policies need to be developed and “old” policies re-visited. Many are groping for management tools and adaptation technologies making the documentation of practices as an urgent task for tools development. These, among others, are the challenges. The policy study implications for support are hereby categorized into seven concerns, namely, (1) policy development, (2) coordination, (3) participation, (4) capacity building support, (5) progressive contextualization, (6) knowledge management, and (7) the follow through of PINCCC recommendations. The policy overview recommendations cap each of the sectional discussion. (1) Policy development

Particular policies for housing designs and construction materials appropriate for the stronger tidal action, winds and rains generated by escalating weather disturbances need to be made available to communities, especially for the communities along the sea front comprising 1,610 municipalities nationwide (50% of total municipalities), as well as those in valley walls. With a policy environment of incentives, active professional organizations and manufacturing firms will be encouraged to develop adaptable designs and processed/manufactured local construction materials as economic opportunities. Drawing a policy on “Up-town Development for Coastal Communities” as urban development approach is timely. This avoidance strategy may be expensive to start with, but will be most sensible to do because adaptation costs for sea walls, diversion dikes, pumping stations and even underground water cisterns will sap the economy for expenses on technology, expertise, and for maintenance and upgrade. Locational planning at a cluster level is another adaptation technique, although entailing changes in administration arrangements. A “Programmatic CLUP and CDP” is a CC adaptation policy development area which usher new political, technical, economic and environmental management approaches for established and highly vulnerable coastal urban centers. Territorial boundaries will be re-configured and the concomitant electoral bases for LGUs, however, allowing optimal LGU-to-LGU subsidiarity. Logically, HUDCC is the agency that is expected to lead in this policy development. The policy on population vis-à-vis climate change is a major gap in the country’s adaptation efforts. A 2007 population of 90 million mean about 100 million Filipinos in five years. At least there is universal recognition that the Philippine population should be controlled. The double squeeze (population growth vs resource limitation) is so apparent in city informal

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settlements. Accordingly, the Philippines’ deficit ecological footprint of about 27 million global hectares because the average per capita consumption is 61%, which is almost double than the world’s average per capita consumption at 31%, is a critical issue. De-congestion and re-distribution of the population will justify Programmatic CLUP and CDP. Another policy absence is an overall CC-oriented R&D agenda, explaining the sparse research on adaptation science and technologies in the country. In other words, a national CC adaptation R&D policy with adequate resource support will boost the development of adaptation management tools and models by capable research institutions. Downstream R&D should generate responsive techniques and approaches on disaster and risk reduction management. Moreover, very little indigenous or traditional knowledge on adaptation and resiliency is recorded and systematically analyzed for up-scaling. A CC-oriented R&D policy will unravel insights for tool and approach development.

Recommendation 1:

(1a) Support the private sector, e.g., PGBC, to lead in the development (manufacture/fabrication) of construction materials since they have the resources and expertise to pursue an industry-oriented R&D. Government patents should be sold to industry for wider production.

(1b) Formulate a national policy requiring LGUs to sensitize their CLUP and CDP

on climate change that expands the opportunity of private sector to produce CC-responsive construction materials.

(1c) Evolve a Programmatic CLUP and CDP for cities facing extreme problems of

space coupled with the threats of storm surges, typhoon, flooding, etc. (1d) Corollary to 1c, draw up a National Policy on Up-Town Development for

congested coastal cities. (1e) Establish a National Strategy on Population-Climate Change. (1f) A CC-oriented R&D Agenda will certainly improve understanding of

vulnerabilities, thereby increase development of tools, approaches and models on adaptation. However, R&D work should start from documenting traditional and indigenous knowledge on adaptation and reflect on their wider application. Adequate budgetary support, for both government research institutions and private sector research centers and organizations, should be provided.

(2) Coordination

Institutions are perceived to have a dual feature of constraining and facilitating the adaptive and mitigative actions of people. At the moment, there are at least five key governmental aggrupations for climate change action. The three key groups are the IACCC-

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ACCCMAC/DNA-CDM, PTFCC, and PAGW&CC. The two others are the NDCC and PCSD. Also, private sector-led or independent non-governmental initiatives from business and the academe are emerging. Orchestrating the five autonomous government structures is assumed by the PTFCC because it is closest to the Office of the President. On one end are the non-government groups, which could be harnessed, based on their possessed strengths in adaptation and mitigation. As climate change policies have subscribed to the major role that LGUs play in effective implementation, bringing them upfront in conceptualizing and planning of programs through participative processes will yield better results. Task assignments have graduated to a more liberal application of scope like assigning ENR governance to DILG and HUDCC, but coordination between sectors is initially strained because each sector has a discreet administration arrangement, independently funded and programmed. This sectoral constraint leads to situations like isolating a very important institution as the NDCC in the quest against climate change. The succession of creating bodies charged on CC has been criticized as too much bureaucracy thus, deterring action against climate change impacts. Given the powerful institutional bodies, a scenario anchored on PAGW&CC as the orchestrator is proposed. Subsequently, the Secretariats of the PTFCC, IACCC and DNA-CDM could collapse into the Philippine Secretariat on CC with a single Executive Director. Financing this “super CC body” would then fall in the hands of the Office of the President. Some legal minds have stressed for a law-based action as a more lasting effort. On this aspect, the scene for coordination will change in the event that a CC Commission is created by the Philippine Congress.

Recommendation 2: Coalesce the IACCC-ACCCMAC, PTFCC, and the PAGWCC with just one Philippine Secretariat on Climate Change. Strategic organizations like the NDCC, HUDCC and the LGUs need to be brought in the scheme of coordination. A National Institutional Support Development Strategy will be required to guide the coalition of the bodies. In the long term, a legislated policy on CC will ascertain a regular budget allocation.

(3) Participation

Based on the principle of good governance, the three CC bodies (PAGW&CC, PTFCC, IACCC & ACCCMAC) need to encourage broad-base and bottom-up participation. The LGU is not directly participating, so that a necessary corrective opportunity is to include the LGU via their federations in the policy governing bodies of the PAGW&CC, PTFCC, IACCC & ACCCMAC. A reason that cities play a prominent role on the issues of SWM, AQM, and DRR is because the overall policies were crafted with the city’s direct representation, hence, participation in the policy and decision making activities of the National Solid Waste Management Commission, Air Quality Management Board and the National Disaster Coordinating Council. Another indispensible player that needs to be brought into the CC policy development picture is big business and industry sector. Their participation in policy formulation and

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implementation planning will be advantageous in rationalizing the reduction of GHGs from their large ventures. The perceived antagonism between business and industry, on the one hand, and civil society organizations, on the other, is a mistaken perception. Given the hugeness of the CC issue, there is no development player that could think and act in isolation. Gender sensitivity in the policy making CC bodies should be upheld, similar to the DRR’s policy as exemplified by the SNAP. The vulnerable situation of women, children and the aged during and after natural disasters is a significant consideration in planning adaptation measures.

Recommendation 3:

(3a) Ensure that the LGU through their federations and more civil society groups are represented in decision making structures. Unless they are legally included, ownership of efforts will be an issue that will affect their participation in adaptation actions, on ground.

(3b) Include the strategic big business and industry in the policy development

arena possibly through their clubs and councils. The big energy consumers must be prioritized.

(3c) The decision making process need to be participatory and gender sensitive.

(4) Capacity building support

To avert confusion primarily among the LGU, at least five existing CC-related capacity building proposals require fusing for wider and well-defined coverage and approach. A usual comment from cities is the need to understand the context, intentions, and process for implementation of national policies like climate change. Cities are wanting for continuing policy orientation or a single capacity building design which will assist them to effectively localize national policies. These proposals are the CHANGE report of UNDP titled “Capacity Enhancement for the Global Environment”, UN-HABITAT/SCP’s “National Capacity Building Strategy”, and “Strategic National Action Plan” for the DRR. Other documents that have to be culled for capacity building ideas are the Action Programs/Plans of the PTFCC, and the IACCC & ACCCMAC. Capacity building proposals for coastal resource management, forestry, and agriculture, also have to be fused with the above to constitute the “National Capacity Building Framework on Climate Change Adaptation”. The AIs are the logical groups to spearhead capacity building. Development of training modules and conduct of policy research could be directed on CC-population interaction; CC-sensitive food crops, animals and fish, training on participatory CC governance, and vulnerability mapping. Other subject matters may include CER/VER availment, innovative schemes of financing of CO2 reduction/sequestration projects and marketing of CO2, and private-public sector partnerships.

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Previous experiences like those of the BLGD-DILG are take-off points for synthesizing the CLUP and CDP on CC through the EPM (broad-base and bottom-up) process. On tools, there is a critical gap on CC adaptation management tools applicable to Philippine archipelagic ecosystems, but several assessment tools are available. This call for tools was articulated by the BLGD during its September 2008 policy workshop. A re-expressed task is to document good practices especially the adaptation technologies/approaches to extract CC management tools. The anchor institutions may be assigned for the tasks on documentation, substantive reflection activities, training module development, tools development, policy enhancement, and training. With a single capacity building framework, the conduct of capacity building activities and production of advocacy education materials by sectors will be more focused but cross-linked with other sectors. The exchange of evaluative and management tools, methodologies and models for replication, is expected from the collective consciousness.

Recommendation 4: (4a) Evolve a National Capacity Building Strategy by integrating existing capacity

building plans. Use the CHANGE Report, “Capacity Enhancement for the Global Environment” and the DRR’s Strategic National Action Plan as base materials on the subject.

(4b) Document systematically good practices on adaptation technologies and

approaches. The “old” cases reported as success stories should be re-visited for elements of resiliency and adaptation approaches and techniques, and new and evolving success stories have to be systematically documented. Reflection activities on the documents will provide good bases for drawing out CC management tools useful to replicating cities. The anchor institutions are in the best position to conduct the documentation and reflection process.

(5) Knowledge management

A difficulty in synthesis work, for example this study, is the clutter of incoherent information, thus, raising the need to institutionalize the inventory process within the various participating agencies and organizations. Thereafter, information could be stored in a systematic fashion making it accessible to other researchers and policy makers, particularly to the IACCC, PTFCC, and PAGW&CC. A similar recommendation for knowledge management came from the PINCCC. Building such knowledge center anchored with the ROAP-UNH Knowledge Management Center or the SUDNet-CCCI is a possibility. Information is generally free of charge in this data store, and open to other users including neighboring countries in Asia. CC knowledge production should be vibrant. Policies have to be progressively contextualized so as to increase their relevance to current and the emerging contexts. Policies needing update were cited in this paper, prominently, is the National Building Code. The long-drawn debate between engineers and architects on the NBC and the Architectural Law has affected

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efforts to adapt construction with CC impact. The concern for resolution is important since local (LGU) permitting is based on the national policy. Meantime, the massive housing backlog will utilize the usual designs and materials as well as for big construction. An excellent example of re-contextualization is the transfer from “purely nationally” administered DRR governance to Community-Based Disaster Management involving the LGU and the community. In this particular case, the civil society has come forward to constructively innovate on the present policy.

Recommendation 5: Build a Philippine Knowledge Management Center on Climate Change which is accessible to the public at least cost, provided that pertinent rules such as the Intellectual Property Rights are observed. Explore schemes of de-centralized administration of the KMC.

(6) Follow through of PINCCC The PINCCC 1999 list on the financial, technological needs and constraints that have to be addressed for greater adaptation measures for each of the sectors is up for audit. The task is timely since the IACCC has started formulating the second country communication, besides building the continuity of the communications. Interesting action research topics include appraising the interactions between CC-population, developing CC-sensitive food crops, animals and fish, participatory CC governance, vulnerability mapping of the country, and CO2 accounting system. A great part of the recommendations are on R&D. Interesting action researches consist of the setting up of standards for energy mixes, GHG accounting, and methodologies for more accurate assessments and inventories. Also, it suggested the institutionalization of information storage for the range of uses (knowledge management). The impact on the natural resources was likewise highlighted. By combining these subject areas with those identified in this policy overview, like appraising the interactions between CC-population, developing CC-sensitive food crops, animals and fish, participatory CC governance, vulnerability mapping of the country, and CO2 accounting system, will indeed produce a more comprehensive diagnosis on the problem and solutions.

Recommendation 6:

Re-visit the PINCCC for relevance of the 1999 recommendations and juxtapose with the recommendations of the current policy overview. The timing is perfect since the IACCC is formulating the Second National Communication.

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Table of Contents

Page Title page Summary Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tables

1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 A Non-Annex 1 1 1.2 Regional Asia SCP Experts’ Meeting 4 1.3 Emerging global operations 5 2.0 Study approach 6 2.1 Overview of policy environment 6 2.1.1 Review parameters 7 2.2 Resilience: vulnerability and adaptation capacity 8 3.0 Vulnerability and resilience 10 3.1 Intrinsic physiography 10 3.1.1 Temperature and sea rise 11 3.1.2 Tropical cyclones, and precipitation and ENSO 13 3.1.3 Vegetation and land use 15 3.1.4 Water scarcity/excess 16 3.2 Human poverty 17 3.3 Economy and natural resources 18 3.4 Disaster 23 4.0 Greenhouse gas inventory 27 5.0 Policy environment 32 5.1 Early policy efforts 32 5.1.1 Disaster management 32 5.1.2 Environmental Impact Assessment 36 5.1.3 Sustainable Development 37 5.1.4 Inter-Agency on Committee on Climate Change 39 5.2 Current overarching policies 43 5.2.1 Medium Term Philippine Development Plan 44 5.2.2 Clean Development Mechanism 45 5.2.3 Strategic National Action Plan 52 5.3 National sectoral policies 56 5.3.1 Housing and urban development 57 5.3.2 Energy 64 5.3.3 Air quality 70 5.3.4 Solid wastes 74 5.3.5 Agriculture and marine 79 5.3.6 Population control 81 5.3.7 Construction 82

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5.3.8 Water 83 5.4 Researches 87 6. Tools and good practices 93 6.1 On management tools 93 6.2 On good practice 98 6.2.1 Coastal resource management 98 6.2.2 PhilGARP 100 6.2.3. Community-Based Disaster Risk Management 101 6.2.4 CIRCA 103 6.2.5 EPM cities 103 6.2.6 Montalban Methane Power Plant: CDM registered biogas 104 6.2.7 PhilGBC 105 6.2.8 Rehabilitation of Degraded Lands through a Carbon Sink Project:

The Case of Mirant Philippines 105

7.0 Issues and challenges 107 7.1 Policy development 107

On building and developmental planning 107 On urban development 109 On population 110 On research and development 111

7.2 Coordination 111 7.3 Participation 116 7.4 Capacity building support 117 7.5 Progressive contextualization 120 7.6 Knowledge management 120 7.7 Follow through on PINCCC proposals 121 8.0 Recommendations 125

References Annexes (laws, papers)

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List of Figures Page Fig 1. Conceptual flow of the review process 7 Fig 2. Map of the Republic of the Philippines 11 Fig 3. Trend in Philippine temperatures juxtaposed with

global temperature trend 12

Fig 4. Sea Level rise observations at five Philippine Primary Tide Stations 13 Fig 5. Pathways of tropical cyclones passing over the Philippines 14 Fig 6. Effects of ENSO on the GVA in the agriculture sector 21 Fig 7. C02 emission of the energy sector 27 Fig 8. CO2 emission projections 27 Fig 9. Adaptation-mitigation costs 28 Fig 10. Agriculture sector CO2 emission 29 Fig 11. Industrial sector CO2 emission 29 Fig 12. CO2 generation from domestic waste 30 Fig 13. Routing the environment impact assessment with the development

project cycle 37

Fig 14. The PCSD organizational structure 38 Fig 15. IACCC organizational structure 40 Fig 16. DNA-CDM organizational structure 46 Fig 17. Approving process for CDM registration 47 Fig 18. Framework of the Philippine Energy Plan, 2007 update 66 Fig 19. Organizational chart of the PTFCC 68 Fig 20. Routes of municipal solid waste disposal. 75 Fig 21. Planning, implementing, and evaluating tools through an urban

development process 94

Fig 22. Decision-making under the EPM approach 95 Fig 23. Potential uses of the products of the EPM process for CC work 104 Fig 24. Communication between Government and Non-Government

structures 114

Fig 25. A simple representation of converging CC-bodies 116 Fig 26.Work direction following the success of the BLGD-DILG/

UN-HABITAT GO-FAR Project 119

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List of tables

Page Table1. The Philippine situation relative to non-Annex 1 averages 2 Table 2. Extent of damage due to extreme weather 14 Table 3. Four-decade inventory of El Nino impact in the country 15 Table 4. Top 20 Ranking of Provinces by Poverty Incidence 18 Table 5. Perceived and empirically shown sectoral impacts of climate

change 19

Table 6. Percentage loss in annual rice production due to extreme weather, 000s tons

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Table 7. Losses due to natural disasters,1905-2007 24 Table 8. Heavily submerged provinces with 1 meter eustatic rise of

sea level 25

Table 9. IRRI default parameter values and methane emission factor for rice paddy cultivation.

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Table 10. Local values for methane emissions from domestic and commercial wastewater

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Table 11. GHG emissions of the sectors. 31 Table 12. IACCC matrix on its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities

and threats 42

Table 13. National policies directly addressing climate change concerns 43 Table 14. Status of CDM project registrants since 2005-2008 50 Table 15. Spread of CDM-registered projects and calculated CO2e Table 16. Environment and natural resources policies related to climate

change 56

Table 17. Latest CC policy advocacies 57 Table 18. HUDCC strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. 64 Table 19. Energy mix under a high economic growth scenario at 143.95, in

million barrels of fuel oil equivalent (MMBFOE) 66

Table 20. PTFCC strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats 70 Table 21. RA 8749 national agency-assigned tasks and their status 72 Table 22. Protection policies on seas and oceans 80 Table 23. Water policies 85 Table 24. Few baseline studies conducted on CC 87 Table 25. Few adaptation-mitigation researches conducted 88 Table 26. Capacity needs and proposed action agenda 90 Table 27. Academe (collective) strengths, weaknesses, opportunities

and threats 92

Table 28. Participatory urban management tools used in the EPM process 97 Table 29. Key support structures 112 Table 30. Vulnerability and adaptation issues and recommendations 122

Philippines National Policy on Climate Change*

(SUD-Net Cities and Climate Change Initiative) 1.0 Introduction

1.1 Non-Annex 1 The Philippines is a party to the conference of nations combating the impacts of climate change, specifically as a Non-Annex 1 category under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The norm expected from signing a global commitment means that the government ensures attainment of targets by crafting national policies, and supported by structures and mechanisms for nationwide implementation. The UNFCCC has produced the world guide entitled “Climate Change: Impacts, Vulnerabilities and Adaptation in Developing Countries”, to highlight the urgency for adaptation as “developing countries are the most vulnerable to climate change impacts because they have fewer resources to adapt: socially, technologically and financially...even with temperature rise of 1–2.5°C the Inter Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predict serious effects including reduced crop yields in tropical areas leading to increased risk of hunger, spread of climate sensitive diseases such as malaria, and an increased risk of extinction of 20–30 per cent of all plant and animal species…sea level rise will lead to inundation of coasts … people living with the constant threat of tropical cyclones now face increased severity and possibly increased frequency of these events with all associated risks to life and livelihoods.1 While most of the Non-Annex 1 countries have little contribution to the build up of greenhouse gases (Table 1), it is no reason to confine efforts on adaptation considering the fact that climate change is a transboundary concern. Adaptation efforts should be coupled with mitigation measures. However, adaptation becomes a main task because even with the most stringent mitigation measure, the trends in climatic changes and their impacts will continue and in increased intensity in the following decades.2

* Crafted by Noel C. Duhaylungsod, an Environmental/Governance Expert in Sustainable Urban Development, UN-HABITAT, Philippines, and Raymundo B. Mendoza, Jr. Professor and Chairperson, Community and Environmental Resources Planning Department, University of the Philippines, Los Banos. Nikos B. Penaranda, a UP-Meteorology graduate student gave assistance to the study. January 2009.

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Table1. The Philippine situation relative to non-Annex 1 averages. (CAIT, 2008).

Parameter non-Annex I Philippines

GHG Emissions

Rank -- 37 MtCO2 23,834.8 225.0

% of World Total 53.75% 0.51% Per Capita Rank -- 135

Yearly Emissions 2000: CO2, CH4, N2O, PFCs, HFCs, SF6 (includes land use change & intl. bunkers) Tons CO2 Per Person 5.0 3.0

Rank -- 40

MtCO2 518,450.4 4,325.7 % of World Total 47.64% 0.40%

Per Capita Rank -- 129

Cumulative Emissions 1950-2000: CO2 (energy), CO2 (land use change)

Tons CO2 Per Person 103.0 53.0

Rank -- 39 Index 287.8 2.9


Concentrations 1950-2000: CO2 (energy), CO2 (land use change)

Per Capita Index 9.6 8.2

Rank -- 40 Index 273.9 2.7


Temperature Increase 1950-2000: CO2 (energy), CO2 (land use change)

Per Capita Index 9.4 8.1

Rank -- 94 Carbon Intensity of Energy Use Tons CO2/Tons Oil Eq. 2.57 1.81

Rank -- 62 Carbon Intensity of

Electricity Production g CO2/kWh. 678.5 457.0

Rank -- 135 Tons CO2 Eq./Mill. $Intl 568.5 222.1

GHG Intensity of Economy 2004: CO2 (excludes land use change)

Socio-Economic

Rank -- 86 Life Expectancy Years 65.3 70.7

Rank -- 61 Education Index 64.1 86.5

Rank -- 102 Income Per Capita

$Intl 2000 Per Person $4,282 $4,431

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Rank -- 26

Millions $Intl 2000 $21,520,114 $361,622 Size of Economy

% of World Total 41.37% 0.70%

Rank -- 38 Mt of Oil Eq. 4,770 44


Energy Use

T Oil Eq. Per Person 1.0 0.5

Rank -- 113 Governance Index 35.8 37.0

Natural Factors

Per Capita Rank -- 115 Degree Days 820 2

Total Rank -- 104

Climate: Heating Needs

Total Heating Need 4,115,957 147

Per Capita Rank -- 18 Degree Days 2,137 3,508

Total Rank -- 8

Climate: Cooling Needs

Total Cooling Need 10,719,004 286,277

Rank -- 74 Total MtCO2 Eq. 1,439,231 641

Oil 395,389 64 Natural Gas 241,979 226

Coal 801,863 352 Per Capita Rank -- 94

Fossil Fuel Reserves

Tons CO2 Per Person 302.7 7.9

Rank -- 23 Sq. Km. 16,807,594 253,534

Per Capita Rank -- 100

Land Area Impacted By Human Activity

Sq. Km Per Capita 3.3 3.1

Rank -- 15 Thousands of People 5,031,742 81,617

Population

% of World Total 79.09% 1.28%

The operational as well as substantial issues related with the institution of adaptive and mitigative policy measures by the national players against impacts of climate change (CC) are highlighted in the present Policy Overview. For instance, it is good guidance that the review found the implementation of national climate change policies as complying with the globally agreed reduction targets of greenhouse gas emissions and ozone depleting substances. However, the level of compliance could not be determined

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from the current examination, but the apparent factors of success identified, given the level of information generated, should be useful for up-scaling of efforts. Viewpoints on policy constraints are forwarded to stir discussions. Also, an angle discussed is the latitude for empowerment of stakeholders offered by the current arrangements of implementation.

Since the organization of the Inter-Agency Committee on Climate Change (IACCC) in 1991 and recently, the Presidential Task Force on Climate Change (PTFCC), the Philippines has embarked on various adaptation and mitigation strategies. However, the present review information is inadequate to draw conclusions that indeed, these have evolved as good practices. Within the need to up-scale practice in order to widen impact of actions, the study looked at the availability of tools, and human and technical capacities for the bigger national challenge. When required capacity building is articulated, the indicative areas of training and exposure were suggested. Equally important was initially indicating the lateral and vertical coordination of national players, LGUs, civil society and business. SWOT analysis was conducted for key institutional stakeholders on CC (IACC, PTFCC, HUDCC, academe-research). A summary of this overview paper entitled, “National Policy on Climate Change Policy: Philippines (SUD-Net Cities in Climate Change Initiative)” was written to accompany an informational brochure on the climate change policy map of the Philippines for the Oslo Conference of Parties (COP), and WUF4 in Nanjing on November 2008. To ensure representation of interests in the review, the draft final version of the overview report was produced upon validation by select national agencies and organizations. The recommendations were drawn to identify possible national intervention points to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of present adaption and mitigation measures against climate change. Thus, the reader is encouraged to read through the paper, placing particular interest on the latter parts, which attempt to synthesize the policy actions so far, instituted by the national government and flagged possible policy proposals. 1.2 Regional Asia SCP Experts’ Meeting The second segment of the end-August 2008 Regional SCP Asia conference of the UN-HABITAT deliberated on the impacts of climate change and how the EPM approach set up adaptation and mitigation measures by cities. Several examples have been cited by practitioners of the EPM process. Notably on solid waste management, the sequestration of methane (CH4) through composting and biodigesting was shown as promising for Local Government Units (LGU). At the macro level, the conference concluded by re-stressing the UN-HABITAT’s global campaign for sustainable urban development by taking off from the experience on broad-base and bottom-up environmental planning and management. With the impacts of climate change much on the way, a developmental approach such as the EPM process, which is empowering and multi-stakeholder, enhances the adaptation capacity of LGUs. The interplay of national and local governing bodies during implementation of CC measures, i.e., National Agencies (NA) to city and

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vice versa further increases the resiliency index of communities because capacities are built up in greater pace with technical expert inputs from the NAs. The Philippine experience of the SCP has established a common ground in cities for wider engagement of city residents for adaptation with climate change impacts. The present study takes a perspective that even for a technically demanding issue on climate change; participatory multi-stakeholderism is a better option. The anchor institutions of mostly tertiary educational institutions and NAs provide the coaching functions, emphasizing that the EPM approach is a resource which could be used by the LGU to combat the effects of CC. 1.3 Emerging global operations3

UN-HABITAT’s work contributes to improved disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and post disaster rehabilitation capabilities at the local level. The Declaration on Cities and Other Human Settlements in the New Millennium seeks for support to national and international cooperation networks, in order to reduce the vulnerability of human settlements to natural and human-made disasters, and for improving of shelter conditions, especially in developing countries and critical natural environments. Both Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation assert that carrying out the activities at the local level is the key instrument for addressing climate change. SUD-Net Cities in Climate Change Initiative (CCCI) is within the vision of the UNHABITAT’s Medium-Term Strategic and Institutional Plan (MTSIP) - to promote, monitor and report on progress in the implementation of the Habitat Agenda, with the twin objectives of shelter for all and sustainable human settlements development - focusing on Focus Area 2: urban governance; decentralization and strengthening local authorities; environmental planning and management; and mitigation and adaptation to climate change impacts on human settlements. It will contribute to the attainment of MDG Goal 7 (ensuring environmental sustainability) and requires that cities and local authorities, in partnership with other actors to ensure they have the tools and capacities to promote resilience of cities and national governments to deal with climate changes impacts on the ecosystems and livelihoods. The long term goal of SUD-Net is to enhance climate change mitigation and preparedness of cities in developing countries through strengthening capacities through advocacy, education, training and tools development and application. In this respect, UN-HABITAT is committed in helping human settlements adapt to climate change at the local level. The first implementation phase (2 years) of SUD-Net - CCCI - provides towns, cities, national governments as well as non-governmental stakeholders such as the private sector, academia, and NGOs with pertinent information on climate change adaptation and mitigation measures for human settlements. Four pilot countries (Mozambique, Uganda, Philippines and Ecuador) have therefore been selected through a comprehensive demand-driven and participatory approach. Within these countries four cities (Maputo, Kampala, Sorsogon in the Philippines, and Esmeraldas), will provide the locations for the pilot

6

initiatives which will be implemented through working with local counterparts and networks. The activities that will be undertaken fall under the following broad categories:

• Policy dialogue and policy change • Tools identification and development • Tools application • Capacity building

The planned activities will facilitate city-to-city collaborations and will utilize the resources of the networks of previous programmes for quick-wins. SUD-Net CCCI will also establish linkages with global, regional and local urban knowledge arenas as a response towards creating and promoting co-ordination mechanisms that will deal effectively the critical climate change issues via multi-stakeholderism. In order to effectively undertake the CCCI activities, targeted tools will be designed, developed or adapted to enhance information access, sharing and dissemination; training and for use during development of demonstration projects. Results from SUD-Net CCCI Phase 1 will contribute to the development of selected demonstration programmes and their scaling-up, subsequently contributing also to both the normative and operational activities of the SUD-Net programme of UN-HABITAT. Establishing linkages with existing partner educational institutions and organizations (such as UP-SURP, AIM, LGA-DILG and LDCU) dealing with sustainable environmental issues will be one of the tasks of CCCI. More strategic educational centers in the region will be considered. The scoping study will therefore need to provide information that will guide the selection of local partners, and anchor institutions (AI) at the national and Sorsogon City levels. The Sustainable Cities Program-UN Habitat described an AI as a tertiary educational institution with multi-disciplinary offerings on environmental planning and management. Its role in the EPM process is to serve as the technical storehouse of skills and knowledge evolved from reflective thinking on interconnected practice and theory. Practitioners draw from this resource pool for capacity building. 2.0 Study approach 2.1 Overview of policy environment The overall purpose of this study is to conduct an overview on climate change policies of the country. The review provided a baseline analysis of the dynamics on policy development and implementation situations given the political, governance, management, environmental, and social circumstances of the national players. The review synthesized climate change policies, strategies and action plans, and evaluated the current efforts vis-à-vis potential consequences of climate change. Key institutional stakeholders were identified along with their SWOT matrix on engaging adaptation measures. In this policy map, documented good practices as well as tools of national development groups were

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scanned for potential reproduction. Gaps in policy and implementation process were identified, with initial recommendations made to strengthen current arrangements. 2.1.1 Review parameters The flow diagram (Fig 1) describes a review process starting with identifying the global commitments and the policies that have been issued as part of these commitments, and their implementation arrangements. Particularly, the interrelationship between policy development, support structure establishment, and implementation mechanism will be examined to identify the gaps. Correspondingly, the interventions necessary for greater effectiveness and efficiency of policy implementation and feedback will be defined. (a) Global conventions

/agreements

(f) Good practice

(b) National policies (c) National programs

(d) Tools utilized (adaptation, mitigation)

Fig 1. Conceptual flow of the The parameters considered for the overview and a area are listed below.

Global agreements-commitments: The (UNFCCC) will be referred to as the cosignatory. Translation of global commitments into natnational policies related to climate change wand sectoral policies will be reviewed. Tools utilized and practice (adaption): Theused to reduce the pace and magnitude of timpacts on population and the biophysical e

(e) Implementationarrangements

(g) Reproducibility and/or gaps

review process.

brief description for each of the review

global climate change convention nvention where the Philippines is a

ional policies: Coverage and targets of ill be described. Overarching policies

tools and practice will be described as he climatic changes, and to reduce the nvironment.

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Implementation arrangements: The support structure and mechanisms of implementation will be described within the governance context of decentralization, de-concentration and devolution of functions to mitigate and adapt to climate changes. Key players/anchor institutions: The strategic significance of current institutions on mitigating and adapting to climate change will be shown.

Literatures found in libraries were reviewed but confined to the directly relevant documents on climate change adaptation and mitigation. Associated literatures like biodiversity, forestation, etc. were included in the review according to their significance in adapting and/or mitigating to impacts of climate change. The e-knowledge centers (websites and home pages) of agencies and organizations were major resources for the study, although it was observed that some have become dormant (un-updated). To avoid clutter of information from the desk review and internet surfing, the information was displayed as matrices following the review parameters. The mandates and functions of agencies and organizations in relation with climate change policies were reviewed. Institutional structures and mechanisms in support to implementation were visited, and flow diagrams were evolved to characterize the connectivity of policies and actions. 2.2 Resilience: vulnerability and adaptation capacity By definition, resilience4 is characterized as, (1) the level of change a system could hold or experience with essentially the same controls on function and structure or still be in the same configuration – within the same domain of attraction, (2) the system is still capable of maintaining self-organization, and (3) the system has capacity to learn to adapt to the changes in the environment. Thus, resilience reflects the potential of that system to “remain in a particular configuration, to maintain its feedbacks and functions, involving the ability of the system to re-organize following disturbance-driven change”. Usually measured in terms of adaptation capacity, typhoon path coastal communities for instance will rebuild houses in the same spot before typhoon devastation, and possibly with the same light material or with “stronger posts and setting up of barriers”. Translated at the community level, there could be efforts to erect seawalls made from sandbags or the re-vegetation of mangroves to slow down wave motions and sea currents. Perhaps in the later time, this community will build steel reinforced cement walls as in the Galveston Bay, Texas which reduced the impact of hurricane Ike for sturdy houses built behind the seawall. However accordingly, residents in this sea-walled subdivision are re-thinking their positions to stay or move elsewhere as the seawall might not hold bigger hurricanes or if additional costs from government and themselves will be needed to build an even stronger wall notwithstanding their individual expenses to re-build and reinforce their houses. For how long similar adaptation measures could be setup to maintain the same community functions and structures of governance, for example, is issue that needs to be confronted most especially for communities which are left with no choice but to stay put in their present vulnerable locations. Resilience in this case is a

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function of vulnerability due to the physiographic location, socioeconomic situation and the institutional capacities to make adaptation measures possible. Notes: 1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2 Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change. “Assessment Report 4”. 2007. 3 The SUD-Net CCCI is a new facility in UN-HABITAT which took off from the successes of the

Sustainable Cities Programme. Therefore, the elements of the broad-base and bottom-up process, anchor institution, good urban governance and other approaches in planning and management will be distinct advantage in the new focus on climate change.

4 Lebel, L. (ed). Chiang Mai Workshop on Sustainability Science: Synthesis Report and Background Documents. CD-ROM Electronic Publication. Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. March 2002; see also, Holling, C.S. Engineering resilience versus ecological resilience. In: Schulze, P., (ed). Engineering Within Ecological Constraints. Washington (DC). National Academy. 1996.; Gunderson L.H, Holling C.S. (Eds). Panarchy: Understanding transformation in human and natural systems. Island Press: Washington. 2001.; Berkes, F. and Folke, C. (eds). Linking Social and Ecological Systems: Management Practices and Social Mechanisms for Building Resilience. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 1998.; Resilience Alliance website: http://www.resalliance.org/

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3.0 Vulnerability and resilience The government through the Inter-Agency Committee on Climate Change submitted in 1999 the “Philippines’ Initial National Communication on Climate Change (PINCCC)”, which is a comprehensive picture of the effects of climate changes in the country and built various scenarios of impact. After this submission to the UNFCCC, specks of researches have been conducted by different CC players however few have found print in scientific journals. It is therefore difficult to simply refer to these materials with acceptable information as the refereeing process for technical materials is absent. However, while it is necessary to scientifically distill which of the materials must be referred to as upgrades of the 1999 document or which are the nearest approximations to climatogenetic changes plus the anthropogenically-caused changes in the Philippines, the documents have great value to the growing research interest on climate change. The current search has not identified any additional or supplemental report that the IACCC has issued following the first submission. The IACCC Secretariat is formulating the next national communication which will be submitted by 2010, as programmed. The PINCCC is the country’s baseline reading on climate change. Researches referred to in this overview, unless the article is scientifically published, will require validation. By large, the information contained in this Policy Overview, particularly this section is to be located in the 107 page IACCC document.5 3.1 Intrinsic physiography The Philippines is an archipelagic mass of 7,107 islands totaling 299,404 km2 and surrounded by the 2,200,000 km2 of the exclusive economic zone of sea waters. About 1,000 of islands and islets are inhabited rock formations and only 2,803 islands are labeled accordingly. The entire country is sitting above the so-called “ring of fire” characterized by active land forming mass due to volcanoes. A recent example of the magnitude of this land forming activity was the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruption, which shaped new landforms principally on the west plains of Zambales and the swamps of Pampanga. The other major land forming activity is the so-called mobile belt which is a composite strip of lithographic materials borne from the convergence of the Eurasian and Philippine Sea Plates, reportedly proceeding at 8cm per year. The other two plates which also interact consistent with the continental drift theory are the Indian-Australian Plates and the Oceanic Plates. The country lies 409’and 2107’north of the equator (Fig 2). The great expanse of the Pacific Ocean is on the east side and on the west is South China Sea. Therefore, apart from the “smallness of the land masses”, any little rise of sea levels has magnified impacts to the lives and properties of the Filipino people. Except for the Cordilleras in Luzon and the mountainous regions of Mindanao, a traditionally preferred site for LGU building in the country is the coastal plains, so that 80% of LGUs are located along the discontinuous 32,400 km coastlines. On straight line, the south to north coastlines is 1,840 kms. These sites are the fastest growing in terms of population, commerce, infrastructure and other services making many of them as sprawling urban centers.

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Moreover, they have the biggest informal settlements. Some urban LGUs have landlocked locations and could be as packed as the coastal counterparts.

Fig 2. Map of the Republic of the Philippines. 3.1.1 Temperature and sea rise As a typical humid tropical region, the mean annual temperature is 270C governed mainly by the flowing hot air masses from the waters into the narrow landforms. However, the increased occurrences of El Nino and La Nina (El Nino Southern Oscillation, ENSO) have resulted to higher mean temperatures (1920-1998) as shown in Fig 3. The trend coincides with the global temperature increases with 1998 as the warmest time

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experienced by the world. The annual mean temperature for the mountainous region is 19.50C and 28.20C in small islands. The months of April, May and June are hottest while December, January and February are coldest. In general, the highest temperatures occur in valleys and plains. The highest temperature recorded in the Philippines was 42.20C in Tuguegarao, Cagayan Valley (April 29, 1912; May 11, 1969). The absolute minimum temperature of 3.0

0C was recorded in January Baguio (1903).6

Fig 3. Trend in Philippine temperatures juxtaposed with

global temperature trend (Amadore, 2005). As regards sea level rise, on five Primary Tide Stations, the increase of sea levels have been observed beginning 1970. About 15 cm rise was monitored in Metro Manila, Legazpi City, and in Davao. There is no perceptible sea rise observed in the southwestern islands like Jolo and in Cebu, central Visayas (Fig 4).7 The average annual relative humidity is approximately 82 % with monthly averages higher than 70 %. These values influence surface temperatures becoming especially high at night and early morning. Regarding patterns of air masses through the year, the prevailing wind from October to February is northeasterly (amihan), March to May is easterly, and from June to September is southwesterly (habagat). Occasionally, changes in regional wind direction are caused by the differential heat potentials between the large Asian land mass and the oceans ringing the continent, although the local orographic effects on winds may dominate prevailing patterns.

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Fig 4. Sea Level rise observations at five Philippine Primary Tide Stations

(Amadore, 2005). 3.1.2 Tropical cyclones, and precipitation and ENSO Trend analysis on rainfall index done on per decade basis, establish a general increase in volume of precipitation and rain events during the wettest and driest years. Cyclone development in the region account about 40% of all cyclones globally, thus, 19-22 cyclones visit the Philippines yearly, usually from June until December with peaks during July, August and September. Fig 5 illustrates the typhoon paths across different geographic zones of the country. Zone 2 which is at the northernmost part, experience on the average five tropical cyclones in 2 years. In contrast, Zone 12 at the southern region of the Philippines is visited the least. The intrinsic vulnerability of the Philippines is exemplified in a 2006 typhoon appeal for assistance, where it reported that the country was hit by extreme typhoon events in that last quarter of the year causing heavy damages to property and lives.8 Table 2 enumerates the valued damages incurred from the four typhoons which hit the Philippines in 2006.

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Fig 5. Pathways of tropical cyclones passing over the Philippines (IACCC, 1999).

Table 2. Extent of damage due to extreme weather (UN, 2007).

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Associated with the amount of precipitation is the El Nino Southern Oscillation, a drought and extreme wet phenomenon. While there is no general agreement on its direct cause, its persistent occurrence has brought severe losses (Table 3) with the 1997-98 El Nino considered as the worst thus far. From 1935 to 1999, 11 ENSO events have affected the country.9 Table 3. Four-decade inventory of El Nino impact in the country (IACCC, 1999).

Events

Severe

Moderate

1986-69

Bicol

Rest of the Philippines except Regions 1 & 2

1972-73 Central Luzon Visayas and Mindanao 1976-77 Mindanao 1982-83

Oct 82-Mar 83

Central Luzon Southern Tagalog Northern Visayas Western Mindanao Reg 2 and parts of Reg 1

Reg 1,2, 3 and 5

1986-87

Oct 86-Mar 87 Apr 87-Sept 87

Western Luzon Bicol Region Most of Luzon Central Visayas Northeastern Mindanao

1989-90

Oct 89-Mar 90

Cagayan Valley Panay Island Guimaras Northern Palawan Western Mindanao

1991-93 Comparable with that of 1982-1983

1994-95 Reg 1, 2, 3, NCR, 5 and Palawan Visayas and Western Mindanao 1997-98 Whole Philippines

3.1.3 Vegetation and land use In 1997 10 about 15 million hectares are forestlands and 14.12 million hectares are alienable and disposable lands. Philippine forests have dipterocarps (65.6%), mossy forests (19.3%), sub-marginal (8.8%), pines (4.2%), and mangroves (2.1%). Forests are de-vegetated at 2 percent per annum due to illegal logging, shifting cultivation or kaingin, forest fires, natural calamities, conversion to uses like agriculture, human settlements, and other into other uses associated with urbanization and population increase. The country has only about 5.4 million hectares of forest stand, with 804,900 hectares as old

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growth down from 27.5 million hectares (1575) dispersed thinly in different islands. The proportional concentration of forests is as follows:

Mangrove - 112,400 hectares Old growth dipterocarp - 804,900 hectares Residual dipterocarp - 2.73 million hectares Pines - 227,900 hectares Mossy forests - 1.04 million Sub-marginal lands - 475,100 hectares Brushlands - 2.23 million hectares Grasslands - 9.01 million hectares Lands suitable for plantation - 7.05 million hectares

The 120 proclaimed watersheds have an area of about 1.4 million hectares. Second growth forests (1.8 million hectares) could be under sustained timber production with community forest management arrangement could cover one million hectares. “Some 200,000 hectares are so degraded that they are best converted into forest plantations of rubber, rattan, and bamboo. About 400,000 hectares of second growth forests and the remaining 804,900 hectares of old growth forests are best set aside for biological diversity conservation and environmental protection.” To sum up, the forest situation have gone through two stages of de-vegetation (1950s-70s; 1980s-90s) and is now on its third stage characterized by protection, species conservation, and reforestation. Meantime, the A&D areas especially the agricultural zones have been decreasing at 22% per annum (pers. com., BSWM) due to urbanization, commerce, settlements and institutional expansion. These changes in land use affect the carbon footprint calculations. The CC issue from these facts on vegetation and land use conversion is whether it is economically sound to engage into carbon sink projects, although re-vegetation will serve other equally important functions such biodiversity restoration and as economic resource of many upland communities. Expecting decreases in soil moisture during El Nino could decimate further the thin rainforests and on the extreme side of heavy precipitation will increase detachment of surface soils and nutrient loss with run-off. There will be differential performance of forests with dry forests being eliminated with a 25 percent increase in precipitation, while rainforests significantly increasing.11 Under the threat of submersion in low lying areas (floodplains, coastal plains) and the continuing clearing of uplands as opportunity for retreat, migration to the forestlands is an eventuality, thus creating a significant challenge for those whose perspective is to increase forest stand. Occupancy policies for these areas will be tested. 3.1.4 Water scarcity/excess12 The Philippines’ available water resource is derived from river basins, lakes and groundwater systems. The PINCCC reported that there are 343 independent principal river basins comprising a total of 199,637 sq. km. (66.5%) of the country’s total land area in 1997. Of these, 20 are major river basins each covering at least 990 sq. km. These basins are significant sources of municipal and domestic water supply, irrigation and

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power generation. In addition, the country has 61 lakes covering a total area of over 2,000 sq. km. The largest lake, covering an area of around 90,000 hectares, is the Laguna de Bay. It is also the second largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, there is an extensive groundwater resource of 50,000-sq. km and storage of about 251,158 MCM with an estimated safe yield of 31,554 MCM per annum. The dependable yield of the total water resources of the country add up to an aggregate of 975 MCM per day (MCM/day) coming mostly from surface runoff (833 MCM/day). However, there exists an unequal distribution of this resource due to differences in rainfall distribution and climatic patterns between regions. Water demand is divided among three major water users: the agricultural sector, the commercial and industrial sectors, and domestic users. In 1997, the agricultural sector had the largest demand amounting to 23, 652 MCM per annum or 84 percent of the total demand; followed by the commercial and industrial sectors (8.2%) and lastly, by the domestic users (7.8%). However, the rapid pace of development and population growth intensifies the demand for water. There will be water scarcity in some areas and water excess in other areas as the occurrence of the ENSO intensifies. While ENSO has not been identified as caused directly by CC, the trend in temperature increases seems to be fitting the ENSO events in the past 64 years. Aside from direct damage done by flooding to lives and properties, drought has substantially affected agricultural food production. Domestic water supply will further reduce considerably. Even the Mining and Geosciences Bureau estimates of 30 billion cubic meters annual supply for a year rainfall recharge of 0.3 meter will be suspect as most groundwater development is within the upper 100 to 200 meters. In Metro Manila, the deeper artesian aquifers are at 200 to 400 meters depth because of salt water intrusion at the upper layers. 3.2 Human poverty The Philippines has a rapid population growth. In 1995, the NSO estimated population was 68,616,536 and by 1997 the population it reached 73,527,000. At this rate, the country’s population is projected to hit 126 million by 2020. “The Philippines is considered the 9th most populous country in Asia and the 14th largest country in the world.” The high population growth rate in the country has been attributed to higher birth rate over mortality rate which is typical scenario in developing countries. In addition, there is an increasing trend in migration from village to urban areas. An increase in the urban population proportion was evident with 37.44 percent in 1980 to about 55 percent of the total national population in 1996. In Metro Manila, for instance, the annual growth rate in 1975 was 3.6 percent surpassing the national average which is at 2.5 percent. This migration to urban centers from rural areas is driven by relatively higher wages, more educational opportunities and, readily available basic services. The trend in population growth is tied to an increasing incidence of poverty in the country (Table 4). It has been stated that about 32.9 percent of the country’s population was living below the poverty line in 2006, up from 30 percent in 2003. The number of

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poor has increased by over 5.4 million individuals from 2003 to reach 27.6 million in 2006. In addition, poverty incidence in rural areas is much greater than in urban areas accounting for about 75 percent of the total poverty in the country in 2006. The dependency of rural poor in agriculture and natural resources coupled with their location in disaster-prone environmentally fragile areas makes them highly vulnerable to climate change. Furthermore, natural hazards contribute to further degradation and poverty, thus, creating a vicious cycle of poverty, environmental degradation, and vulnerability to natural disasters. Table 4. Top 20 Ranking of Provinces by Poverty Incidence (NCSB, 2005)

Region Province Poverty Incidence Rank (Poorest =1) ARMM Sulu 0.6753 1 ARMM Maguindanao 0.6687 2 Region V Masbate 0.6429 3 Region XI Saranggani 0.6326 4 CARAGA Agusan del Sur 0.5994 5 Region XII Sultan Kudarat 0.5986 6 ARMM Lanao del Sur 0.5923 7 Region IV Oriental Mindoro 0.5846 8 ARMM Tawi-Tawi 0.5596 9 Region XII Cotabato 0.5583 10 CAR Mountain Province 0.5460 11 Region IV Palawan 0.5422 12 Region IV Occidental Mindoro 0.5356 13 Region IX Zamboanga del Norte 0.5274 14 Region VIII Northern Samar 0.5264 15 CAR Ifugao 0.5262 16 CARAGA Surigao del Norte 0.5260 17 Region VIII Samar 0.5190 18 Region XI Davao Oriental 0.5099 19 Region IV Romblon 0.5075 20

3.3 Economy and natural resources Substantial changes in climatic patterns will impact primarily on the production capacities of sectors whose base of living is natural resources. Particularly the farmers and fisherfolks will experience declines in productivity. The other sectors will experience the downstream impact of this loss of productivity, principally on the costs and supply volume of food, and raw materials for processing. Scientifically routed and empirically proven impacts of climate change on the sectors were studied as shown in Table 5.13 In another angle, the information contained in the table may be taken as an initial set of research agenda on climate change. The perceived impacts at this stage could serve as research hypotheses.

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Table 5. Perceived and empirically shown sectoral impacts of climate change.

Sector, proponent

Impact Agriculture (Valeroso, 2002a)

Changes in growing seasons; Heat stress in plants and animals; Increased yields (at up to 20C increase for some crops); Increased outbreaks/incidences of pests and diseases; Changes in hydrological cycle; Changes in rainfall regimes; Changes in crops and crop areas; More severe droughts and/or floods; Deterioration of land cover/land resources; Changes in water resources (irrigation); Changes in frequency/intensity of extreme climate events; Increased damage to crops and/or livestock; Decreased productivity; Increased soil erosion

Water (Perez 2002b) Increased demand for irrigation water; Changes in groundwater quality (saltwater intrusion); Changes in streamflow and groundwater recharge; Sedimentation of reservoirs

Forests and Watersheds (Lasco et al. 2006; Cruz 1997)

Changes in location of areas suitable for the growth of certain species (shift or disappearance of some productive systems); Changes in production per unit area; Changes in types and incidence of pests and diseases; Altered ecosystem functions (biochemicalcycles); Increased or decreased nutrient retention; Changes in species’ reproductive cycles; Changes in the value of a system as a tourist attraction; Increased risks of forest fires, in turn lead to changes in tree and plant species and in forest boundaries (Valeroso, 2002); Increased runoff, soil erosion and flood occurrences, and decreased productivity of water resources; Changes in local biodiversity (extinction and inhibition of emigration from adjacent areas) (The Philippines’ Initial National Communication, 1999)

Species and Natural Areas (Biodiversity) (Lim, 2007)

Changes in species distribution and in timing of biological events; Changes in morphology, physiology and behavior of many birds, insects and plants; Increased frequency and/or intensity of pest and disease outbreaks; Increased number of plant growing days; Coral bleaching; Changes in marine fish populations; Large fluctuations in the abundance of marine birds and mammals

Coastal (and Marine) Resources (Perez, 2002a)

Increased coastal erosion, stresses on coral reefs, and coral bleaching; Inhibition of primary production processes; Prevalence of algal blooms responsible for toxic red tides; Higher storm-surge flooding; Landward intrusion of seawater in estuaries and aquifers; Changes in surface water quality and groundwater characteristics; Changes in the distribution of pathogenic microorganisms; Submergence/inundation of low-lying areas; Affect coastal population, settlements, and infrastructure; Increased soil water logging, resulting to poor drainage; Lower plant production and survival; Move freshwater seaward, resulting to low dissolved oxygen availability

Human Health (Ebi et al., 2005)

Increased incidences of diseases and illnesses; Insect- and rodent-borne diseases (dengue, leptospirosis, and malaria); Water-borne diseases (schistosomiasis, cholera); Food-borne diseases (diarrheal diseases and typhoid); Respiratory diseases (asthma, bronchitis, and respiratory allergies and infections); Heat-related illnesses (sunstroke, sunburn, heat stress or exhaustion, dehydration)

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The agriculture sector suffers heavily from extreme weather events such as the ENSO. Palay GVA, for instance, slightly decreased in 1983, 1987, 1990 and 1992 while showing sharp downtrend in a worst El Nino episode in 1998. The corn crop in 1990-93 experienced heavy losses, particularly in South Cotabato, North Cotabato, Maguindanao, Sultan Kudarat, Sarangani, Bukidnon and Isabela provinces. The 1998 El Nino badly affected South Cotabato, North Cotabato, Davao del Sur, Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao, Sarangani, Davao del Norte, Davao Oriental, Davao City, Cotabato City, and General Santos City. The typhoons that came in the same year with heavy rains caused massive land movements, as expected after drought, affecting 26 provinces: Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela, Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Albay, Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao, North Cotabato, Iloilo, Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Ilocos Sur, Negros Occidental, Zamboanga Sur, Occidental Mindoro, Oriental Mindoro, Ilocos Norte, Laguna, Palawan, Leyte, and Quezon. These areas constitute nearly the entire country. Table 6 shows that the average production loss per hectare for palay was 25% and 92% below normal during the wet and dry season, respectively, or an estimated average net income loss of 8,148 pesos during the dry season.14 The 3rd cropping season could not be grown due to drought.15 In summary, from 1970-1990, typhoons, floods and drought caused 82.4 percent of total rice losses.16

Modeling studies suggest that a 1ºC rise in temperature decrease rice yields by 7%, however in simulation estimates rice in the country could invariably increase by 6.6% and decrease by 14%.17 The calculations in Fig 6 showed the effect of El Nino on palay, corn, coconut, sugarcane GVA at constant 1985 prices. In effect, the drought dropped GDP by 6.6 % in agricultural production and in construction and construction-related manufacturing by 9.5%.18 The 1990-2003 ENSO-related drought damage was more than US$ 370 million.19 Based on the January 2008 Labor Force Survey, during these climatic events, about 11.795 million workers in agriculture, forestry and fisheries were affected along with their families and dependents.20 It was also reported that fishponds were drying out, had shortened production cycles, stunted fish growth, and increased fish mortality due to stress, poor water quality and disease.21 In that single 1998 event, 41,005 hectares (20.6%) of the 198,864 hectares of brackish water fishponds were affected decreasing milkfish and shrimp production by 10-80%. The Seaweed Industry Association of the Philippines associated the decline in seaweeds production to higher surface water temperatures.

21

Table 6. Percentage loss in annual rice production due to extreme weather, 000s tons.

Fig 6. Effects of ENSO on the GVA in the agriculture sector

(NSCB, 2003 as cited by Amadore, 2007).

22

The coastal zone supports major economic activities, such as farming in the coastal lowlands, fishing and tourism, and provides human settlement with essential life support and development opportunities. Consequently, coastal zones are the most heavily abused and exploited part of the country’s geography. The Philippines has an extensive discontinuous coastline totaling approximately 32,400 kilometers. Also, Philippine marine territorial waters cover about 2.2 million sq. km.; 267,000 sq. km. (12%) of these are coastal waters and 1.934 million sq. km. (88%) are oceanic waters within the exclusive economic zone. It was reported that about one million people or 5% of the country’s labor force earn their living from fisheries. In 1994, the Philippine fishing industry generated approximately 81.2 billion pesos, making the country the 12th largest fish producer in the world for that year. In 2005, the fisheries sector alone contributed 2.15% to the GDP as total fish production doubled from 997,800 metric tons (MT) in 1998 to 1.9 million MT in 2005. This amounted to around PhP 49 billion, pegged at current prices. Moreover, Philippine coral reefs cover about 27,000 sq. km. within a 15- to 30-m depth, one of the largest in the world. Evidently, mangroves and coral reefs are indeed the country’s most valuable coastal assets. It has been reported that the annual fish yield (excluding invertebrates) of Philippine reefs ranges from 5 to 24 metric tons per sq. km. However, it has been noted that unsustainable fishing practices have greatly impacted the reefs that only about 5.3% of the country’s coral cover are considered in excellent condition (75-100% live coral cover), 25.2% in good condition (50-74% live coral cover), 39 percent in fair condition (25- 49.9% live coral cover), and 30.5% is in poor condition (0-24% live coral cover). This translates to an economic loss estimated at about $125 million per annum. 22 Siltation, deforestation, agricultural activities, and mine tailings, which produce high sediment load are among other factors that negatively impact these fragile ecosystems. In the advent of climate change, mangroves are able to cope with sea level rise of up to 12 cm over the next 100 years but mangrove populations, however, have been steadily decreasing due to over cutting, land clearing and habitat conversion. In recent years, reefs in poor condition increased to 40% in the last 20 years due partly to ocean warming.23 Coral bleaching and fish kills were observed in Silaqui Island and Bolinao while the coastal areas in the Visayas were affected by bleaching. A significant decrease (up to 46%) in live coral cover was observed after the 1997-98 bleaching event in the country. It was also noted that the highly bleached areas in the country coincided with areas of poverty and dense populations.

Associated with agriculture and fishery is water, which is a valuable resource that drives the Philippine economy. It is used extensively in power generation and is considered a source of clean renewable energy as mentioned in the 2005 Philippine Energy Plan. In addition, tourism is another water dependent industry in the country. The government has been marketing the Philippines as a major tourist destination. This capitalization of clean water has resulted to an increase in visitor arrivals by more than 75 percent in the last five years.24 Moreover, these water-dependent industries provide employment opportunities to the Filipino people. Key tourist destinations include the resort island of Boracay, coral reefs in Anilao and white-water rafting areas at Cagayan de Oro City.

23

A paper titled “Flooding in Pampanga, Bataan, Bulacan and Camanava: Causes, Trends and Possible Solutions,” scientists attributed the intrusion of seawater in Manila Bay plains to over extraction of groundwater by the 23 million people. This is a serious situation brought about by irrational use of resources. 3.4 Disaster25

Since 1905 until 2007, OFDA/CRED-IDD recorded a staggering total of 104,573,592 Filipinos affected by natural calamities directly associated with climatic changes compared to 3,863,749 persons affected by other disasters not related to CC (Table 7). This is equivalent to an average of about 1,025,231 persons/year affected by floods, drought, typhoon, storm surges and other natural calamities. In some years, the number maybe doubled depending on the escalation of the climatic attacks, so that averaging a century data is not sufficient to picture reality. Moreover, the information should be disaggregated to refer to natural hazards which are directly related to climatic changes. The Philippines is the world's 4th most accident-prone country according to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, which reported 5,809,986 Filipinos killed or injured as a result of disasters and man-made calamities from 1992-2001.26 The record of the Philippine Red Cross showed about 31,835 Filipinos killed and 94,369,462 were specifically affected by natural disasters in the past 20 years. To cite the most tragic, in 2002, flashfloods affected 234,414 households, and the seven typhoons risked 568,345 families. Another flashflood which was caused by typhoon Nanang in 2001 buried 350 residents of Mahinog, Camiguin. The Payatas tragedy which buried 500 garbage pickers triggered by the torrential rains in July 12, 2000 is a very serious statement on poverty in the Philippines. Heavy rains caused a landslide that killed 58 people and buried over 100 houses at Cherry Hills Subdivision, Antipolo City in 1999. Typhoon Angela killed 700 people in 1995. The rains brought by typhoon Thelma in November 1991 flooded Ormoc City and drowned about 3,000 people and rendered 50,000 homeless. In September 1984, typhoon Ike killed 1,300 persons.

The same dispatch from the NDCC reported that “according to the University of the Philippines' National Institute of Geological Sciences, coastal areas around Manila Bay like Caloocan, Malabon, Navotas, Valenzuela and several towns in Bulacan, Pampanga and Bataan have sunk one meter in the past 30 years or ten times than the rate of the global sea level rise in the last century.

With 1 meter sea level rise, about 700 million square meters of land in 16 regions or 64 out of 81 provinces with 703 out of 1,610 municipalities will be inundated, potentially displacing at least 1.5 million Filipinos. Table 8 approximates the top 20 provinces which will be submerged.27 The heaviest damage will occur in the Zamboaga peninsula and Sulu islands, Palawan, Samar and Central Visayas, and the southern tip of Luzon.

24

Table 7. Losses due to natural disasters,1905-2007 (OFDA/CRED IDD, 2007).

Disaster

Events, number

Killed

Injured

Homeless

Affected

Total

affected

Damage ($000)

Drought 8 8 0 0 6,553,207 6,553,207 64,453

Avg./event 1 0 0 819,151 819,151 8,057

Flood 72 2,716 570 500,841 10,886,298 11,387,709 449,756

Avg./event 38 8 6,956 151,199 158,163 6,247

Slides 25 2,604 381 23,012 287,270 310,663 12,258

Avg./event 104 15 920 11,491 12,427 490

Wave/Surge 5 69 0 5,250 1,012 6,262 60

Avg./event 14 0 1,050 202 1,252 12

Wind Storm 243 35,920 29,185 6,288,061 79,998,505 86,315,751 9,034,725

Avg./event 148 120 25,877 329,212 355,209 37,180

Earthquake 21 9,580 13,051 3,985 2,205,841 2,222,877 844,885

Avg./event 456 621 190 105,040 105,851 40,233

Epidemic 13 460 0 0 14,730 14,730 0

Avg./event 35 0 0 1,133 1,133 0

Insect Infestation

2 0 0 0 200 200 925

Avg./event 0 0 0 100 100 463

Volcano 20 2,996 1,188 79,300 1,545,154 1,625,642 231,961

Avg./event 150 59 3,965 77,258 81,282 11,598

Wild Fires 1 2 0 0 300 300 0

Avg./event 2 0 0 300 300 0

While not documented, there appears correlation between heart attacks or stroke from intense heat especially during the El Nino episodes. The population ecology of pests and diseases has been cited as corresponding with climatic changes but this has to be verified scientifically.

25

Table 8. Heavily submerged provinces with 1 meter eustatic rise of sea level (Greenpeace, 2007).

Notes: 5 Inter Agency Committee on Climate Change. Republic of the Philippines. “The Philippines’ Initial

National Communication on Climate Change”. 1999. 6 ibid 7 Amadore, L. A.. “Crisis or opportunity: Climate change impacts and the Philippines”. Greenpeace. 2005. 8 United Nations. “Philippines 2006 Typhoon Appeal.” Geneva. UN. 2007. 9 Op. cit. page 12 10 Op. cit. page 12 11 Lasco, R. D., R. V. Gerpacio, M. R. N. Banaticla and A. G. Garcia. “Vulnerability of Natural Ecosystems

and Rural Communities to Climate Change: An Assessment of Philippine Policies and their Impacts.” 2007.

12 Environmental Management Bureau. “National Water Quality Status Report, 2001-2005.” 13 Lasco, et.al. 2007, as cited by Rincon and Virtucio. 2008. Climate Change in the Philippines: A

Contribution to the Country Environmental Analysis. World Bank. 14 Op.cit. page 16 15 PCARRD. 2001. 16 Op. Cit. Page 16 17 Lasco, R. D., K. L. Villegas, P. A. Jaranilla-Sanchez and G. B. Villamor. “Climate Change R&D at the

World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF)- Philippines.” ASEANJAPAN. A project on Multifunctionality of Agriculture and the 3 UN Conventions on Biodiversity, Climate Change and Land Degradation, Cebu City.2006.

18 Op. cit. page 16

26

20 Lasco, R. D., F. P. Pulhin, P. A. Jaranilla-Sanchez, K. B. Garcia and R. V. Gerpacio. “Mainstreaming

Climate Change in the Philippines.” Nairobi, World Agroforestry Centre. 2008. 21 Rincon, M.F.G. and F.K. Virtucio. “Climate Change in the Philippines: A Contribution to the Country

Environmental Analysis” 2007. World Bank. 2008. 22 Op. cit page 12 23 World Bank. “Country Assistance Strategy for the Philippines, 2006-2008.” Washington, D.C. 2005. 24 Capili, E., A. Ibay, and J. Villarin. 2005. “Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation on Philippine

Coasts.” Paper presented at the International Oceans 2005 Conference. 19-23 September 2005. Washington D.C. 2005.

25 Op.cit. page 22 26 NDCC portal/admin. accessed July 2008. 27Greenpeace. “The Philippines: A Climate Hotspot Climate Change Impacts and the Philippines.” 2007.

27

4.0 Greenhouse gas inventory28

As of 1994, the equivalent amount of 100,864 ktons CO2 was emitted to the atmosphere from the sectors of energy, agriculture, industry, and wastes, in decreasing amounts, respectively. The land use change and forestry sector was reported to have sequestered 126 ktons CO2 total equivalent. The energy sector emits 50,038 ktons, largely CO2 from fuel combustion of three major end users of fossil fuel, i.e., the power generating industries, transportation, and the manufacturing industries (Fig 7). By 2008, these fuel types still dominate the energy mix at 67.5% while the new and renewable energies constitute 32.5%. Projecting these values, the ALGAS computed CO2 until 2008 as shown in Fig 8. The GHG abatement options, its potential and costs/savings are presented in Fig 9.

Fig 7. C02 emission of the energy sector.

Fig 8. CO2 emission projections.

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Fig 9. Adaptation-mitigation costs. Following the IRRI-equation for the calculation of CH4 emission, default values were generated as shown in Table 9. Under anaerobic condition, methane is the dominantly produced gas. The agriculture sector emits 33,130 ktons CO2 total equivalent from rice farming, livestock and degradation of organic materials in soils, Fig 10.

Table 9. IRRI default parameter values and methane emission factor for rice paddy cultivation.

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Fig 10. Agriculture sector CO2 emission. In the industrial sector, 10,603 ktons of CO2 were released from production and the transformation of raw materials. A major fraction (87%) of the emission comes from the cement and metal industries, Fig 11.

Fig 11. Industrial sector CO2 emission

A major limitation in the calculation was the focus on the National Capital Region methane emissions from domestic/commercial wastewater treatment and that emissions from sludge and waste incineration were not computed (Table 10). In terms of CO2 from solid wastes, the projected emission in 2025 is about 82% higher than from base year 1990, Fig 12.

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Table 10. Local values for methane emissions from domestic and commercial wastewater.

Fig 12. CO2 generation from domestic waste. The PINCCC utilized the results of PHI/97/G31 along with earlier initiatives like the Country Studies Program, the National Action Plan on Climate Change, the Asia Least Cost Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy, sectoral plans and programs, and the Medium Term Development Plan and the Philippine Agenda 21. Table 11 enumerates the absolute values of GHG emissions of the different sectors.

31

Table 11. GHG emissions of the sectors.

28 By large, the section is an extract from the PINCCC, 1999.

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5.0 Policy environment By definition, the current Philippine policy efforts may be regarded as basically CC mitigation. On the UNFCCC’s recommendations, developing countries like the Philippines should logically prioritize for adaptation measures. Policy development on CC adaptation in the country is still incipient. On the main, the Philippines participates in the global CC effort through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Clean Development Mechanism, and as a non-Annex1 member of the United Nations Conference of the Parties. Other related global commitments which the country is signatory include the “Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer”, which controls/regulates the use of HFCs; “Biodiversity Convention”, which concerns on forests as carbon sink while serving as habitat of wildlife. Also, it puts importance on the sea life forms as the first recipient of changes in ecology due to sea rise; “Convention on the Law of the Sea”, an agreement on the protection of seas and oceans from trans-shipments of cargo and wastes; “Convention to Combat Desertification”, which promotes re-vegetation of the planet; Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), which guides governments on disaster management; and “agreement on sustainable development”, which provides the shift on the paradigm of development towards more judicious, equitable and ecologically sound living. A SWOT matrix is provided for each of the identified strategic institutions to serve as anchor institutions for the CC issue. 5.1 Early policy efforts The policies described in this section are related to climate change, although a number of these were formulated when climate change was not at the center of development discourse. At that time of policy development, sustainable development as a paradigm shift has surficially touched on global warming as a sustainability threat with mitigative actions suggested. The policies were formulated via the so-called SD language. Re-formulating the policies to integrate climate change adaptation and mitigation may not be the appropriate route as this would require time, resources, and advocacy. The alternative is to context and directs the operational SD parameters in the policies with climate change challenges. A first step is to indicate the affinity of the policies to the issues of climate change, and translate the established connections into actions. 5.1.1 Disaster management29

The location of the country (see Chapter 3) is intrinsically calamitous, and through years of adaptation (simply labeled as coping mechanism), the communities have evolved defense mechanisms which maybe passive and/or active. The Presidential Decree (PD) 1566 issued in June 11, 1978, entitled, “Strengthening the Philippine disaster control, capability and establishing the national program on community disaster preparedness” expressed the endurance of the Filipino, perhaps more aptly described as adaptation capacity, to the “hardships of a hostile environment” of typhoons, floods, earthquakes,

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epidemics, fires and other major calamities, and the anthropogenically-induced disasters. Therefore, a “revitalized system to enhance the survival capability and economic stability complete with pre-disaster planning, community disaster preparedness and positive, precise disaster control action for rescue evacuation, relief and rehabilitation” was set in place.

The early policy prescribes that it shall be the “responsibility of all government departments, bureaus, agencies and instrumentalities to have documented plans of their emergency functions and activities; responsibility for leadership rests on the Provincial Governor, City Mayors, and Municipal Mayors (and Barangay Chairman), each according to his area of responsibility; the national government exists to support the local government. In time of emergencies and according to their level of assignment, all national government offices in the field shall support the operations of the local government; and to ensure that operational activities become automatic and second nature to all concerned, exercises and periodic drills shall be conducted at all levels, principally at the Barangays.” PD 1566 formally established the National Disaster Coordinating Council, Regional Disaster Coordinating Councils (RDCC), and Local Disaster Coordinating Councils, effectively replacing the National Disaster Control Center created on October 19, 1970. The NDCC is the focal inter-institutional organization in disaster-risk management. It establishes the priorities in the allocation of funds, services, and relief supplied and plays an advisory role to lower DCCs through the Office of Civil Defense by issuing guidelines. The NDCC issues policy guidelines on emergency preparedness and disaster operations and its structure is embodied in Sec. 2 of the presidential decree. The Secretary of National Defense heads the NDCC with the heads of 18 Departments/Agencies as members. The member-agencies through their local networks carry out disaster preparedness, prevention, mitigation and response. These local networks are the regional and local disaster coordinating councils. The NDCC serves as the President’s adviser on disaster preparedness programs, disaster operations and rehabilitation efforts undertaken jointly by government and private sector or independently. As the NDCC prepares the National Disaster and Calamities Preparedness Plan, it closely coordinates with the technically equipped agencies such as the PAGASA, PHILVOCS, and DOST. In doing so, it fortifies its response mechanisms and structure against the increasing intensity and occurrence of disasters in the country. Operationally, it utilizes the facilities and services of the Office of Civil Defense. In the past 10 years or so, the Council has markedly improved adaptation actions like putting in place early warning systems, community preparedness capacity building and organizing of communities, hazard mapping and proactive preparation of evacuation sites and shelters. Tasks have been assigned to members of the Council based on their capacities and resources. Noticeably, the DILG is the focal organization linking directly with the LGUs and could determine the efficiency and effectiveness of DRR operations. The following are the tasks of the NDCC members.

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Chairman - Convenes the Council as often as necessary and calls on all other departments/bureaus/agencies, other instrumentalities of the government and the private sector for assistance when the need arises. Administrator, Office of Civil Defense - Coordinates the activities, functions of the various agencies and instrumentalities of the government, private institutions and civic organizations to implement the policies and programs of the NDCC; disseminates materials relative to disaster prevention, control and mitigation; advises the Chairman on matters concerning disaster management. Secretary of Interior and Local Government - Oversees the organization of DCCs, the establishment of Disaster Operations Centers of all local governments, and the training of DCC members in coordination with OCD, DSWD, PNRC, and other appropriate agencies. Secretary of Social Welfare and Development - Extends relief assistance and social services to the victims as necessary. Secretary of Health - Provides health services during emergencies as necessary, and organizes reaction teams in hospitals, clinics and sanitary and other health institutions. Director-General, NEDA - Determines and analyzes the effects of disasters and calamities on the socio-economic plans and programs of the country, and development of damage assessment scheme. Secretary of Labor and Employment - Provides emergency employment opportunities to disaster victims, implements the industrial civil defense programs and measures, and organizes and trains Disaster Control Groups in all factories and industrial complexes. Secretary of Education, Culture and Sports - Provides assistance in the public education and campaign regarding disaster preparedness, prevention and mitigation, makes available school buildings as evacuation centers, and organizes and trains disaster control groups and reaction teams in all schools and institutions of learning. Secretary of Trade and Industry - Maintains normal level of prices of commodities during emergencies, and organizes Disaster Control Groups and Reaction Teams in large buildings used for commercial and recreational purposes, maintains normal level of prices of commodities during emergencies. Secretary of Agriculture - Undertakes surveys in disaster areas to determine the extent of damage of agricultural crops, livestock and fisheries and renders technical assistance to disaster victims whose crops or livestock have been destroyed.

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Secretary of Budget and Management - Releases funds required by the departments for disaster operations. Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources – Facilitates reforestation and control of areas which tend to cause flooding, landslides, mudflow and ground subsidence, provide seeds, seedlings and saplings and technical assistance regarding mines, forests and lands, formulates rules and regulations for the control of water and land pollution. Secretary of Finance - Issues rules and regulations with the relevant agencies concerned for the funding by local government of the requirements for organizing, equipping, and training of their disaster coordinating councils and reaction teams. Secretary of Public Works and Highways - Restores destroyed public structures such as flood control, waterworks, roads, bridges, and other vertical and horizontal facilities/structures and provides heavy and light equipment for relief, rescue and recovery operations. Secretary of Tourism - Organizes and trains disaster control groups and reaction teams in hotels, pension houses, restaurants and other tourist-oriented facilities. Secretary of Transportation and Communications – Restores destroyed communication and transportation facilities such as railroads and vertical structures, and organizes emergency transport services from the national down to the barangay level; and restores destroyed communication and transportation facilities such as railroads and vertical structures. Director, Philippine Information Agency - Provides public information service through dissemination of disaster mitigation measures. Secretary-General, Philippine National Red Cross - Conducts disaster leadership training courses, assists in the training of DCCs at all levels; and assists in providing emergency relief assistance to disaster victims. Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines - Provides of security in disaster area and provision of assistance in the reconstruction of roads, bridges and other structures and transportation facilities for rapid movement of relief supplies and personnel and for the evacuation of disaster victims.

The law further asserts a policy of self-reliance among local officials and their constituents in responding to disasters or emergencies. It accords authority to the LGU to fund disaster preparedness activities in addition to the 2% calamity fund allocation under PD 474 and later amended by RA 8185 (1996), which states that “Five percent (5%) of the estimated revenue from regular sources shall be set aside as annual lump sum

36

appropriations for relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction and other works or services in connection with calamities which may occur during the budget year. Provided, however, that such fund shall be used only in the area, or a portion thereof, of the LGU or other areas affected by a disaster or calamity, as determined and declared by the local sanggunian concerned … The local development council shall more monitor the use and disbursement of the calamity fund." 5.1.2 Environmental Impact Assessment30

PD 1586 which defines the Philippine Environmental Impact Statement System (EIS) is central to the country’s regulation of development projects in relation with their potential effects to the environment. Several iterations of its Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) have been passed to make the policy responsive to the growing development challenges. Recently, an Administrative Order (AO) 42-2002 was issued by the Office of the President to implement a systems-oriented and integrated approach to the EIS system to ensure a rational balance between socio-economic development and environmental protection for the benefit of present and future generations. This was followed by Department Administrative Order (DAO) 2003-30 which rationalizes and streamlines the implementation of the EIS System. The following are the key operating principles in the implementation of the Philippine EIS System: (1) Concerns primarily with assessing the direct and indirect impacts of a project on the biophysical and human environment and ensuring that these impacts are addressed by appropriate environmental protection and enhancement measures, (2) Aids proponents in incorporating environmental considerations in planning their projects as well as in determining the environment’s impact on their project,

(3) Project proponents are responsible for determining and disclosing all relevant information necessary for a methodical assessment of the environmental impacts of their projects,

(4) The review of the EIS by Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) shall be guided by three general criteria: (a) that environmental considerations are integrated into the overall project planning, (b) that the assessment is technically sound and proposed environmental mitigation measures are effective, and (c) that social acceptability is based on informed public participation,

(5) Effective regulatory review of the EIS depends largely on timely, full, and accurate disclosure of relevant information by project proponents and other stakeholders in the EIA process,

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(6) The social acceptability of a project is a result of meaningful public participation, which shall be assessed as part of the Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) application, based on concerns related to the project’s environmental impacts, and

(7) The timelines prescribed by this Order, within which an Environmental Compliance Certificate must be issued or denied, apply only to processes and actions within the EMB control and do not include actions or activities that are the responsibility of the proponent. AO 42 suggests integrating the assessment process with the project cycle as illustrated in Fig 13. Note the mitigation measures bolted into the process, avenues for which the adaptation approaches for CC may likewise be mainstreamed in the EIS System.

Fig 13. Routing the environment impact assessment with the development project cycle. (DENR, 2003).

5.1.3 Sustainable Development Taking signals from the UN report, Our Common Future, the government formulated the 1989 Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development, which it submitted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development, as the official position on sustainable

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development. Later, the document served as basis in crafting the Philippine Agenda 21, and the establishment of the Philippine Council for Sustainable Development. The action reflects the growing sustainable development advocates in government during the period. The PCSD oversees the implementation of the Philippine Agenda 21. The Council is an aggrupation of government and the civil society groups (NGOs, POs, business, commerce, civic society). It has a Secretariat at NEDA and an NGO counterpart Secretariat comprising them as a composite Secretariat. The PCSD is chaired by the Director-General of the NEDA and vice-chaired by the Secretary of DENR. Fourteen government departments and seven (7) non-government/people’s organizations are members of the Council. The PCSD operates through its four committees with sub-committees, corresponding to the major concerns as defined by the Global Agenda 21. Fig 14 is the organizational structure of the Council.

Fig 14. The PCSD organizational structure The Council is a macro body which includes climate change as a legitimate sustainable development issue therefore, the option of locating the present big players on climate change within the structure is a possibility. This will be explained in detail in the later

39

section. The logic of integration is essential because it is sustainable development which is the underlying paradigm of CC adaptation. Since its creation in 1992, there has been no follow through legal formulation passed to permanently install the Council and allocate funds within the regular budget portfolio of government. The operational difficulties of the Council today may be accounted to this administrative dilemma. 5.1.4 Inter-Agency on Committee on Climate Change The creation of the IACCC (EO 220, 1991) is among the first CC action that the government did in parallel to the formulation of the Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development. It is the mandated body to prepare national communications to the UNFCCC, which it submitted in 1999. The Inter-Agency Committee is structured within DENR. Currently, the Secretariat holds office at the Environmental Education and Information Division of the EMB, also providing access to the EMB-housed PATLEIPAM connections with colleges and universities. The functions of the IACCC are the following:

(1) Coordinate, develop, and monitor implementation of various climate change related activities,

(2) Coordinate representation(s) and formulate Philippine position(s) to

international negotiations, conferences and meetings on climate change, (3) Formulate and recommend climate change related policies and actions, and (4) Serve as technical committee for the review and evaluation of project

proposals for GEF funding. The Secretariat Head is designated by the DENR Secretary who serves as the Chair of the Committee and Co-Chaired by the DOST Secretary. The other 15 members come from the different national agencies and NGOs (Fig 15). In an expanded role, the Committee was designated as the technical arm of the PTFCC. Thus far, the Committee has been able to adjust to changes of guards in agencies and perform the assigned tasks.

The IACCC has undertaken projects as contributions toward the achievement of the goals and objectives of the CC Convention. In March 2000, the Philippines completed and submitted to the UNFCCC Secretariat its Initial National Communication on Climate Change31, detailing the scope and process in compliance with the convention. The submission “contains a national inventory of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases, a description of steps taken or envisaged by the country to implement its commitment, and other information relevant to the achievement of the objective of the Convention.”

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Fig 15. IACCC organizational structure The PINCCC established the baseline understanding on the Philippines’ vulnerability to climatic changes and its potentials for adaptation measures. The results of the 1994 Philippine Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Inventory were the main information included in the report. The sectors which were subject of the assessment were the energy, agriculture, industry, land use change/forestry and wastes. The process in formulating the PINCCC was challenging. It localized IPCC guidelines to allow objective computations of greenhouse gas emissions. Climate circulation models were used to evolve scenarios of vulnerability and adaptation. It recommended that more studies be conducted in more pilot areas and that results need to be validated for agriculture, water resources, coastal resources, human health and forestry. Several sectoral consultation workshops were conducted to engage the general public into the process while the Climate Change Information Center was established along with a National Action Plan on Climate Change to systematize work.

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Based on the guidelines prescribed by the COP, the inventory indicated that the country released a total equivalent amount of 100,738 kilotons of carbon dioxide in to the atmosphere for that period. Likewise, the country’s future GHG emissions by the contributing sectors, namely energy, industry, agriculture and wastes were calculated and projected to increase to 195,091 kilotons by 2008, a 94% rise from the 1994 level. Constraints to continue communicating information under the Convention were articulated, which included financial and technological aspects. The report claimed that the country is “severely ill-prepared for the onslaught of the impacts of climate change.” Specifically, problems were examined on sustaining the inventory process, gaps in the capacity to assess vulnerability, adaptation and mitigation actions, and in identifying, prioritizing and implementing strategies resulting from the assessments.

The Philippines is in the process of undertaking an improved national GHG inventory, and planning for adaptation actions and mitigation. Studies are conducted as basis for the preparation of the country’s Second National Communication to be submitted to the COP of the UNFCCC by 2010. It is conducting a self-assessment project for the preparation and submission of a project proposal for its Second National Communication to the UNFCCC. Under the Stocktaking Phase, it will review, evaluate and prioritize key activities for the SNC, and will validate, get consensus and clarify roles and responsibilities of involved entities under the Stakeholder Consultation Phase. The Second National Communication “aims to improve on the national GHG emissions inventory on emissions and sinks, undertake inter-institutional and inter-sectoral activities requiring joint management and coordination, integrate adaptation policy into the sustainable development framework, develop capacity of local and national stakeholders to assess vulnerability, identify strategies and develop plans to address mitigation and adaptation concerns of the country through the processes of technology transfer and systematic observation networks. Technological barriers will be identified and addressed through different fora and training programs. A national plan will be formulated to improve the state of the national program on systematic observation to improve documentation and archiving of historical data. Climate change awareness and education will be programmed to permeate into the school curricula to further the implementation of education, training and public awareness as is mandated by Article 6 of the UNFCCC.”

A variety of sectoral initiatives will be captured in this SNC, which have been integrated in the sectoral discussions in this paper. To cite a few, the energy sector has the Biofuel Act (RA 9637) that mandates mandatory mixing of biodiesel and ethanol (1% biodiesel in petrodiesel, 5% ethanol in gasoline for first four years; 2% biodiesel in petrodiesel, 10% ethanol in gasoline after four years). A Biofuel Programme is leading the campaign. People’s health, being a target impact area of CC, projects that directly affect the health of the population is assumed prioritized in the SNC, like the, Anti- Smoke Belching & Air Pollution Campaign, Solid Waste Management Project, Toxic, Chemical and Hazardous Waste Management, Red Tide Control and Monitoring Programme, Integrated Pest Management & Sustainable Agriculture, Pasig River Rehabilitation Project, Safe Water & Sanitation Programme, Control of Tuberculosis & Other Communicable Diseases, Environmental Management and Pollution Control, Ecological Solid Waste

42

Management Programme, Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Programme, and Clean and Green Programme of LGUs. Moreover, baseline health information will be essential to forecast CC impacts, such as epidemiological data, correlation between health and environmental policies, and incidence of environmental disasters and disease occurrence, among many. In other words, the SNC will be a gauge of performance of the Philippines in reducing/removing GHGs, with adaptation measures as the primary concern for Non-Annex 1 country (refer to the CDM section for the mitigation projects). A SWOT matrix is presented in Table 12, justifying the assertion that this support body is a major player on climate change adaptation in the Philippines. It will be noted that this “traditional” position of the IACCC is challenged with national bodies created for CC in 2008. Table 12. IACCC matrix on its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.

Strengths

Weaknesses

Opportunities

Threats

Available pool of technical expertise on various aspects of CC

Limited dedicated staff in the Secretariat

Climate change activities are institutionalized in DENR and other strategic agencies

Changes in Departmental leaderships of member agencies/organizations could lead to major changes of assignments in the Secretariat or in representatives thus slowing work process

Access to international support agencies and networks

Staff support for concept preparations is inadequate

Gain supporters from inside DENR

Priorities of donor agencies are not cohering with the Committee

Track record since 1991 has built strong national linkages and networks

Over stretched personnel reduces efficiency and effectiveness

Personnel on-the-job training widens the pool of expertise

Co-opting staff at EMB for the demanding task of linkaging and networking becomes discontinuous due other staff priorities

Presence of a healthy political climate of support from Committee members

Members support could wane with multi-participation with other similar bodies

A more permanent Climate Change Office established in 2008

The passage of the proposed bill (SN 1890) will put the Office in limbo

IACCC is regarded as the CC group

The PTFCC is perceived as a competitor and could draw support out from the Committee

The passage of the bill (Senate Bill 1890: Climate Change Act) will clear the “turfing” concern

The passage of Senate Bill 1890 could dismantle the Committee with the creation of the CC Commission

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5.2 Current overarching policies It is logical to reckon the current CC efforts from the sustainable development discourse of the 80s. The shift of development thinking from integrated area development paradigm to sustainable development was the challenge that crafters of the Philippine Agenda 21 have to hurdle, which explains the delayed passage. The difficulty of the shift is reflected in the almost eight years spent from formulation to agreement of parties. Finally, an EO was issued in 1998 adopting the PA21. The government has conscientiously passed national policies on climate change adaptation and mitigation as part of the commitment to contribute to the effort of the global community. Moreover, the government recognizes that the CC issue is a sustainability concern for the archipelagic Philippines. The policy issuances creating structures of governance is placed in the context of defining the best option to orchestrate interaction of people-climate change/environment-development. Table 13 is a general timeline of issued policies by government related to climate change. The early 90s appear as the period of environmental awakening, perhaps, a result of the persistent advocacies of environmentalists since the 70s. The great flood of 1972 which devastated most parts of Luzon was a flashpoint on log ban advocacy. In the succeeding years were the anti nukes and anti mining advocates. The policy milestones governing actions on climate change are imbedded in the establishment of the NDCC (also covers anthropogenic disasters), Inter-Agency Committee for Climate Change/Advisory Council for Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and Communication, Designated National Authority-Clean Development Mechanism, and Presidential Task Force on Climate Change. These institutions ferret out standards, guidelines, plans and set up programs to operationalize plans. In a way, they become both planning and operating bodies on climate change. The institutional creations have complicated coordination for the already problematic sectoral interaction with more walls of discontinuities erected. Table 13. National policies directly addressing climate change concerns.

Date

Policy action

1978 Established the National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) as response/adaptation

1991

Created the Inter-Agency Committee on Climate Change (IACCC)

1992

Signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

1992

Established the Philippine Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD)

1994

Ratified UNFCCC

1998

Signed the Kyoto Protocol

1998

Approved the Philippine Agenda 21

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1999

Submitted the Initial National Communication on Climate Change (PINCCC) to the UNFCCC

2003

Ratified Kyoto Protocol

2004-2010

Passed the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan (MTPDP)

2005

Assigned the DENR as the Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism (DNA-CDM)

2005

Issued the Implementing Rules and Regulation on CDM

2007

Created the Presidential Task Force on Climate Change (PTFCC)

2007

Created the Advisory Council on Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and Communication (ACCCMAC)

2008

Created the Presidential Adviser for Global Warming and Climate Change (PAGW&CC)

5.2.1 Medium Term Philippine Development Plan32

The Medium Term Philippine Development Plan (2004-2010) is a “detailed roadmap towards achieving our common goal of reducing poverty through job creation and enterprise.” The targets are as follows:

(a) GDP growth accelerating to 7-8% by the years 2009 and 2010 (b) An investment to GDP ratio nearing 28% by 2010 (c) Exports exceeding $50 billion by 2006 (d) A balanced budget by 2010 (e) Annual job creation exceeding 1.7 million jobs by 2009 (f) Poverty incidence reduced to below 20% by 2009

The level of articulation on the CC issue as it influences development targets is not pronounced, however, in three Parts (1, 2, and 4), the concern on the CC maybe extrapolated.33 These chapters discussed the development trajectories of the sectors, however, specifically as expected, Part 1, Chapter 3 which pertains to the Environment and Natural Resources addresses directly the CC concerns.

PART 1: ECONOMIC GROWTH AND JOB CREATION Chapter 1: Trade and Investment Chapter 3: Environment and Natural Resources Chapter 4: Housing Construction PART 2: ENERGY Chapter 10: Energy Independence

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Chapter 11: Power Sector Reforms PART 4: EDUCATION AND YOUTH OPPORTUNITY Chapter 19: Science and Technology

5.2.2 Clean Development Mechanism34

In the order of events, the following took place:

(1) The Philippines signed UNFCCC 12 June 1992

(2) Ratified the UNFCCC in 02 August 1994 (3) Signed Kyoto Protocol in 15 April 1998 (4) Ratified the KP in 20 November 2003 (5) Issued EO 320 in 25 June 2004, establishing the DNA-CDM (6) Issued DAO 2005-17 in 31 August 2005, defining the implementing rules

and regulations of the DNA- CDM. The Philippine DNA facilitates and promotes CDM project activities that: contribute to the UNFCCC objective of stabilization of GHG concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system; lead to the transfer of environmentally safe and sound technology and know-how; contribute to the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of natural resources; comply with all other pertinent laws and regulations; and provide measures to alleviate poverty as part of their contribution to sustainable development. The operational structure of the Authority is shown in Fig 16.

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Fig 16. DNA-CDM organizational structure. The DNA-CDM has accomplished the substantive outputs, listed below, through a well-knit Secretariat. These materials are made available to the public especially those prospecting registration. There have not been many registrants from the medium to large ventures, but the number is expected to rise as the concept and opportunities for carbon trading become clearer. The bulk of Secretariat work is to facilitate the registration process of project proponents, for which an appraisal-approval process is straight forward (Fig 17). Based on experience, the time spent before approval usually takes about a year or so.

(a) CDM Helpdesk (b) CDM clearinghouse (www.cdmdna.emb.gov.ph) (c) Manual on GHG Emission Reduction (d) Monitoring and Reporting Guideline (e) Emission Reduction Purchase Agreements (ERPA): A Seller’s Perspective (f) Country Guide, CDM Country Fact Sheet (g) Local, regional and national workshops for various sectors including

technical tutorials Investors’ Forum (h) Road Shows (i) Participation in Carbon Expos (j) Archiving of Baseline Data

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Fig 17. Approving process for CDM registration.

The Kyoto Protocol requires Annex I countries to limit or reduce their GHGs. The CDM is a market-based instrument that allows these industrialized countries to earn Certified Emission Reduction (CER) units from Non-Annex 1 countries by buying emission reduced or removed, provided that the CDM project contribute to the sustainable development of the host Non-Annex 1country. Legally however, the Philippines as a Non-Annex 1 country is not obliged to meet reduction or removal targets. The CDM operates on the co-benefit principle, specifically establishes the sustainable development benefits derived from participating through the process of project registration. To enable this work environment, a National CDM Operational Framework35 guides every prospective registrant. Under the Framework, the following activities are planned.

(a) Review of studies on the existing policies, legal and administrative

requirements governing the entry of new projects/investments, identify gaps and constraints,

(b) Craft new/supplementary policies and legal issuances to address the identified gaps and constraints for the optimum functioning of the CDM process,

(c) Adopt national sustainable development criteria and indicators for use in the CDM assessment process,

(d) Develop systems and procedures, with accountabilities and timeframe, (e) Develop protocols and supplementary tools to implement the systems and

procedures, (f) Develop the documentary requirements of the NA, (g) Pilot test the designed management system, and (h) Prepare and issue the necessary legal and administrative issuances to

operationalize the management system.

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At the economic aspects, Philippine CDM policy seeks to adhere to the antipoverty goals articulated in the PA21 and MTPDP by upholding activities that: (1) provide livelihood and other economic opportunities in the community such as generating employment opportunities and security, improving productivity and product quality for an expanded market for the farmer’s produce, (2) provide proper safety nets and compensatory measures for affected stakeholders, as in savings in terms of expenses incurred in waste disposal and diesel fuel purchases and the like, (3) promote the use of cleaner, more efficient and environment friendly technology, and (4) provide new financial resources like additional financial resources for public expenditures through associated revenues from carbon finance and compost sales. On environment, the CDM policy recognizes that ecological integrity is a key pillar of Philippine SD activities that: (1) comply with environmental policies and standards, i.e., air and water quality standards, EIS System, and ecological waste management, (2) improve local environmental (e.g. air, water, soil) quality, and (3) promote sustainable use of natural resources. On social concerns, the CDM policy works toward instituting social order based on fairness and provision of support systems that look after the welfare of every Filipino by activities that (1) provide education and training which build the capacities of local stakeholders, and (2) provide vulnerable groups access to local resources and services. Three barriers to co-benefits promotion were identified, namely, (a) lack of awareness, (b) inadequate capacity to quantify co-benefits of climate change activities, and the (c) priority/interest of the sectors.

A CDM project that either reduces GHGs emissions or removes GHGs by sinks, is entitled to receive 1 CER/tCO2 equivalent reduced or sequestered. In effect, CER is a marketable product for trading. Buyers could include governments, corporations and brokers. The money exchange for CER is additional cash of the project. With this prospect of trading, there appears an increasing interest on the CDM process, especially on the part of Annex 1 country buyers. Various financial supporters/investors, including national governments, bilateral and multilateral financial institutions and commercial banks, etc. have set up numerous CDM funds (e.g. Prototype Carbon Fund, Community Development Carbon Fund, BioCarbon Fund) available for accessing by CDM project.

The status of registration of projects in the Philippines was reported by the DNA-CDM Secretariat covering 2005-2008. From a total of 77 projects which sought registration, 17 projects have been registered, but only 1 so far has been awarded CER (Table 14). The main reasons cited for the small ratio between applicants and those registered include:

(1) Applicants fail to meet the “Designated Operational Requirements” and contractual obligations, and

(2) Applicants fail to provide status report of implementation to the DNA-CDM Secretariat.

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To improve the registration process so that more registrants will be successful, the Secretariat has established the CDM Help Desk; Clearing House; manual on GHG Emission Reduction Monitoring and Reporting Guideline; manual on ERPA: A Sellers Perspective; Country Guide: A CDM Country Fact Sheet; workshops including technical tutorials at the local, regional and national levels; investor’s forum, road shows and participation in carbon expositions; and archival of baseline information.

Seventy nine percent of the registered projects are small scale projects with 98-79,000 CER/yr reduced or recovered. These include the following:

(a) Methane recovery & electricity generation projects

(i) Swine and poultry wastewater

(ii) Sewage treatment

(b) Methane avoidance from biomass decay via composting

(c) Bagasse (from an ethanol distillery) biogas (wastewater treatment) cogeneration

(d) Biomass

(i) Rice-husk - for heat generation at steam laundry, rice mills

(ii) Coconut husk - for steam boilers at a feedmill

(e) Mini-hydropower (f) Watershed rehabilitation (g) Tricycle retrofitting (h) Waste heat recovery (cement plant)

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Table 14. Status of CDM project registrants since 2005-2008.

The types of the regular scale projects with 53,000–590,000 CER/yr constituting 21 % of the total project registered are listed below:

(a) Renewable energy (wind, geothermal, hydropower) (b) Wastewater from an ethanol plant (c) Waste heat recovery at a sinter plant (d) Landfill gas recovery & power generation (e) Rice-husk biomass use at cement plants and sugar mill (f) Organic waste composting (g) Blended cement (h) Secondary Catalytic Reduction of N2O Emissions at ONPI Nitric Acid

Plant Table 15 shows the calculations of CO2e/year projections from registered projects. Note that there has been no increase of registered projects from 2006-2008, in fact the number of registrants reduced in 2008. Several national factors were identified that influenced the small numbers of project proponents, namely:

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Strengthening of the DNA-CDM: Absence of locally-based accredited Designated

Operational Entities that perform the validation and verification work; lack of full-fledged human and infrastructural resources to sustain operations; limited resources for development of new methodologies; and lack of awareness of risk management measures in case of non-/under-delivery of CERs due to non-/underperformance

Financing: Limited underlying project development financing like upfront costs

are usually not provided by Annex I countries

Capacity building: Uncertainty in the actual achievement of CDM projects’ stated sustainable development benefits in the absence of monitoring or reporting mechanisms; existing CDM project activities in the Philippines confined to a few sectoral scopes, are small in scale and not widely distributed across the country; CDM participation still dominated by a few groups; and limited awareness of specific stakeholder groups on CDM, including financial institutions and senior policymakers and officials of various agencies

Data base management: Continuous updating of the requisite information and

baseline data for the emission reduction calculations remains a challenge On the one hand, the international factors include the following:

(a) Uncertainty of the future of CDM beyond 2012

(b) Non-ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by USA undermines the basic principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: Annex I countries must take the lead

(c) Lack of internationally accepted criteria for demonstrating high sustainable

development contribution of a project activity to ensure that the dual objectives of the CDM are met and CERs from such projects with high SD benefits are accorded first-rate values

(d) Continuously evolving international guidelines requires constant training;

limited number of Designated Operational Entities to keep up with the increasing number of project activities

(e) Small scale project participants remain at a disadvantage in terms of CER

pricing (f) Limited access to climate-friendly technologies due to intellectual property

rights issues

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Table 15. Spread of CDM-registered projects and calculated CO2e.

5.2.3 Strategic National Action Plan36

The NDCC has produced the document, Strengthening Disaster Risk Reduction in the Philippines: Strategic National Action Plan (SNAP) 2009-2019, which is a 10-year disaster management road map of the country. It is part of the commitment to the Hyogo Framework of Action. The plan consolidated previous efforts “reinforcing the culture of prevention among individuals, households, community leaders, government officers, local chief executives, politicians, business entities, local government units, and national government agencies.”

The Plan perspective may be regarded as an adaptation strategy within an integrated Disaster Risk Management framework developed from two decades of adaptation to hazards. It brings together science, technology, policy and community in concerted action, thus increasing levels of resilience from reducing vulnerability to hazard while building capacity to deal once occurring. The SNAP document contains information on the assessment of the disaster risks, vulnerability, and capacity; gap analysis that identifies and maps out significant ongoing initiatives; Disaster Risk Reduction activities based on the HFA that are considered by stakeholders as priority for the country, are achievable, with adequate relevant resources and capacity for implementation; and a “road map” indicating goals and objectives for the next ten years.

The components of SNAP include the following. The CC adaptation and mitigation prototypes could be integrated in the 4th component of the Plan.

I. Multi-stakeholder consultative mechanism on DRR

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II. Formulation of a DRR Strategic National Action Plan for the Philippines III. Support to mainstreaming of DRR in sectors IV. Development of DRR capacity building programme

The objectives of the SNAP are as follows:

(1) Strengthen cooperation and coordination mechanism of various sectors, stakeholders, and actors in an exercise of consultation and commitments in the design and implementation of the strategic plan,

(2) Formulate, adopt, and promote a long-term, comprehensive, and cohesive

national action plan on DRR that is widely accepted and supported, (3) Assess the capacity building needs of DRR practitioners/players and design

comprehensive capacity development programmes, and (4) Develop a design for the mainstreaming of DRR in selected sector(s).

The SNAP document, “State of Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction in the Philippines” is an exhaustive document on the possibilities of mainstreaming DRR in governance in the Philippines. It revealed honest-to-goodness reflection on the state of DRR affairs in the country with opportunities for integrating the CC issue, i.e.,

(1) There is a need to improve/update the policies and strategies of the agencies covered to allow for the formal integration of DRR mainstreaming to their regular functions. This need is evident in the varying levels of support (often fragmented) given to DRR mainstreaming,

(2) There is a need to improve the implementation arrangements for DRR mainstreaming in most agencies covered (NEDA excluded) to accommodate the specialized requirements of the DRR mainstreaming function,

(3) There is no existing national DRR mainstreaming framework and strategy. Even as

most sectors/agencies covered by the study have their specific mainstreaming framework and/or strategy, no unified and nationally recognized framework and strategy for mainstreaming has been put forward. DRR mainstreaming was also found out to be not included as a specific mandate of the OCD, even as it is integrated into its regular activities. Likewise, while mainstreaming-type of provisions are found in the proposed DRM Act, no deliberate mainstreaming strategy is included,

(4) There is no consolidated multi-stakeholder advocacy and lobbying strategy/plan

for the proposed DRM Act. The relatively slow pace of the legislative efforts for the DRM Act may be hastened by a more aggressive advocacy and lobbying campaign for the Bill, formally involving the already existing champions of the Bill and utilizing the established partnerships with civil society and private sector

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stakeholders, (5) The statement that DRR concerns are fragmented in national plans is reasserted.

There is a need to unify all DRR-related sectoral policies and strategies under a unified national DRR framework. The inclusion of a comprehensive DRR framework in the pending DRM Act and the expected formulation of the Strategic National Action Plan this year are indicative that the country is headed towards the right direction,

(6) The agencies covered have existing initiatives on integrating vulnerability and risk

assessment in various national and sectoral initiatives. This is evident, for instance, in the inter-agency implementation of the READY Project and how many sectors are planning to utilize its outputs. Vulnerability assessments are also already being integrated into the processes of the infrastructure and education sectors,

(7) There is a need to strengthen the capacity of LGUs to undertake disaster

management measures in managing the network of local roads, bridges and small river basins nationwide not managed by the DPWH (202,000 kilometers of local roads and 56 river basins),

(8) The country has yet to formulate a comprehensive research agenda and create a

consolidated research databank on DRR. While research activities are conducted by OCD, other agencies, civil society and the academe—these are not drawn from a national DRR research agenda, nor are they put together to form a consolidated DRR research databank, and

(9) There is no existing national Monitoring and Evaluation framework for DRR. At

the OCD, for example, there is an existing M&E system only in the way that quantitative and qualitative information generated from reports, meetings and workshops are available, but this information are not generated based on a defined set of objectives and indicators. Country Reports are produced but only following the objectives and indicators set by international partners (e.g., the UNISDR) and not on a country-specific set of objectives. In other agencies, DRR information is generated and processed only as part of regular agency-wide planning and reporting procedures (e.g., Major Final Outputs, Annual Plans, financial reports, etc.).

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Notes: 29 http://ndcc.gov.ph/home/index; NDCC|RDCC, Information and Communication Technology Section

ICTS, Operations Division, Office of Civil Defense. 2008. [email protected]. www.http//ndcc. 30 PD 1586; DAO 30; DAO 42 31 The document is exhaustive and serves as the baseline information on CC in the Philippines. Some

aspects though are lacking, and this is reflected in the coverage of the recommendations forwarded. It is hoped that the SNC will cover more of the adaptation initiatives.

32 Usually formulated on instruction from the President of the Philippines, thus representing the development agenda of the present administration. It is a very powerful instrument for all sectors of government.

33 Extrapolating CC from Parts 1, 2, and 4, perhaps to some is stretched. However, because of the prevailing sustainable development paradigm permeating government bodies, it maybe safely assumed that the CC concern is in the minds of the formulaters. If this is not articulated clearly, it is probably due to the non-familiarity of concepts and language.

34 State of CDM Development in the Philippines: Philippine Designated National Authority for CDM, CDM Project Development Workshop, ADB Headquarters Auditorium A and B, 16 April 2008, www.cdmdna.emb.gov.ph

35 Joyceline A. Goco. Philippines: Designated National Authority. Inter-Agency Committee on Climate Change Secretariat. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City. Telefax no. +63-2-9202251. email: [email protected]

36 Office of Civil Defense, National Disaster Coordinating Council. “The State of Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction in the Philippines.” Strategic National Action Plan (SNAP) Project. June 2008. Draft 3.

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5.3 National sectoral policies The sectors which are considered as the major national policy making players on climate change, include, (1) housing and urban development, (2) energy, (3) air, (4) waste, (5) environment and natural resources, (6) agriculture and marine, and (7) population. Section 5.1 surfaced the fact that some overarching national policies on CC are stationed in sectoral agencies. Thus far, the most active in developing policies on adaptation and mitigation approaches is the ENR sector (Table 16). Table 16. Environment and natural resources policies related to climate change.

National Policies

Department level

RA 8749: “Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999”

DAO 2000-82: “Integrated Air Quality Improvement Framework-Air Quality Control Action Plan”

Presidential Decree No. 1586: “Establishing An Environmental Impact Statement System, Including Other Environmental Management Related Measures and for Other Purposes”

DAO 2003-30: “Implementing Rules and Regulations for the Philippine Environmental Impact Statement System”

EO 318: “Promoting Sustainable Forest Management in the Philippines”

DAO 2004-59: “Rules and Regulations Governing the Special Uses of Forestlands” SO 2006-787: “Creation of the Inter-agency Steering Group (IAWG) and a Program Steering Committee (PSG) for the Adaptation on Climate Change”

EO 220: Created the IACCC

DAO 2008-01: “Creation of Task Force Kalikasan (TFK)” DAO 2007-653: “Creation of the Advisory Council on

Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation, Monitoring and Communication”

EO 320: “Designating the Department of Environment and Natural Resources as the National Authority for the Clean Development Mechanism”

DAO 2005-17: “Rules and Regulations Governing the Implementation of Executive Order No. 320, series of 2004, Designating the DENR as the National Authority for the Clean Development Mechanism”

At the Department of Education, the CC advocacy is gaining ground with integration of CC matters in the curriculum of schools. On the one hand, the Department of the Interior and Local Government has designated a bureau to lead on the CC issue. Meanwhile, the Commission on Population still has to agenda the CC issue. Table 17 lists some of the newest policy initiatives that these Departments have added to the increasing number of sectoral policies, indicating that even the agencies that are not “traditionally” identified as CC champions have integrated adaptation actions.

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Table 17. Latest CC policy advocacies. Government unit

National policies

DepED Order No. 33 (2008): “Responding to the Threats of Climate Change and Global Warming Through Massive, Intensive and Sustained Tree-Planting, Tree Growing and Tree-Caring Program”

Department of Education

DepED Order No. 33 (2008): “Home Economics Slogan and Essay Writing Competition on Global Warming and Climate Change” Memorandum Circular No. 2008-123: “Mobilizing Local Actions to Address the Impacts of Climate Change” LGU supervisor on implementation of RA 9003 National Guide on the EPM Process published

Department of the Interior and Local Government

National Guide on SWM Board Functionality Commission on Population

Population Policy in the Philippines (1969-2002 )

5.3.1 Housing and urban development37

The formulation of the national policy on housing and urban development is with the Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council. Section 3 of EO 90 assigns to HUDCC the function of coordinating the activities of the government housing agencies to ensure the accomplishment of the National Shelter Program. Particularly, it shall, (1) formulate national objectives for housing and urban development and to design broad strategies for accomplishment of these objectives, (2) determine the participation and coordinate the activities of the key government housing agencies in the national housing program, (3) monitor, review and evaluate the effective exercise by these agencies of their assigned functions, (4) assist in the maximum participation of the private sector in all aspects of housing and urban development, (5) recommend new legislation and amendments to existing laws as may be necessary for the attainment of government’s objective in housing, (6) formulate the basic policies, guidelines and implementing mechanisms for the disposal or development of acquired or existing assets of the key housing agencies, and (7) exercise or perform other powers and functions as may be deemed necessary, proper or incidental to the attainment of its purpose and objectives.

Strengthening further the position of the Council, in 1989 the President issued EO 357 giving the HUDCC overall administrative supervision over the key shelter agencies and making it responsible for meeting targets and objectives for the shelter sector. RA 6846 of 1990 or an Act creating the “Abot Kaya Pabahay Fund,” was enacted charging the HUDCC with the function of determining the income ceilings and loanable amounts for borrowers eligible for development financing. In 1992, RA 7279 or the Urban Development Housing Act was enacted mandating the HUDCC to provide necessary technical support and related services to local government units. EO 72 (1993) provided for the preparation and implementation of the Comprehensive Land Use Plans for Local

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Government Units pursuant to the Local Government Code of 1991 and other pertinent laws.

The HUDCC connects directly with communities and the LGU through housing projects. It is chaired by the Vice President and is supported by six groups. The Special Concerns Group provides technical and secretariat support to the special projects/ concern spearheaded by HUDCC which include but not limited to the north and south rail relocation program; Presidential Proclamations Group which conducts complete staff work relative to proposed proclamations of public lands or patrimonial property of the state for housing purposes; Post Proclamations Group which facilitates the conduct of post proclamation activities which include survey and titling of proclaimed sites, formulation of policies for beneficiary selection and land valuation, conduct of census and tagging and preparation of site development plan; Legal Group which provides legal advice to top management; interpret laws and rules affecting the operations of the council and in-charge of investigating complaints and/or cases against professional squatters; Internal Administration and Finance Group which provides timely and adequate administrative and financial support to the needs of the council such as human resources development and personnel management services; general services including supply and property management; accounting including the preparation and submission of financial and auditing reports, budgeting and controllership and cash management.

The Policy Formulation and Monitoring Group formulate and reviews policies on housing and urban development. It provides technical support to international and local agencies on inter-sectoral and sector-wide plans and programs; and extends technical and secretariat support for the conduct of conferences, seminars, forum, etc. While the five other HUDCC Groups could integrate the CC concerns in their mandates, particularly on siting of housing projects and use of housing materials which are CC sensitive, virtually, the this Group is the closest for which the integration could be effected.

RA 7835 (1994) known as the Comprehensive and Integrated Shelter Financing Act was passed to provide sustained funding to socialized housing and make housing more affordable to low-income groups. To address the squatting issue, Congress approved RA 8368 (1997) the Anti-squatting Law Repeal Act of 1997 to repeal Presidential Decree 772 (Penalizing Squatting and Other Similar Acts). In another move to streamline and expand the coverage of unction of the HUDCC, the E.O. 20 (2001) reaffirmed mass housing as a centerpiece program in the poverty alleviation efforts of the government and further strengthened the Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council by adding the following functions:

(1) Serves as the lead agency in formulating the national objectives, policies and strategies for housing and urban development;

(2) Coordinate and monitor the activities of all government agencies undertaking housing projects, including those of Local Government Units (LGUs), to ensure the accomplishment of the goals of the government’s housing program;

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(3) Encourage the maximum participation of the private sector in all aspects

of housing and urban development; (4) Formulate the basic policies, guidelines and implementing mechanisms for

the disposal or development of acquired or existing assets of the key housing agencies which are not required for the accomplishment of their basic mandates;

(5) Identify, plan and secure local and foreign funding for housing programs

and projects; (6) Provide directions to the Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board to

ensure rational land use for the equitable distribution and enjoyment of development benefits;

(7) Recommend new legislation and amendments to existing laws as maybe

necessary for the attainment of government’s objectives in housing; (8) Undertake other functions as provided by existing laws that are not

contrary to the above-mentioned. The HUDCC formulates the National Urban Development and Housing Framework (NUDHF) as main basis for downstream planning and management. The components of the Framework are as follows:

(a) Urban Growth, Integration, Metropolitization (b) Urban Environmental Management (c) Urban Social and Infrastructure (d) Housing and Regulations (e) Urban Management and Governance

The Theme Working Groups corresponding to the five components are constituted from the different agencies within the HUDCC. The urban environment component is placed with the EMB, which focuses on setting of standards for environmental quality, control and regulation of pollution e.g., emissions, and monitoring. In the last NUDHF, the focus of the TWGs were poverty alleviation, strengthened peoples organization, rational land use, enhanced basic services and strengthened Philippine Urban Forum. Sustainable urban development as a policy area is not highlighted. The 2005 policy discussion convened by the UNDP/UNHabitat, observed that the mandate on urban development is not adequately addressed by the Council, although it is building on the gains of the PUF. On this need, the crafting of the updated NUDHF is an excellent avenue for integrating climate change vis-à-vis sustainable urban development. A 2008 draft of the NUDHF38 is in circulation. It said that the Philippines has been “transformed into an urban economy where most economic activity now emanates from

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the industry and services sectors.” The share of the urban has expanded from 28 to 77% in the 80’s to 90s, respectively. The agricultural sector productivity is declining making prospects for national economic growth dependent on the performance of the urban areas. Accordingly however, the Philippine urban system since the 80s has not been very encouraging due to problems in inadequate infrastructure, overcrowding and congestion, strained basic urban services such as health and sanitation, water and air pollution, slums and squatter settlements, poor urban land management, etc., which have been compounded by weak governance and financial capacities. The backlog in housing (mainly urban), for example, is estimated to reach more than 3.7 million in 2010. Sadly, more than 1/3 of urban populations reside in informal settlements. Vehicular traffic is chaotic and cost of moving people is expensive. Road construction has been limited for the 1.5 million vehicles in Metro Manila alone. The 2007 census places the population at 89 million and with an annual 2.345 growth rate, this number will double in 33 years. With these external and internal drivers in the urban centers, the direction towards sustainable urban development is directly relevant, particularly for long-term measures for metropolitan centers and vulnerable or disaster-prone regions. The country has a current “deficit ecological footprint of about 27 million global hectares (gha) because an average Filipino is consuming 61% more than its present biocapacity (measured relative to average land carrying capacity). This is a much higher consumptive lifestyle than the worldwide per capita consumption of 31%.” Given these, the NUDHF suggested to, (1) Recognize competitive strengths of cities relative to the urban world, (2) identify strategic priorities and focus on cost effectiveness and trade offs in addressing causes rather than symptoms of development issues, (3) Emphasize short term actions without losing sight of strategic objectives, (4) work with decentralization through national-local coordination, (5) build on private sector participation and partnerships. “Five modules that can form the structure of the framework” may be grouped into these themes:

I. The urban system

(a) Urban competitiveness (b) Poverty reduction

II. Housing and communities

(a) Housing affordability and delivery (b) Sustainable communities

III. Governance

(a) Performance-oriented governance

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As to the building of “sustainable communities, whether a single neighborhood or an entire city, there is need for a combination of function and amenity, based on acceptable environmental standards. Ultimately, these communities need to be sustainable by providing minimum service standards as well as from the point of view of global, climate change.” The Framework forwards strategic proposals with an “overall strategic thrust to increase national competitiveness by increasing productivity and efficiency of urban-industrial regions. The idea is to focus on several urban clusters or corridors (e.g. Calabarzon, Central Luzon, Cebu) that have the best chance of competing with other cities in the region for investments in services and manufacturing that can create jobs for our steadily increasing labor force. These can then anchor and disperse developments to nearby areas. Some of the specific thrusts and possible initiatives or activities are suggested:

(i) Provide strategic infrastructure in support of urban-industrial regions like extension of NLEX to La Union, STAR tollway to Batangas City, SLEX to Quezon; review BOT law and other regulations to remove barriers to private sector participation; and ensure clean power supply.

(ii) Build on existing manufacturing strengths. Focus export oriented manufacturing in core export areas (e.g., CALABARZON, Cebu, Central Luzon) which are potentially globally competitive.

(iii) Support development of strategic clusters; enhance value added of existing

clusters, support local promise, orient developmental planning, research, and data collection to clusters. Particularly, develop and promote Metro Manila tourism-entertainment-historical clusters in Intramuros, Makati, Quezon City in coordination and alignment with local government initiatives; explore the development of education, medical, agro-processing and other specific product clusters (e.g. garments, furniture, jewelry, etc.)

(iv) Increase Metro Manila’s attractiveness as a global service center by

implementing a pipeline metro transit projects LRT1 Extension and LRT6, and providing incentives for private sector investments in Bus Rapid Transit projects; institutionalize professional traffic management and transportation planning; and implement and support local government initiatives to enhance pedestrianization and improve sustainable landscaping.

(v) Support national competitiveness at the local government level through

local development planning, investment in catalytic infrastructure, promotion and investment support programs by integrating local economic development (e.g. CDS) into local (city/ municipal, and provincial) planning; encourage integration of urban peripheries into metro regions through local planning and inter-local transportation (e.g. C-6); and ensuring reliable water supply national, local and private sector projects.

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(vi) Support IT-enabled services to further enhance the country’s comparative

advantage in the sector through further aligning the educational system to support IT requirements, e.g. shift to non-voice applications; encouraging and supporting application of IT in LGU management and service systems; and supporting private sector initiatives in IT.

(vii) Support tourism sector and its regional/urban-rural linkages with open

skies policy; efficient international-domestic airport integration; continue regional airport development, particularly those that support urban-industrial zones and tourism clusters.”

As regards strategic policies, the proposals are listed:

(i) Link local land use/physical and community development plans with industry/local employment generating investment programs by providing framework for the delineation of areas for housing and settlements development, e.g. national land use code, unified planning guidelines.

(ii) Provide and encourage access to land for affordable housing; streamline land transaction processes by establishing a Land Administration Authority; anticipating and putting in place basic community infrastructure ahead of settlement to enable the poor to buy cheaper land in peripheral areas (through credit programs).

(iii) Provide incentives to unlock land for affordable housing by guiding

private sector redevelopment of public land that respects local land suitability and environmental compatibility (i.e. does not necessarily maximize financial objectives) and channels proceeds to socialized and low cost housing.

(iv) Increase funding and other resources for housing; creating effective

secondary mortgage system; encouraging innovative financing (e.g. private sector trusts that finance redevelopment of urban land to housing through the commercial redevelopment of a part of the land); and exploring concessional loans for socialized/low cost housing programs.

(v) Continue to build capacities of LGUs in development and land use

planning by introducing and encouraging triple bottom line planning approach: environmental, social, financial/economic objectives; recognizing the confluence of market and sustainable objectives; conducting appropriate capability-building (including CDS, database management) programs.

(vi) Review traditional zoning and encourage sustainable and private sector

initiatives through performance and service standards (without going into

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unsubstantiated or inappropriate and complicated alternatives, by using market-based incentives and disincentives to provide public amenities and to support urban land use objectives; and adopt incentive zoning (e.g. density bonuses, tax incentives)

(vii) Anticipate and encourage sustainable development and building practices

in local zoning ordinances by establishing and supporting green planning and building standards and accreditation; integrating appropriate sustainable zoning and green building practices into building code, local planning guidelines and zoning ordinances; integrate appropriate sustainable zoning and green building practices into local planning guidelines and zoning ordinances; encouraging energy efficiency, renewal energy application, water conservation and reuse, biodiversity; taking immediate steps to significantly improve urban air quality and to address the solid waste problem; encouraging pedestrianization and transit and mixed use community development; encouraging recycling in building materials and the use of IT in support of green buildings and communities.

(viii) Integrate disaster risk management into community development by

integrating Disaster Risk Management Guidelines into local planning guidelines.

The proposals above will need to be juxtaposed with the current Medium Term Philippine Development Plan for Shelter. The Plan indicates that the housing sector shall adopt a strategic framework anchored on a multi-stakeholder/ tripartite, market-based, private sector and LGU-led reforms and approaches to meet the goals of: (a) job generation; (b) shelter security of the different housing market segments; and (c) the Millennium Development Goal of improving the lives of slum dwellers. The sector will work towards the decongestion of Metro Manila by developing housing centers/communities outside the metropolis in line with the President’s 10-point Agenda. On land conversion, the Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board is instructed by EO 124: “Establishing Priorities and Procedures in Evaluating Areas Proposed for Land Conversion in Regional Agro-Industrial Centers/Regional Industrial Centers, Tourism Development Areas and Sites for Socialized Housing.” Meanwhile, the Local Government Code (RA 7160, 1991) authorizes cities and municipalities to re-classify agricultural lands into non-agricultural uses, provided are consistent with the guidelines. This overview considers the strategic position of HUDCC on the climate change challenge. From observation, it may be difficult at present to assign HUDCC as anchor institution however, since the Council is central to urban development and housing which are urgent areas of adaptation, it is incumbent to build its capacities. The SWOT matrix for the agency is presented below (Table 18).

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Table 18. HUDCC strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.

Strengths

Weaknesses

Opportunities

Threats

Mandated agency on urban development

No dedicated office focusing on urban development

Urban sector as most vulnerable to CC, hence could be rallied

Members of Council resist to establish a dedicated office

Long track record on human settlements

Bias to human settlements and little emphasis on urban development

Urban development issue could effectively take off from human settlements experience

Human settlements fixation is not transcended

Formulator of the NUDHF, thus has the vantage point of polishing policy proposals

Lack of exposure and expertise will limit the policy formulation

Strengthened NUDHF by integrating CC in the urban development functions through linkages with experts

Support for NUDHF preparation is limited

Chair is the Vice President and decisions are accompanied with material support

Perceived as politically-directed

Easier exploration for developmental support from urban development-dedicated agencies like the UN Habitat

Council priorities are not coinciding with linked agencies

5.3.2 Energy39

The sector bears the heaviest burden on the climate change issues essentially because it is perceived as having the biggest carbon footprint. This could be the reason for locating the PTFCC with the DOE. The energy policies that the government has passed are listed.

(1) Republic Act 7156 (1991): “An Act granting incentives to mini-hydro-electric power developers and for other purposes”, and its “Rules and Regulations Governing the Construction and Operation of Mini-Hydroelectric (mini-hydro) power plants”

(2) R.A. 7638: “Department of Energy Act of 1992 ensures a continuous,

adequate and economic supply of energy requirements through the development of indigenous energy resources without sacrificing ecological concerns”

(3) EO 66 directs the DOE to take the lead in developing the natural gas industry (4) EO 100 achieve parity between royalties on the exploitation of indigenous

energy sources and duties on imported energy fuels (5) Executive Order 462: “Enabling private sector participation in the

exploration, development, utilization and commercialization of ocean, solar, wind energy sources for power generation and other energy uses”, and Department Circular No. 98-03-005: “Rules and Regulations Implementing EO No. 462

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(6) EO 232 (2000): EO 462 was amended (7) EO 171a (2007): Created the PTFCC (8) RA 9136 (2001): “An act ordaining reforms in the electric power industry,

amending for the purpose certain laws and for other purposes” (9) Philippine Energy Plan 2004-2013 (PEP) (10) RA 9367: Biofuels Act of 2006

Under the Electric Power Industry Reform Act of 2001 (RA 9136), three policies with respect to CC are declared (Chapter 1, Section 2):

(a) To assure socially and environmentally compatible energy sources and infrastructure,

(b) To promote the utilization of indigenous and new and renewable energy resources in power generation in order to reduce dependence on imported energy, and

(c) To encourage the efficient use of energy and other modalities of demand

side management. The Five-Point Reform Package of the government, which is a 2007 summary performance of the energy sector based on the Philippine Energy Plan (2000-2015), targets a 60% self sufficiency in energy by 2010. With support compliance on policy reforms by downstream oil and gas industries, the following objectives were set:

(a) Accelerating the exploration, development and utilization of indigenous energy resources,

(b) Intensifying renewable energy resource development,

(c) Increasing the use of alternative fuels, and

(d) Enhancing energy efficiency and conservation. Targets and timeline in the updated 2007 Plan Framework (Fig 18) adjusted the PEP based on the achievements in the previous year, such as, super regions were identified for their indigenous and renewable energy resources; passage of RA 9367 (Biofuels Act) that will increase the mix of biodiesel starting May 2007 and two years after with bioethanol; Philippine Energy Contracting Round which renewed the interest of upstream investors; and the ASEAN Energy Plan of Action (2004-2009), which will standardize or harmonize biofuel utilization in the region.

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In 2006, the yields of power generation activities are 23.2% indigenous energy mix, which is mainly geothermal, 29% natural gas, and 27% coal. Energy conservation yield that year was 2.1 million MTOE.

Fig 18. Framework of the Philippine Energy Plan, 2007 update.

(DOE, 2007) Continuing policy initiatives follow the Biofuel Act of 2006. Three legislative proposals have been re-filed in congress: (1) Renewable Energy bill to promote energy sources like wind, solar, ocean, hydro, and geothermal, (2) Natural Gas bill to create an encouraging environment of investment in the downstream natural gas industry, and (3) Energy Conservation bill to institutionalize energy conservation and enhance the efficient use of energy, and to revitalize and strengthen energy conservation programs of the country. These policy proposals need support from CC advocates. An important aspect being programmed by the energy sector is to increase the renewable sources in the projected energy mix with the end view of reducing the GHG emissions (Table 19). The effort is just beginning to pick up so that every support should be given to this endeavor. The disaggregated information from a published table speaks of the big task ahead of everyone. In fact, the volume of the renewables in the energy mix projection under a high economic scenario is not substantial even by 2012. Table 19. Energy mix under a high economic growth scenario at 143.95, in million

barrels of fuel oil equivalent (MMBFOE), (PEP, 2003-2012).

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Energy source

Volume %

share Volume%

share Volume%

share Volume%

share Volume %

share I. Non-Renewable Ia. Local 69.97 72.38 76.38 79.40 82.07

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Gas 26.13

7.17

26.23

6.80

26.11

6.39

26.49

6.06

27.26

5.90

Geothermal 25.17 6.91

25.17

6.53

25.17

6.16

25.18

5.76

25.18

5.45

Coal 10.96

3.01

13.62

3.53

18.23

4.46

21.29

4.87

23.58

5.11

Oil 7.71

2.12

7.36

1.91

6.87

1.68

6.44

1.47

6.05

1.31

Ib. Imported 178.26

48.93

186.63

48.39

187.82

45.93

193.78

44.34

207.49

44.94

Oil 139.35

38.25

148.36

38.46

155.25

37.96

165.36

37.84

178.62

38.68

Coal 38.91

10.68

38.27

9.92

32.57

7.96

28.43

6.50

28.87

6.25

Total Non-Renewable 248.23 259.01 264.20 273.18 289.56

II. Renewable IIa

With GHG emissions 91.82 94.14 96.88 100.66 101.11

Fuelwood 51.26

14.07

52.46

13.60

53.89

13.18

55.47

12.69

55.68

12.06

Agriwaste 21.39

5.87

22.05

5.72

22.72

5.56

24.22

5.54

24.88

5.39

Bagasse 13.02

3.57

13.33

3.46

13.65

3.34

13.89

3.18

14.14

3.06

Charcoal 6.15

1.69

6.30

1.63

6.62

1.62

7.08

1.62

6.41

1.39

IIb No GHG emissions (Hydro)

13.41

3.68

13.49

3.50

13.49

3.29

13.45

3.08

13.53

2.93

IIc Others 1.73

0.48

1.78

0.46

1.83

0.45

2.92

0.67

2.97

0.64

Total Renewable 106.96 109.41 112.20 117.03 117.61 III. Others

9.13

2.51

17.30

4.48

32.56

7.96

46.80

10.71

54.60

11.82

TOTAL ENERGY 364.32

100.00

385.71

100.00

408.94

100.00

437.00

100.00

461.75

100.00

Growth rate, % 6.23

5.87

6.02

6.86

5.66

Impact of energy efficiency programs

6.30

6.24

6.61

6.69

6.92

Total energy with enercon

358.02

379.47

402.32

430.30

454.83

Power use 164.37

175.19

187.24

205.68

218.88

Self-sufficiency % 48.57

47.13 46.11

44.95 43.24

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The Presidential Task Force on Climate Change was established through the Presidential Administrative Order 171, February 2007, later amended by PAO 171a, August 2007 specifying that the Secretary of the DOE is the Chair and the Secretary of the DENR is the Vice Chair. Members are the Secretaries of DOST, DA, DILG, and Education, Chairman of CHED, and two representatives from the private sector/civil society. Budget will come from the unprogrammed funds of the DOE. Starting 2008, its operating budget shall be incorporated in the budgetary allocation of the DOE. The organizational structure of the Task Force is illustrated below.

Fig 19. Organizational chart The PTFCC Chair and Vice Chairtechnology solutions, financing schof Advisors. Day-to-day operationsby an Executive Director. This officand evaluation, information and eForce members will be involved diTF opted not to group programsflagship programs classified into mi The mandate and functions of the Pof climate change particularly, on agriculture, coastal areas, terrestrialcompliance to air emission standarenvironmental degradation and approaches and measures to prevenenergy conservation, use of renemassive and comprehensive public

Vice ChairmanSecretary, DENR

Chairman Secretary, DOE

T G

of the PTFCC.

would enjoy the benefit of counsel emes and social mobilization strategie will be handled by a Climate Changee will handle policy development, producation, and administrative supportrectly in program planning and imple along functional areas instead, intotigation, adaptation, financing and tech

TFCC are to conduct rapid assessmentthe most vulnerable sectors/areas of w and marine ecosystems, among otheds and act with urgency to combat de

apprehend violators; undertake/int or reduce GHG emissions includingwable energy, waste management, e information and awareness campaign

Private/Civil Society

CHED
DA DepEd DOS DIL
on matters like s from a Board Office headed ject monitoring . All the Task mentation. The cross-sectoral nology.

on the impacts ater resources,

rs; ensure strict forestation and

itiate strategic fuel efficiency, tc.; conduct a nationwide to

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educate the public on the climate change situation and its adverse impacts and mobilize multi-sectoral action in climate change; design concrete risk reduction and mitigation measures and adaptation responses, especially to address short term vulnerabilities, on sectors and areas where CC will have the greatest impact; collaborate with international partners at the bilateral, regional and multilateral levels to support a global front to stabilize GHG emissions and institute mitigating and adaptive measures, especially for developing countries; cause the integration and mainstreaming of climate risk mgt. into the development policies, plans and programs of government; perform other functions as may be directed by the President. The public presentation of the PTFCC Chair last October 2007 of the Philippine Response Strategic Framework to the President defines the operational guidelines of the Task Force. It is a “response framework that would serve as a good starting point for approaching the problem from a common perspective. Operations of the Task Force should align with the global action agenda on climate change. It should involve the community, bureaucracy, and synchronize efforts across disciplines, agencies and sectors under one common strategy for maximum impact. There will be a strong bias for local efforts and interventions to map out the climate change response framework hinging on a critical balance between mitigation and adaptation measures. The DOE, in collaboration with the members of the Task Force, will take decisive action, for instance, to achieve a climate-friendly energy supply mix. In the same context, the passage of a renewable energy bill in Congress would be a strategic impetus to raise the share of renewable energy sources to 20% of the overall portfolio. Many more mitigation interventions in the areas of energy generation, energy efficiency and transport/consumer behavior are outlined in the draft Action Plan. Focus will be on disaster-prone settlements, high-risk population centers, and food production areas. On the international level, Philippine stakeholders, working in concert, can highlight the urgent need for industrialized states to fulfill their mitigation commitments. A SWOT matrix was evolved as guide for determining the possible assistance that the TF will need to function effectively and efficiently as a critical body on CC (Table 20).

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Table 20. PTFCC strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.

Strengths

Weaknesses

Opportunities

Threats

Holds the freshest presidential mandate

Perceived as politically-motivated instead of development effort

Politically-supported development projects have more material support

Dissipate impact of development work because of political bias

Established the CC Office to handle day-to-day operations

Inadequate staff expertise

Technical pool is wide inside DOE

Expertise from outside the CC Office are tied up with their priorities

Budgetary support for operations comes from the DOE

Limited in amount due to competing priorities

Internal budget to leverage outside support

Project package will compete with other better packaged concepts because of experience

Choice group of the President to link with international agencies and networks

Still has to build its track record

People will listen because of its presidential affinity

Co-terminate with a change in leadership

5.3.3 Air quality40

RA 8749 is also known as the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999. The law is “an act providing for a comprehensive air pollution control policy and for other purposes”, also known as the. “The State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature…promote and protect the global environment to attain sustainable development while recognizing the primary responsibility of local government units to deal with environmental problems…recognizes that the responsibility of cleaning the habitat and environment is primarily area-based…recognizes the principle that polluters must pay…recognizes that a clean and healthy environment is for the good of all and should therefore be the concern of all. Therefore, the State shall pursue a “policy of balancing development and environmental protection. To achieve this end, the framework for sustainable development shall be pursued. The State shall:

(a) Formulate a holistic national program of air pollution management that shall be implemented by the government through proper delegation and effective coordination of functions and activities;

(b) Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among citizens and industries

through the application of market-based instruments; (c) Focus primarily on pollution prevention rather than on control and provide

for a comprehensive management program for air pollution; (d) Promote public information and education to encourage the participation of

an informed and active public in air quality planning and monitoring; and

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(e) Formulate and enforce a system of accountability for short and long-term

adverse environmental impact of a project, program or activity. This shall include the setting up of a funding or guarantee mechanism for clean-up and environmental rehabilitation and compensation for personal damages”.

The airshed approach is applied to Air Quality Monitoring (AQM). The country is divided into airsheds to facilitate monitoring. Each airshed has a Governing Board (GB), which will function as a policy and planning organization to complement the regulatory functions provided by DENR-EMB. In addition, GB coordinates the actions of other governmental agencies in the airshed, provides a forum to gather input from the public, and disseminate important information to the public. It shall formulate local policies and standards based on the national guidelines. The GB is also expected to prepare a comprehensive plan, coordinate the functions of its members, and publish an annual air quality status report for each airshed. The activities of GB and its technical secretariat are to be funded by the Air Quality Management Fund. The sources of funds include air emission charges, fines and penalties, grants, and fees. The Governing Board is chaired by the Secretary of DENR with members coming from the Provincial Governors from areas belonging to the airshed, City/Municipal Mayors, a representative from each concerned government agency, representatives from people's organizations, representatives from non-government organizations, and representatives from the private sector. The DENR is the primary NEA responsible for the implementation of the policy, and to be “more effective …EMB shall be converted from a staff bureau to a line Bureau…shall consult, participate, cooperate and enter into agreement with other government agencies, or with affected NGOs or POs, or private enterprises… LGUs shall share the responsibility in the management and maintenance of air quality within their territorial jurisdiction... and implement air quality standards set by the Board in areas within their jurisdiction…DENR shall provide the LGUs with technical assistance, trainings and a continuing capability-building program to prepare them to undertake full administration of the air quality management and regulation within their territorial jurisdiction…with an established Environment and Natural Resources Office in the province, city, or Municipality…its powers and duties, among others, are:

(a) To prepare comprehensive air quality management programs, plans and strategies within the limits set forth in Republic Act No. 7160 and this Act which shall be implemented within its territorial jurisdiction upon the approval of the sanggunian,

(b) To provide technical assistance and support to the governor or mayor, as the

case may be, in carrying out measures to ensure the delivery of basic services and the provision of adequate facilities relative to air quality,

(c) To take the lead in all efforts concerning air quality protection and

rehabilitation,

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(d) To recommend to the Board air quality standards which shall not exceed the

maximum permissible standards set by national laws, and (e) To coordinate with other government agencies and non-governmental

organizations in the implementation of measures to prevent and control air pollution.”

In the absence of environment and natural resources officers, the local executive concerned may designate an official with sufficient experience in environmental and natural resources management, conservation and utilization. In this state policy, the LGU-ENRO is the focal point of implementation, which brings to fore the conclusion of the 2005 policy discussions that still a number of LGUs have not instituted their ENRO and the supposed ENR functions are distributed in the various departments, which are in many ways technically deficient for the task. Table 21 shows that assessment, monitoring, standards development, tools development and pollution regulation are assigned to different national agencies. Reportedly, implementation of plans is seriously hampered by various reasons, such as the;

(1) Availability of well-researched local standards, (2) Analytical and assessment tools, (3) Monitoring measurements, (4) Availability of instruments, and (5) Expected tight budgetary situations.

Table 21. RA 8749 national agency-assigned tasks and their status.

Tasks

Agency assignment

Status

Annual National Air Quality Status Report

DENR

Draft done and document is available upon request

Integrated Air Quality Improvement Framework

DENR

Draft done and document is available upon request

Information Network

DENR, NSCB

EMB website carries information but not updated

Air Quality Control Action Plan

DENR

Done and available

Air Quality Control Techniques

DENR

Research is continuing

Ambient Air Quality Guideline Values and Standards

DENR

Available to the public

Annual list of hazardous air pollutants with corresponding ambient guideline values and/or

DENR, agency concerned

Available to the public

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standard Emission Charge System

DENR, DOTC

Certification process is completed Testing is implemented

The AQM synthesis country report clearly concludes that the main sources of air pollution are the motor vehicles; and the power plants and industrial plant boilers. These are better referred to as mobile and stationary sources, respectively. Other sources include dust from roads and construction, and deliberate waste burning such as found in dumpsites, although this is already banned under the law. A difficult role that EMB is doing is the submission of periodic inventories on air quality parameters. Usually, the inventory cover particulate matter (PM), sulfur oxide (SOx), nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC), total organic gases (TOGs),lead (Pb), ozone (O3) and other metals like antimony, arsenic, cadmium, and copper. The 2006 inventory estimated 54% of the pollutants come from stationary sources, 20% from mobile sources, and the remaining 26% from area sources. CO total pollution load is 39%. Others are NOx –35%, SOx –8%, PM –8%, TOG –7%, and VOC –2%.41 In 2001, about 23% PM was emitted by power plants, 18% Sox, 23% CO, and 35% NOx from total stationary emission sources. To emphasize the point sources of pollution, in the National Capital Region in 2005, more than 14 million tons (89%) of the pollutants come from stationary sources, while 1.5 million tons (9.6%) came from mobile sources.SO2 was the main pollutant emitted by stationary sources, CO for the mobile sources and PM for area sources. An outsource sampling of about 900 points revealed upon data comparison with allowable limits by law, that, 50% failed to meet the limits for at least one parameter. Also, apportionment studies are conducted by the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute and the Manila Observatory, which use more sophisticated techniques and measurements for PMs10 and 2.2 (particulate matters with diameters less than 10 and 2.2 micrograms. Results provide scientific guidance to air quality assessment and mitigation policy development by modeling effective air quality from various sources, their transport, and fate especially of critically important air pollutants. For example, for PM10 and PM2.5, the transport sector is the most significant source in Metro Manila, ranging from 50 to 90% contribution of the total pollutants. Following is biomass burning, sea salt and aeolian deposition. Dispersion modeling studies likewise affirms the contributions of the pollutant sources like the major arteries and dense traffic networks. Reports claim that because of the country is at southerly location, it is less affected by emissions of yellow sand (loess)that blow across much of East Asia, especially Korea and Japan. Similarly, the Philippines is less affected by smoke coming from forest fires in the region. On analysis of the present work, the implementation of the Clean Air Act is more focused on the pollutants which are not significant GHGs. This explains the few initiatives on the reduction and removal of GHGs, among these, the Anti-Smoke Belching Campaign, Motor Vehicle Inspection System, and the Tricycle Improvement Strategy. The Energy and Clean Air Program declared its mission to; (i) Strengthen sector governance through institutional capacity building; (ii) Improve policy frameworks through policy reforms

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and implementation; and (iii) Increase public understanding and support through communication and outreach. Moreover, the Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement Sector Development Program’s main objective is to improve air quality in Metro Manila Airshed (Metro Manila, Regions III, and IV, through the abatement of the main mobile and stationary sources of air pollution using integrated medium-to-long term control measures. Activities include; (i) improvement of fuel quality; (ii) improvement of vehicle emission inspection and maintenance; (iii) implementation of an anti-smoke belching program; (iv) rehabilitating ambient air quality monitoring system; (v) strengthening regulatory enforcement; and (vi) raising public awareness. Coordinated by DENR, the participating institutions are Metro Manila Development Authority, Laguna Lake Development Authority, DOTC, LTO, Department of Trade and Industry, DOE, Department of Public Works and Highways, Department of Health, LGUs, and NGOs. It is expected that a continuing air quality information and education campaign shall be promoted by the Department, the Department of Education, Culture and Sports, the Department of the Interior and Local Government, the Department of Agriculture and the Philippine Information Agency (PIA). Consistent with Section 7 of this Act, such campaign shall encourage the participation of other government agencies and the private sector including NGOs, POs, the academe, environmental groups and other private entities in a multi-sectoral information campaign. 5.3.4 Solid wastes42 RA 9003, known as the “Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000” and its Implementing Rules and Regulations (DAO 2001-34) direct the diversion of solid wastes by at least 25% five years after the approval of the law, and increasing thereafter to ensure that significant impact is reached on the mounting garbage problem. The diversion of municipal solid wastes could either lead to reduction of GHGs or removal/conversion to other forms. On the basis of this national target, the law is an important ingredient of the climate change initiative. The projects which registered with the CDM are mainly solid waste-based industry. Fig 20 defines that the toxic, hazardous, mining, and infectious types of wastes are not within the coverage of RA 9003, which means that only municipal solid wastes are under management of the law. These solid wastes are identified in routes of disposal, i.e., Materials Recovery Facility (RMF), Sanitary Landfill or to recyclers. Consistent with RA 8749, RA 9003 bans all forms of incineration as waste disposal option.

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Fig 20. Routes of municipal solid waste disposal. It is a declared policy to adopt a systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste management program which shall;

(a) Ensure the protection of public health and environment;

(b) Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of valuable resources and encourage resources conservation and recovery;

(c) Set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and volume reduction

through source reduction and waste minimization measures, including composing, recycling, re-use, recovery, green charcoal process, and others, before collection, treatment and disposal in appropriate and environmentally sound solid waste management facilities in accordance with ecologically sustainable development principles;

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(d) Ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best environmental practices in ecological waste management excluding incineration;

(e) Promote national research and development programs for improved solid

waste management and resource conservation techniques, more effective institutional arrangement and indigenous and improved methods of waste reduction, collection, separation and recovery.

(f) Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management; (g) Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management

with local government units while establishing a cooperative effort among the national government, other local government units, non-government organizations, and the private sector;

(h) Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among waste generators through

the application of market-based instruments; (i) Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation

of national and local integrated, comprehensive and ecological waste management programs; and

(j) Strengthen the integration of ecological solid waste management and

resource conservation and recovery topics into the academic curricula of formal and non-formal education in order to promote environmental awareness and action among the citizenry.

The National Solid Waste Management Commission under the Office of the President governs the implementation of the policy. The Commission is composed of fourteen members from the government sector and three (3) members from the private sector. The government sector shall be represented by the heads of the following agencies in their ex officio capacity:

(1) Department of Environment and Natural Resources, (2) Department of Interior and Local Government, (3) Department of Science and Technology, (4) Department of Public Works and Highways, (5) Department of Health, (6) Department of Trade and Industry, (7) Department of Agriculture, (8) Metro Manila Development Authority, (9) League of provincial governors, (10) League of city mayors, (11) League of municipal mayors,

77

(12) Association of barangay councils, (13) Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, and (14) Philippine Information Agency.

The private sector is represented, meanwhile, the Commission may, from time to time, call on any other concerned agencies or sectors as it may deem necessary.

(1) A representative from NGOs whose principal purpose is to promote recycling and the protection of air and water quality,

(2) A representative from the recycling industry, and (3) A representative from the manufacturing or packaging industry.

Commission shall formulate action plans for their respective agencies to complement the National Solid Waste Management Framework. The DENR Secretary and a private sector representative of the Commission shall serve as chairman and vice chairman, respectively. The DENR, through the EMB, shall provide secretariat support to the Commission. The main function of the Commission is to oversee the implementation of solid waste management plans and prescribe policies to achieve the objectives. It is obliged to undertake the following activities:

(a) Prepare the National Solid Waste Management Framework; (b) Approve local solid waste management plans in accordance with its rules and

regulations; (c) Review and monitor the implementation of local solid waste management

plans; (d) Coordinate the operation of local solid waste management boards in the

provincial and city/municipal levels; (e) To the maximum extent feasible, utilizing existing resources, assist

provincial, city and municipal solid waste management boards in the preparation, modification, and implementation of waste management plans;

(f) Develop a model provincial, city and municipal solid waste management

plan that will establish prototypes of the content and format which provinces, cities and municipalities may use in meeting the requirements of the National Solid Waste Management Framework;

(g) Adopt a program to provide technical and other capability building assistance

and support to local government units in the development and implementation of source reduction programs;

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(h) Develop and implement a program to assist local government units in the identification of markets for materials that are diverted from disposal facilities through re-use, recycling, and composting, and other environment-friendly methods;

(i) Develop a mechanism for the imposition of sanctions for the violation of

environmental rules and regulations;

(j) Manage the Solid Waste Management Fund; (k) Develop and prescribe procedures for the issuance of appropriate permits and

clearances; (l) Review the incentives scheme for effective solid waste management, for

purposes of ensuring relevance and efficiency in achieving the objectives of this Act;

(m) Formulate the necessary education promotion and information campaign

strategies; (n) Establish, after notice and hearing of the parties concerned, standards,

criteria, guidelines and formula that are fair, equitable and reasonable in establishing tipping charges and rates that the proponent will charge in the operation and management of solid waste management facilities and technologies;

(o) Develop safety nets and alternative livelihood programs for small recyclers

and other sectors that will be affected as a result of the construction and/or operation of a solid waste management recycling plant or facility;

(p) Formulate and update a list of non-environmentally acceptable materials in

accordance with the provisions of this Act. For this purpose, it shall be necessary that proper consultation be conducted by the Commission with all concerned industries to ensure a list that is based on technological and economic viability;

(q) Encourage private sector initiatives, community participation and

investments resource recovery-based livelihood programs for local communities;

(r) Encourage all local government agencies and all local government units to

patronize products manufactured using recycled and recyclable materials; (s) Propose and adopt regulations requiring the source separation and post

separation collection, segregated collection, processing, marketing and sale of

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organic and designated recyclable material generated in each local government unit; and

(t) Study and review the following:

(i) Standards, criteria and guidelines for the promulgation and implementation of an integrated national solid waste management framework; and

(ii) Criteria and guidelines for siting, design, operation and maintenance of solid waste management facilities.

The NSWMC reports that the solid waste generation/day is 30,000 tons from households (73%) and commerce (26%). The Metro Manila alone produces 23% of the total solid wastes. As to date, there are 2,361 Materials Recovery Facilities established in 2,634 barangays, which is a small portion of the total 42,000 barangays nationwide, and a handful of landfills that were setup. Indeed, policy implementation is slow paced since 2001. 5.3.5 Agriculture and marine43

The two governing policies on agriculture and fisheries are RA 8435, 1997: Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act and RA 8550, 1998: The Philippine Fisheries Code. Recently, technical meetings and conferences were held to assess the vulnerabilities of agricultural crops to changes in climate, although virtually none of the farm animals. These discussions focused on the required adaptation direction that the agriculture sector should pursue to cope with the CC impacts like the occurrence of ENSO. Ideas like infrastructure adjustments, and others were surfaced. Sensitive areas of research such as on biotechnology, genetic engineering, and stem cells demand policy support. In securing food, the President has attached the National Food Security Council and the National Secretariat on Food Security to the DA (EO 236). On the other hand, EO 86 constituted the National Food Security Council under the Chairmanship of the President of the Philippines, to act as the overall coordinating body in the formulation of policy guidelines and master plans and programs, as well as in the implementation of projects that will ensure the attainment of the national vision, mission, goals, objectives and targets of a workable and sustainable food security program. Particularly, an EO 481 issued by the President in 2005 promotes and develops organic agriculture in the Philippines. It advocates conservation of environmental resources, promotion of social equity and product accessibility to foreign and domestic markets of agriculture and fishery commodities; recognizes the potential of certified organic farming as a way to lower input costs, utilization of local raw material inputs, conservation of non-renewable resources, mainstreaming into high-value markets and improvement of farm income. To support this national policy, AO 13, Series of 2003 was passed by the Department, as a set of guidelines in the accreditation of certifying bodies for standards on organic agriculture, specifically mandates the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Product Standards to formulate and enforce standards of quality in the processing,

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preservation, packaging, labeling, importation, exportation, distribution and advertising of agriculture and Fisheries products. Collaboration and effective partnership with the private sectors and non-government organizations will be forged as certifying bodies guided by specific guidelines of accreditation. DAO 29 (2007) affirms further the DA’s emphasis on sustainable agriculture. The Philippine Coast Guard has issued a series of guidelines for the protection of seas and oceans (Table 22). Basically, there is no mention on the effects of climate change on the coastal zone and the adaptation measures that need to be established for coastal communities to survive the impact. Table 22. Protection policies on seas and oceans (NWQ Status Report, EMB-DENR,

2006).

Policies

Brief description

RA 8550 (The Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998).

BFAR, RA 9550-IRR provides for the development, management, and conservation of the fisheries and aquatic resources in the country.

PCG Memorandum Circular No. 03-94 (Prevention, Containment, Abatement, and Control of Marine Pollution).

Provides for the implementing guidelines pursuant to RA 3931, PD 984, PD 600, and PD 979 as rationalized in accordance with the International Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships, MARPOL 73/78.

PCG Memorandum Circular 01-05 (Revised Rules on Prevention, Containment, Abatement, and Control of Marine Pollution).

Provides implementing guidelines pursuant to the above-mentioned authorities as rationalized in accordance with the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships, MARPOL 73/78.

PCG Memorandum Circular 02-05 (Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ship).

Provides implementing rules to prevent pollution by garbage from ships within the territorial and archipelagic waters of the Philippines.

PCG Memorandum Circular 03-05 (Rules and Regulations for Tank Cleaning Operations and the Collection and Disposal of Diluted Oil and Other Substances).

Applies to all tank cleaning operations and the collection and disposal of diluted oil within the territorial jurisdiction of the Philippines.

PCG Memorandum Circular 04-05 (Accreditation of Oil Water Separators, Oil Containment, Recovery and Dispersal Equipment and Chemical Dispersant).

Prescribes the procedures for the accreditation of chemical dispersant, oil containment, recovery dispersal equipment and oil separators; prescribes requirements to be observed by the subjects of this circular, and to impose the corresponding sanctions for its violation.

PCG Memorandum Circular 07-05 (Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships).

Provides implementing rules to prevent pollution by sewage from ships.

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PCG Memorandum Circular 01-06 (Rules Prohibiting the Dumping of Wastes and other Harmful Matters).

Prescribes the procedures and policies for the proper dumping of wastes and other harmful matters into Philippines waters to prevent pollution which may create hazards to human health, marine life, and other resources; damage amenities; or interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea.

5.3.6 Population control44

There is no substantive CC-Population policy, despite the fact that the present fertility rate is 3.7%, and the recognition that population is a major factor in defining adaptation mechanisms. Most programs and projects of the Commission on Population have no vestiges on CC and should be seen as an urgent area for policy work. The opportunities for integrating CC policy in these projects are enormous, such as:

(1) Formulation of the Population Investment Plan aims to enable POPCOM to perform a more effective role in coordinating the funding of strategic activities of the Philippine Population Management Program. The aim is to formulate the program Directional Plan;

(2) Population and Development Strategies involves the establishment of a

politically influential, research-based and widely participatory policy dialogue aimed at mobilizing support, among decision-makers and the population at large, for dealing with the country's priority population and development issues. This seeks to contribute to improved population and development policies and programmes and sustained support for their implementation and financing through the process of information-based decision-making and wide consultation among stakeholders. Disseminates the State of the Philippine Population Report;

(3) National Advocacy for Population and Reproductive Health project is

intended to increase support for population and RH activities among various influential groups, policy-makers, various influential groups, policy-makers, community leaders, media producers and practitioners. Three specific issues have been identified for this project: domestic financing of contraceptives, public provision of adolescent reproductive health services, and operational application of reproductive rights framework to health service delivery;

(4) Communication and Advocacy for Population Issues and Development

project is to generate greater understanding of the close interrelationship between population and development issues among the general public and policy makers, thereby paving the way for higher acceptance of FP and the use of family planning methods. It also aims to provide technical assistance to POPCOM to strengthen its institutional capability to conduct activities in communication, social advocacy, monitoring of population and development indicators and activities; and

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(5) Contraceptive Interdependence Initiative will achieve a secure and sustainable

contraceptive supply to allow us to meet the contraceptive needs of every Filipino couple, toward achieving the desired fertility rate of 2.7 children per childbearing woman as against the actual fertility rate of 3.7.

5.3.7 Construction An act to ordain and institute a National Building Code of the Philippines (RA 6541 of 1972, PD 1096 of 1977) and the Revised Implementing Rules and Regulations (2004) declares a policy to safeguard life, health, property, and public welfare, consistent with the principles of environmental management and control. To this end, the Code shall provide for all buildings and structure, a framework of minimum standards and requirements by guiding, regulating, and controlling their location, siting, design, quality of materials, construction, use, occupancy, and maintenance, including their environment, utilities, fixtures, equipment, and mechanical electrical, and other systems and installations. At this point, the concern on the possible effect of extreme climate to structures has not been explicitly expressed in the policy. The suggested building materials are indicative of the need to re-visit the policy. The policy defines the design, location, siting, construction, alteration, repair, conversion, use, occupancy, maintenance, moving, and demolition of, and addition to, public and private buildings and structures. Additions, alterations, repairs, and changes of use or occupancy in all buildings and structures shall comply with requirements for new buildings and structures except as otherwise herein provided. Only such portion or portions of the existing building or structure which have to be altered to effect the addition, alteration, or repair shall be made to conform to the requirements for new buildings or structures. Alterations should preserve the aesthetic value of the building to be altered. Where, in any specific case, different section of this Code specify different materials, methods of construction, or other requirements, the most restrictive shall govern. This Code shall apply to chartered cities, poblaciones of municipalities and municipal districts with a population of at least two thousand (2,000) inhabitants, and to barrios of urban areas with a population of at least two thousand (2,000) inhabitants. This Code shall also apply to any area where there are fifty (50) or more families per hectare. Likewise, it will apply to any area proposed for or being developed into a new town site, residential subdivision, commercial or residential site, school site, housing project, and similar construction projects where five or more buildings not covered by paragraph (d) of this Section will be constructed even if the poblacion or barrio population is less than two thousand (2,000) or the density of population is less than fifty (50) families per hectare. However, the design and construction requirements of the Building Code shall not apply to any traditional indigenous family dwelling costing not more than five thousand pesos (P5,000.00) and intended for use and occupancy of the family of the owner only. The traditional type of family dwellings are those that are constructed of native materials such as bamboo, nipa, logs, or lumber, wherein the distance between vertical supports or

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suportales does not exceed 3.00 meters (10 feet); and if masonry walls or socalos are used, such shall not be more than 1.00 meter (3 feet, 3 inches) from the ground: Provided, however, That such traditional indigenous family dwelling will not constitute a danger to life or limb of its occupants or of the public; will not be fire hazard or an eyesore to the community; and does not contravene any fire zoning regulation of the city or municipality in which it is located. Also, the Code shall apply to Group A dwellings produced on a commercial scale and intended for use by the general public. It must be noted that the specifics in the law were drafted in 1972, and therefore have been redefined, particularly the building materials. However, manufacturing or fabricating materials from local sources vis-à-vis demands for CC-responsive structures is not adequately addressed. Slowing down possibilities is the holding in abeyance the proposed Architecture Act (RA 9266) since 2004.45 Opposition to the implementation of the law is still being heard at the Manila and Quezon City Regional Trial Courts since 2005. At least four (4) architectural organizations working separately or together i.e. United Architects of the Philippines, Philippine Institute of Architects, Architecture Advocacy International Foundation, and the Council of Consulting Architects and Planners of the Philippines are supportive of the implementation of RA 9266. They face a formidable opposition from professional groups of Engineers. Accordingly, because RA 9266 is hampered, the country is missing out the opportunity to “require that the culture, the character and the soul of the Filipino be reflected in all its public works… supposed that there would be a renaissance of the Filipino spirit that is so badly needed to counterbalance the inroads that globalization makes in the lives of people in the world today…see the Filipino spirit captured in structures of steel and wood when out architects do urban planning or landscape architecture… that its buildings be built in a manner that somehow carry the mark that these are public facilities constructed by the Filipino, of the Filipino and principally for the Filipino… structures that would be identifiably Filipino, of world-class standards, and of which they will be proud of."46 But, a greater need is to adapt housing and building designs to the increasing impacts of climate change. In other words, it is integrating culture, aesthetics and adaptation to the environment with architectural designs. 5.3.8 Water The Philippine Clean Water Act (RA 9275, 2004) provides for a comprehensive water quality management and pursues economic growth while protecting, preserving, and reviving the quality of fresh, brackish and marine waters. To achieve this end, the sustainable development framework will be utilized for national policies, such as the following:

(1) To streamline processes and procedures in the prevention, control and

abatement of pollution of the country’s water resources; (2) To promote environmental strategies, use of appropriate economic

instruments and of control mechanisms for the protection of water resources;

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(3) To formulate a holistic national program of water quality management that recognizes that water quality management issues cannot be separated from concerns about water sources and ecological protection, water supply, public health and quality of life;

(4) To formulate an integrated water quality management framework through

proper delegation and effective coordination of functions and activities; (5) To promote commercial and industrial processes and products that are

environment friendly and energy efficient; (6) To encourage cooperation and self-regulation among citizens and industries

through the application of incentives and market-based instruments and to promote the role of private industrial enterprises in shaping its regulatory profile within the acceptable boundaries of public health and environment;

(7) To provide for a comprehensive management program for water pollution

focusing on pollution prevention; (8) To promote public information and education and to encourage the

participation of an informed and active public in water quality management and monitoring;

(9) To formulate and enforce a system of accountability for short and long-term

adverse environmental impact of a project, program or activity; and (10) To encourage civil society and other sectors, particularly labor, the academe

and business undertaking environment-related activities in their efforts to organize, educate and motivate the people in addressing pertinent environmental issues and problems at the local and national levels.

This Act shall apply to “water quality management in all water bodies. It shall primarily apply to the abatement and control of pollution from land based sources. Further, that the water quality standards and regulations and the civil liability and penal provisions under this Act shall be enforced irrespective of sources of pollution.” To operationalize the law, DAO 2005-10 has been issued which applies to water quality management of water bodies and to the abatement and control of pollution from land-based sources. Water quality standards and regulations as well as the civil liability and penal provisions of the CWA will be enforced irrespective of pollution sources. Table 23 shows the water policies.

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Table 23. Water policies (NWQ Status Report, EMB-DENR, 2006).

Policy

Brief description

NWRB Amended IRR of PD 1067 (The Water Code of the Philippines

Provides for the appropriation, utilization, control, conservation, and protection of waters, watersheds, and related land resources in the country.

DAO 2003-27 (Self-Monitoring Report)

Adopts a modified self-monitoring report (SMR) system as part of DENR’s compliance monitoring system. The SMR has two basic objectives: (1) Allows firms to demonstrate their compliance with environmental regulations to include Presidential Decree (PD) 984, PD 1586, RA 6969, and RA 8749; and (2) Requires DENR to confirm that firms comply with environmental regulations.

DAO 2003-26 (Revised Industrial EcoWatch System)

Amended the Implementing Guidelines of DAO 98-51, adopting the Industrial EcoWatch as part of the compliance monitoring system of the DENR. The System promotes compliance through public disclosure of environmental performances of the regulated community.

DAO 1990-34 (Revised Water Usage and Classification/ Water Quality Criteria).

Amended Sections 68 and 69, Chapter III of the 1978 National Pollution Control Commission Rules and Regulations, which provides for the classification and water quality criteria of all Philippine water bodies according to their beneficial uses.

DAO 1990-35(Revised Effluent Regulations)

Amended the effluent regulations of 1982 and provides the effluent standards for all industrial and municipal wastewater effluents prior to discharge to receiving water bodies.

DAO 1994-26A (Philippine Standards for Drinking Water 1993).

Amended the 1978 National Standards for Drinking Water specifying the requirements for the acceptable values of parameters in measuring water quality. The standard delineated values conforming with medical, health, and aesthetic requirements to include microbiological, physical, chemical, and radiological compositions of water. This DAO implements the provisions of Section 9, the Prescribed Standards and Procedures of Chapter II of PD 856 (Sanitation Code of the Philippines).

DOH IRR of PD 856 (Sanitation Code of the Philippines)

Provides for the standards and procedures on specific sections of the Code particularly on Section II (Water Supply) and Chapter XVII (Sewage Collection and Disposal, Excreta Disposal and Drainage).

M. A. Estoque M. V. Sta. Maria et. al. (2000)

Climatology of rainfall and wind for the Philippine-South Sea region: 2. Variations due to El Niño and La Niña

The characteristics of rainfall and wind during the occurrence of three El Niño episodes and one La Niña episode are studied by using observatory data.

Rodel D. Lasco Florencia B. Pulhin, et. al (2008)

Mainstreaming Climate Change in the Philippines

This is an assessment of the current efforts by the Philippines in mainstreaming climate change in its developmental plans and programs.

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Notes: 37 It is re-stressed that these two functions need to be strengthened for the CC adaptation to be successful in

the country, thus putting the burden with HUDCC, an organization requiring support from everyone. The 2005 policy discussions suggested the strengthening of the Council, especially its urban development mandate.

38 The draft NUDHF in circulation while exhaustive appear deficient on the integration of CC concerns and soft on the organizational elements to strengthen the urban development task of the Council.

39 Virtually acquiring the heaviest expectation, all people are on eyes on the DOE to come up with effective and efficient reduction or removal of GHGs from operations of government and the general public. The other expectation is for the Department to lead in exploring renewable energies which are negatively GHG-sensitive.

40 To the expectations of the common tao, this law guides the GHG reduction/removal, which is basically correct. However, the large part of work under this policy has been on the pollutants like particulates and other non GHGs. Control of GHGs is with the DNA-CDM.

41 Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities. ADB. 2006. “Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Philippines.”

42 The National Solid Waste Management Commission ensures the implementation of RA9003. At the DILG, it has assigned the BLGD to supervise the LGUs on solid waste management. In 2008, it published a national guide on how to measure the functionality of SWM Boards as an attempto identify and prioritize positive intervention.

43 Two concerns are extremely important CC work load to be led by the Department of Agriculture, i.e., coastal resource management and sustainable/organic agriculture. In comparison to the other functions of the Department, these concerns receive less attention and resources for development.

44 This issue is emotionally charged in the Philippines because of the position taken by the catholic church on population control. On many occasions, government and various sectors such as NGOs have tiptoed on population control proposals in Congress. Yet, it is an irony that everyone agrees that the population must be substantially reduced.

45 Armando Nicoleta. 2007. “Continuing Challenges to RA 9266 :Issues and Updates on the Implementation of RA 9266 and the 2004 Revised IRR of the NBC (PD 1096 of 1977)”

46 Comment by Sen. A. Pimentel in an anniversary celebration with professional architects. He authored the bill, the implementation of which is held in abeyance.

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5.4 Researches Quality researched information is the backbone of CC adaptation, otherwise, the measures proposed by the “knowledgeable” will be theoretical, and no one will know how far off is the proposal from effective reality. The few basic studies conducted on the CC phenomenon tried to establish standards and baselines (Table 24 & 25)44, but in general, it maybe concluded that basic CC research in the Philippines is dismally weak and inadequate. While the country has in the roster well-trained university researchers, most laboratories are incapable to conduct intensive and focused research on CC. Even climate-related scientific journals are not available. Indeed, the government has to prioritize the acquisition of scientific instruments and publications in order for these highly-capable professionals to research on problem areas or topics which there is only conceptual knowledge. Nearly all of the early studies had support from the international community like the ADB, USAID, and the UN agencies. Table 24. Few baseline studies conducted on CC.

Researcher/Date

Title

Brief

Baseline researches 1990

US Country Studies Program – National Emissions Inventory

1991

ADB Climate Change Project – vulnerability/rapid assessment

1994

National Greenhouse Gas Inventory

1995

GHG Mitigation Assessment under the Asia Least Cost Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy (ALGAS)

1998

The Strategic Objective Agreement 5 (SOAG) or the Philippine Climate Change Mitigation Program - use of clean fuels in power generation, and by improving the efficiency of power generation, distribution and use

2005

UNDP A Study on “National Capacity for Self Assessment”

Jose, A.M., and N. A. Cruz. (1999)

"Climate change impacts and responses in the Philippines: water resources," Climate Research, Vol. 12, pp. 77-84.

A preliminary and limited through the application of GCM and CC scenarios that incorporate incremental changes in temperature and rainfall, and a hydrological model to simulate the future runoff-rainfall relationship. Angat reservoir and Lake Lanao will be affected. Runoff is likely to decrease in the future and be insufficient to meet future demands for water.

M. A. Estoque M. V. Sta. Maria and J. T. Villarin S.J. (2000)

Climatology of rainfall and wind for the Philippine-South Sea

A diagnostic study of rainfall and wind climatology of the Philippine South China Sea region using data obtained from the European

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region: 1. Monthly Variations

Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) reanalysis.

M. A. Estoque M. V. Sta. Maria et. al. (2000)

Climatology of rainfall and wind for the Philippine-South Sea region: 2. Variations due to El Niño and La Niña

The characteristics of rainfall and wind during the occurrence of three El Niño episodes and one La Niña episode are studied by using observatory data.

Rodel D. Lasco Florencia B. Pulhin, et. al (2008)

Mainstreaming Climate Change in the Philippines

This is an assessment of the current efforts by the Philippines in mainstreaming climate change in its developmental plans and programs.

The PINCCC has outlined researchable areas in 1999. Some of these have been addressed while others received none to minimal attention from the research community, both from public and private research institutions. The reason is obviously the lack of financial support. Therefore, the result has been the resuscitation of information often cited even in recent technical papers circulating domestically, with doubts of being accepted for publication in scientific journals. The implication is that the country maybe doing adaptation action blindly, which in the long-term will be costlier had basic information is on hand for planning. This imbalance of available information on one end of the scale of planning and the urgent issues to be tackled on the other end is very critical for government administrators to disregard. Table 25. Few adaptation-mitigation researches conducted.

Adaptation/mitigation Researches

Rosa T. Perez

Assessment of Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change in the Philippines Coastal Resource Sector

An analysis on the impacts of present and future climate variability in coastal areas and of valuable ecosystems such as coral reefs and mangroves was conducted in the context of sustainable development.

Rosa T. Perez, Leoncio A. Amadore, Renato B. Feir (1999)

Climate change impacts and responses in the Philippines coastal sector

The Manila Bay coastal area was evaluated for the possible consequences of accelerated sea level rise in the context of climate change and to assess adaptive responses to such threats.

M.A. Estoque and M. Sta. Maria (2000)

Climate Changes due to the Urbanization of Metro Manila

The effect of urbanization on temperature and rainfall was analyzed based on observational data in selected areas of urban Metro Manila and rural areas.

M. A. Estoque and E. R. Castillo (2001)

Climatological Changes in Rainfall due to

A two-dimensional, theoretical model based on the fluid dynamical equations was developed to

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Urbanization determine the effects of urbanization on rainfall. Ma. Gerarda Asuncion D. Merilo (2001)

Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Strategies: The Philippines Experience

A discussion on the efforts undertaken by the Philippines in addressing, issues and constraints concerning the issue of Climate Change.

E.R. Castillo, G.A. Galgana and A.L. Guzman (2002)

Geokinematics and Geodynamics of Sea Level Rise: Surveying the Key Factors

This paper is a summary of the more important factors affecting sea level rise. Geodynamic factors are elaborated and explained, based on numerous studies affecting such phenomena.

G.A. Galgana, S.C. Abad II, J.T. Villarin and M.C.T.M. Vicente (2004)

Visualizing Sea Level Rise in Navotas by GIS and Terrain Modeling

The research introduces a method to evaluate vulnerability and predict how a change in sea level will spatially affect a certain locality using Geographic Information System (GIS) and 3D Terrain Modeling-Visualization software.

E. B. Capili, A. C. S. Ibay and J. R. T. Villarin (2005)

Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation on Philippine Coasts

This study aims to review climate change impacts on Philippine coastal communities and to set directions for possible adaptation measures on both local and national levels.

The Institute of International and Legal Studies of UP College of Law conducted a whole-day “experts dialogue” last 31 July 2008. This “Philippine Climate Change Policy: Mitigation and Adaptation Measures” dialogue gathered professionals who are directly involved in the CC issue. The papers presented are not available, but accordingly will be in the near future.

Casis, R. J. (2008, July). The Climate Change Crisis: Global Legal Framework, Policy Initiatives and the Philippine Response, Philippine Climate Change Policy: Mitigation and Adaptation Measures. Experts Dialogue, University of the Philippines Law Center, U.P. Diliman. Evidente, M. (2008, July). A Philippine Response to Climate Change: Possible Strategies for Mitigation and Adaptation, Philippine Climate Change Policy: Mitigation and Adaptation Measures. Experts Dialogue, University of the Philippines Law Center, U.P. Diliman. La Viña, A. (2008, July). Addressing Climate Change in the Philippines: An Integrated Adaptation-Mitigation Approach, Philippine Climate Change Policy: Mitigation and Adaptation Measures. Experts Dialogue, University of the Philippines Law Center, U.P. Diliman. Leonen, M. V. F. (2008, July). The Limits of Law and Policy, Philippine Climate Change Policy: Mitigation and Adaptation Measures. Experts Dialogue, University of the Philippines Law Center, U.P. Diliman. Merilo, M. G. A. (2008, July). Philippine Initiatives on Climate Change,

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Philippine Climate Change Policy: Mitigation and Adaptation Measures. Experts Dialogue, University of the Philippines Law Center, U.P.

A National Capacity Needs Self Assessment for Global Environmental Management (NCSA) project was conducted for three conventions that the country is signatory, namely, UNFCCC, UNCBD, and UNCCD. The project diagnosed the barriers and priority capacity needs of the country in meeting the commitments. Note that in its short-term proposal, there is the immediate need to “deliver systematic climatological and meteorological research information by publicly communicating; manage conflicts related to risks and vulnerabilities; and involve in international cooperation and negotiation…increase capacities to solicit data from stakeholders; process, produce, and distribute information to the public; strengthen support and sustain FPA R&D activities to incorporate thematic concerns, public participation and international cooperation and negotiation.” As pointed out above, it is a “catch 22” for many of us. However, the assessment proposed for “policies to elevate CC as priority, public accountability and general plan of action; strengthen EMB and IACCC; and a policy to enhance research and systematic observation.” Table 26 juxtaposes the needs and recommended specific concern/action for the UNFCCC. Table 26. Capacity needs and proposed action agenda (The CHANGE Report, 2006).

Needs

Specific concern/action

Short-term

In-house continuing education and training programs in Focal Point Agencies and key organizations

Deliver systematic climatological and meteorological research information by publicly communicating; manage conflicts related to risks and vulnerabilities; involve in international cooperation and negotiation

Sustain institutional commitments to thematic and synergistic concerns

Policies to elevate CC as priority, public accountability and general plan of action; strengthen EMB and IACCC; policy to enhance research and systematic observation

Develop a national information network on thematic concerns

Capacities to solicit data from stakeholders; process, produce, and distribute information to the public; strengthen support and sustain FPA R&D activities to incorporate thematic concerns, public participation and international cooperation and negotiation

Increase stakeholders’ participation in decision making and FPA activities, including preparation of reports to conventions

Intensify and sustain public education; public participation in research and delivery of services

Institutionalize rewards and incentives for technical staff of FPAs and key organizations

Award incentives and rewards to activities that promote vulnerability assessments; delivery of services; mitigation measures against CC risks

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Medium-term

Institutional reforms to harmonize FPA mandates and programs

Strengthen the DENR-EMB mandates and authority: integrate CC in policies, plans and programs; promote and cooperate with other institutions inside and outside the country; transferring of technologies related to GHG emissions

Strengthen the enforcement of environmental laws

Improve the enforcement of regulations relevant to CC

Long-term

Good governance (transparency, accountability, predictability, public participation); raise public prominence of the thematic concerns and obligations

Systems and procedures for undertaking participatory inventories of GHGs; and on the preparation of national communications

A ProVention45 research initiative is on “Production Sector Climate Risk Analysis in thePhilippines.” The research project has five key activities, namely, (1) A risk assessment for the agricultural sector, with primary focus on the rice sub-sector and the key productive regions, (2) climate analysis to develop a set of seasonal indicators to monitor crop/rice production, (3) field based analysis of local/community vulnerability in regions II and V of the Philippines, (4) analysis of entry points for mainstreaming of risk in macroeconomic and budget planning, and (5) analysis of rural financial institutions and financial management of financial risk arising from weather calamities. Accordingly, “draft reports were produced in June 2008 and the findings were disseminated during a World Bank mission in September 2008. After a final round of review and feedback from the stakeholders, the reports will be compiled and produced as a joint ProVention/World Bank/Government of the Philippines publication… the initiative, as originally planned, consisted of three key activities: (a) enhance the availability of reliable data on vulnerability of the agricultural production sector in the Philippines; (b) strengthen institutional and operational structures for more effective risk management at national and sub-national levels, which ultimately could support the transfer of risk on the basis of parametric weather insurance or weather-based mechanisms to protect and fund safety nets for the most vulnerable; and (c) provide a cross-cutting analysis of lessons learned in the innovative Special Climate Change Fund project, including the production, packaging and application of risk information, and the role of risk transfer.” The research results are anticipated especially because of their potential to the agricultural sector’s adaptation process. “Most government stakeholders have until now largely focused on mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, including through the Clean Development Mechanism. Adaptation requires a much broader focus and increased mainstreaming of activity implementation in a more efficient and coordinated institutional framework. This initiative is lead by a cross-sectoral team at the World

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Bank, in close collaboration with the DA; the Crop Insurance Corporation; the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration; the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority and some microfinance institutions. Other partners will be invited to contribute to this initiative, either directly or indirectly.” At this juncture, a SWOT matrix is presented in Table 27 for a collective of academic institutions (UP-SURP & UP-CERP, UP Los Banos IPCC, Klima CCC-Ateneo University, PATLEIPAM) representing as prospective AIs for the CC concern. Other big universities around Metro Manila have yet to set up their CC centers. The Klima Climate Change Center-Ateneo De Manila University is the most active CC researcher on environment while the UP Los Banos Interdisciplinary Program on Climate Change is on natural resources. The UP Marine Science Institute has some researches on the CC-coastal waters and lifeforms. UP-SURP and UP-CERP (UPLB are into city and municipal planning. An example is the supervised dissertation by R. Sales, Jr. on the "Vulnerability and Adaptation of Coastal Communities to Sea-Level Rise: Their Implications for Sustainable Local Development Planning in Cavite City".PATLEIPAM, which also include the UP and ADMU as members is the principal environmental educator in the country. Since it is housed in EMB, members have direct access to the CC policy environments through three Secretariats of SWM, DNA-CDM and the IACCC, respectively. Table 27. Academe (collective) strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.

Strengths

Weaknesses

Opportunities

Threats

Participants in the urban development-CC discourse

Limited translation of technical information into more “understandable” language

Public belief that academe as repository of knowledge on CC will turn as support

Urban development-CC discussion maybe appropriated to few “urban” academes

Naturally linked to the CC issue because it is technically requiring to understand the phenomenon

Available local empirical information is limited

Policy makers will gravitate to the holders of technical information, hence are captive audience for policy development and advocacy

Policy makers needs for locally-oriented information but academe could not provide

Active in research on urban development-CC

Support for research (info sources, instrumentations, and laboratories) is so inadequate

Demand for greater understanding gravitate funds for research

Local industry has the resources and could magnet good minds from the academe to work for their R&D

Wide pool of disciplinary experts

Oftentimes, is difficult to find experts who could straddle across disciplinary lines

CC issue is cross cutting through disciplines, thus trans-disciplinary

Some key disciplinary scientists will not participate

Link urban practice with research and teaching

Some academe are not into urban focus

Urban development-CC is an excellent material for curriculum development

Discipline-oriented scientists will block the “integrated science” approach of CC

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6. Tools and good practices 6.1 On management tools The development of tools as handles for CC adaptation and mitigation is intricately influenced by the vibrancy of research. Generic assessment tools for CC vulnerabilities are available and this pertains to both laboratory and field conditions. There are the “old” techniques and instrumentations but still reliable to a certain degree of confidence, such as sonar assessments, colorimetry; gas chromatograph; fractionation; petrography; or even sieve fractionation; micropedological techniques; aerial photo and landsat imagery, although influenced by resolution; regolith differentiation; pedogemorphological techniques, climatogenetic geomorphological techniques, paleontological techniques, and many more. However, if only the country is technology capable in electron-microscopy or to a higher analytical nano-chemistry, then our CC information will not be at the level as it is today, and so are the generated application or management tools. However, at least, there are recent experiences that use tools which could be appropriate for the CC concern. For instance, as an urban development issue and advocacy point for good governance, finding appropriate CC adaptation measures shall necessitate the involvement of stakeholders, at best through a broad base and bottom up urban development process. The SCP-EP46 approach has developed a bagful of methodologies and tools in nearly 25 years of urban practice. Documents have been done for issues like solid waste, transport, energy, water, settlements, disaster management, among others, which clearly described the efficiency and effectiveness of urban management tools in directing collective effort towards sustainable urban development. Urban decision making tools as shown in Figs 21 & 22 bring the urban practitioner through a process of planning, implementation and evaluation. The Philippines has used the tools for the cities of Lipa, Cagayan De Oro, and Tagbilaran. In CDS-participating cities, the EPM tools were used to develop their respective development plans. The sectoral issues addressed were on municipal solid wastes, transport and air quality, coastal resources, watershed, water, urban green space, and others. Especially for the CC issue which knows-no-borders nor isolated by science, the participatory multi-stakeholderism that the EPM approach is founded, was proven as the superior method in creating workable adaptation measures at the micro and macro levels of management. For example, vulnerability maybe assessed at various levels: individual, household, village, ecosystem, basin, and national. Since every scale requires different set of information, a generalized procedure may be done as follows:

(a) Decision making to take a target geographical area or assessment unit while accounting for the scale effects,

(b) Scoping the study to establish for whom the results will be used and for what decisions,

(c) Preparation of a causal chain scheme (pressure-state-response),

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(d) Preparation of vulnerability profile (assessment statement) for the actors,

environmental setting and the climatic threat

Fig 21. Planning, implementing, and evaluating tools through an urban development

process (UN Habitat, 2001).

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Follow up and consolidation (monitoring,

evaluation and institutionalization)

Preparatory and mobilization of

stakeholders (LGU checklist, stakeholder

analysis, profiling, vulnerability assessment, gender responsive tools)

Fig 22 Specific instrskilled sciencfrom their use

(a) G(b) P(c) S(d) S(e) D(f) A

Suitability anand evaluatioplanning utiliactors are alltheir impactshousing devesalt intrusion,national acts

Strategy Formulation and Implementation

(action planning, programme

formulation, EMIS, demonstration project)

. Decision-making under the EPM appr

uments for establishing the PSR are e workers. The following macro-tools should be in tandem for confirmation,

eologic hazards mapping redictive techniques for land mass moveea contour mapping ea wave assessment and patterning elta formation mapping irshed assessment and mapping

d sensitivity mapping, for instance invn of findings to draw scientific concluszing the information generated by theowed to assign ranks to the “concluded on their situation. A Suitability Map,lopment juxtaposed with criteria on floo etc. Specifically, policy maps offer info, laws and by-laws, environmental s

Issue Prioritization and stakeholder

Commitment (proposition paper,

facilitation, city consultation, urban

pact, working group)

Paticipatory UrbanDecision Making

oach (UN Habitat, 2001).

available, some demanding highly maybe used. However, the results by results of using micro-tools:

ments

olves the analysis of thematic maps ions. In transformative development use of the said tools, development rules and regulations” according to for example, could mark areas for ding, typhoon path, mass movement, rmation on policy decisions such as tandards or rules and regulations

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developed for policy implementation. Under the EPM process, policy suitability and sensitivity maps are based on intensive participatory process. They are subjective as they show policy aims and represent different opinions which have been negotiated but serve as valuable support for multi-stakeholder decision making. The results from these assessments should be packaged as information to decide on which adaptation and mitigation measures are appropriate for sets of development objectives. Furthermore, as the EPM tools advocate good governance, a mainstay input is gender sensitivity in decision making. The ways in which tools maybe modified and/or used to increase gender sensitivity in decision making functions are as follows:

(a) Use of gender dis-aggregated data to provide gender analysis and gender responsive planning and management. Gender-specific information is important as presenting issue specific information along gender lines.

(b) Gender specific tools such as for crime prevention against women. (c) Stakeholder analysis using gender differentiation leading to more balanced

and stronger stakeholder participation in good ratio between men and women. (d) Gender specific use of analytical tools like planning balance sheet or cost

benefit analysis with gender-biased data could lead to better planning with consideration to men and women interests and development requirements.

(e) Capacity building tools which emphasize the increased demand for gender-

specific capacity building process. Women empowerment is an area for capacity building.

Table 28 is a complete list of tools used in the 4-phase EPM process. The tools will work effectively and efficiently under a multi-stakeholder participation. On close examination, a number of the tools could be utilized for vulnerability assessment, CC adaptation planning and management. Except for the shift on the emphasis, that is, from the broad subject on environment to a focused CC, the tools are believed to be applicable for the range of landscape types in the Philippines. Therefore, the suggestion to develop CC tools could mean simply as using the existing tools for a new context, or to a more complex tool development process for specialized tasks on assessment and monitoring.

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Table 28. Participatory urban management tools used in the EPM process. (UN Habitat, 2001)

EPM process

Tools

Preparatory and stakeholder participation

Preparing the environmental profile Gender analysis Vulnerability assessment Social assessment Stakeholder identification and mobilization

Issues prioritization and stakeholder commitment

Organizing, conducting, reporting City Consultation City consultation guidelines

Strategy formulation implementation

Citizen satisfaction survey: Report card Good urban governance report card

Follow-up and consolidation

Local sustainability mirror Guidelines for post-disaster program Institutionalizing the EPM process Media content analysis Participatory decision making indicators Urban indicators toolkit

Cross-cutting tools

Best practices database Beneficiary assessment Environmental design for safer communities Building an Environmental Management Information System (EMIS) Integrating gender responsiveness in EPM Citizen participation in governance toolkit Guide for improving municipal performance Participatory urban governance: Practical approaches, regional trends

and UMP experiences Participatory rapid appraisal Guide for community-based EMIS LA 21 planning guide Manuals for local leadership, governance and urban management

capacity building SARRAR (Self esteem, associative strength, resourcefulness, action

planning and responsibility Report on 36 ways to encourage civic participation Crime prevention digest II: Comparative analysis of successful

community safety 100 crime prevention programmes to inspire action across the world ZOPP-objective oriented project planning

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6.2 On good practice In this section, examples of practice which applies adaptation and mitigation approaches are given, although briefly. Most of the practices need to be documented so that lessons maybe drawn and to reflect their reproducibility potentials. 6.2.1 Coastal resource management47

Reportedly, the Philippines is considered a pioneer in CRM which dates back to the 1980s. NGOs and government were already setting up sustainable coastal management projects at this time in recognition of the growing problem of environmental degradation in the coastal areas. Climate change however, did not figure prominently in these projects. The publication, “Seeds of Hope” is a collection of case studies on community-based CRM in the Philippines. It noted the government’s traditional "top-down approach", for example by establishing protected areas bereft of community involvement. "This approach did not work," it concluded. Thus, lessons were drawn from previous experiences to develop the current concept of community-based CRM. Silliman University, through its research facility on Sumilon Island in Central Visayas, was maong the first to illustrate a systematic coastal program with elements of community participation, in the mid 70s. The experience caught more NGOs and academics as well as government agencies to establish CBCRM projects, notably on the small islands of Apo (Negros Oriental), Balicasag and Pamilacan (Bohol), and San Salvador (Zambales). These are recognized prototypes on the CBCRM approach. The Central Visayas Regional Project was the government’s initial attempt at community organizing for its CRM projects. Two more programs, the DA’s Fisheries Sector Program and the DENR’s Coastal Environment Program followed suit. Particularly, “CRMP's contribution to the still growing Philippine CRM experience was mainly in building the local government's capacity to deliver CRM as a basic service to coastal communities. To do this, the Project harnessed policy initiatives in the last two decades that devolved primary responsibility for CRM to the LGU. It succeeded not only in building LGU capacities, but also in strengthening support structures to help LGUs perform their CRM mandate more effectively. An example of CBRM is embodied in the Integrated Coastal Resource Management Plan for Sarangani Bay. A nicely packaged Plan (2004) like this deserves monitoring. The goal is to “promote the sustainable development of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape through integrated/holistic and multi-sectoral coastal resource management consistent with the Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development and Community-based Resource Management. It shall promote the social well being of the people supported by a strong economy and sustained by a healthy environment.” Sarangani Bay is a protected Seascape (PD 756). The area falls under the general administration of the

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DENR and the management of a multi-sectoral group, NA, academe, NG0s, and P0s, as stipulated by the RA 7586 (NIPAS Act of 1992). The area qualifies for a multiple use marine reserve by, (1) promoting sustainable municipal fishery coupled with protection of breeding grounds and fish nurseries and other marine organisms; (2) maintaining areas for use and enjoyment of local communities; (3) maintaining natural areas for use of students for the purpose of education and research; and (4) promoting the recreational and tourism potential of the area. Proper management of the reserve will be ensured with community-based management approach, which encourages active participation of the local communities in planning and management. The following will be implemented:

(1) Coastal area zonation for strict protection zone, restoration zone, multiple-use zone, buffer zone, recreational zones, industrial zone, sustainable use zone. Activities such as the following will be undertaken: (a) Inventory/updating of local laws and regulations relevant to CRM; (b) Organization and strengthening of FARMC; (c) Networking and role delineation; (d) Patrol and apprehension of law violators.

(2) Introduction/development of entrepreneurial activities such as (a) Conduct participatory environmental scanning and project identification; (b) Formulation and adoption of project studies; and (c) Conduct skills and training/demonstrations and technology transfer.

(3) Habitat enhancement for; (a) Mangrove by seedling/propagules production,

plantation establishment and monitoring and evaluation; (b) Coral reefs by zone delineation, protection, and M&E; (c) Seagrass by underwater assessment, zone delineation, and protection; (d) Watershed rehabilitation by identification of critical watershed areas, coordination/collaboration of concerned agencies; and (e) Coastal solid waste management.

(4) Research and development; (a) pilot testing aquaculture technology; and (b)

demonstration farms. (5) Intensified information, education and communication campaign by; (a)

Production and distribution of IEC materials; (b) Radio and TV broadcast; (c) Installation of billboards and streamers; and (d) Video-film showing and photo exhibits.

It will be useful for the current work on CBRM to re-visit some “old” published cases and determine its factors of sustainability, that is, if these initiatives are still on-going in the site communities. The following are candidates for re-visiting:

(a) Coastal resources management: The experience from Eastern Samar documented by Jose Eleazar R. Bersales

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(b) The coastal resource management experience in San Salvador Island documented by Albert M. Dizon and Gloria Miranda

(c) The Bolinao community-based coastal resource management project

documented by Liana T. Mcmanus, Elmer M. Ferrer, Lenore P. Dela Cruz and Alan G. Cadavos

(d) Fishery sector program-coastal resource management in Panguil Bay,

Mindanao documented by Dante T. Gauran

(e) The Sustainable Coastal Area Development (SCAD) program in Barili, Cebu documented by Joel Gutierrez, Quirino dela Cruz and Rebecca Rivera

(f) Marine sanctuary establishment: the case of Baliangao wetland park in

Danao Bay documented by Arjan Heinen and Aida Laranjo (g) Mangrove rehabilitation and coastal resource management in Cogtong Bay:

Addressing mangrove management issues through community participation documented by Eutiquio S. Janiola, Jr.

(h) Formation of CRM Council for the CBCRM of Pagapas Bay, Western

Batangas by Mariquit Melgar and Marita Rodriguez (i) The fishers of Talangban: Women’s roles and gender issues in community-

based coastal resources management by Luz Lopez-Rodriguez These coastal projects were conceptualized and implemented without the benefit of CC tools such as vulnerability assessment and mapping, settlement and housing planning, or seaside infrastructure planning, to cite three important aspects in coastal zone development. However, it is believed that integrating the CC concerns in these projects will be relatively easy since the foundation concept is sustainable development and participatory governance. 6.2.2 PhilGARP48

The Philippine Greenhouse Gas Accounting and Reporting Program (PhilGARP) established in 2006 explores the opportunities associated with GHG emissions and reduction for better management. Its overarching goal is to assist businesses in the Philippines to prepare GHG inventories, identify GHG reduction opportunities, and participate in projects to reduce GHG emissions. The program provides information, analysis, and tools to:

(1) Make a comprehensive assessment of corporate GHG risks and opportunities;

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(2) Identify co-benefits between GHG mitigation, energy conservation, environment and health;

(3) Identify and initiate GHG mitigation projects; (4) Create a reliable accounting and reporting system that provides the

foundation for future national climate change policies and strategies; (5) Improve the quality of the Philippines’ national GHG inventories included

in the National Communications to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; and

(6) Contribute to the Philippines’ sustainable development.

PhilGARP is based on the internationally-accepted standards and calculation tools of Greenhouse Gas Protocol Initiative, reflecting the experience and best practices from a decade-long partnership between the World Resources Institute and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. 6.2.3. Community-Based Disaster Risk Management49

The project seeks to mainstream Community-Based Disaster Risk Management into city good governance. Dagupan City implemented the project through facilitation of the Center for Disaster Preparedness (CDP), an NGO. The project was launched in February 2006 and still is on-going. A Technical Working Group was established composed of City Department heads and staff who are also members of the City Disaster Coordinating Council. The following outcomes were generated:

(a) CBDRM Participatory Risk Assessment Training of Trainers for the City Officials, who in turn provide training to communities.

(b) CBDRM in 31 barangays of Dagupan City was promoted along with the revitalization of disaster councils.

(c) Bridged city officials and the community through disaster risk communication and understanding of development projects.

(d) DRR plans were developed by eight target vulnerable communities and integrated into the City Disaster Risk Reduction Plan.

(e) Four community early warning and evacuation plans were completed.

(f) CBDRM and governance were promoted in eight most vulnerable communities and in the remaining 23 barangays of Dagupan City.

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(g) The "Disaster Safety Day" was marked in the City on 16 July every year.

(h) The "Disaster Safety Day" was extended into a month-long event called "City

Wide Disaster Consciousness Month" in 2006.

(i) A day for "River Clean Up and Mangrove Revegetation" was organized in the City.

(j) Earthquake and evacuation drills were carried out in various schools. The city government claimed some 55,000 students and teachers from both public and private schools took part in the drills.

A reflection paper titled “Community Based Disaster Management in the Philippines: Making a Difference in People’s Lives”50 articulates that “community participation is the additional element in disaster management necessary to reverse the worldwide trend of increasing frequency and loss from disasters, build a culture of safety and disaster resilient communities, and ensure sustainable development for all.” NGOs and people’s organizations promoted and developed the Citizens’ Disaster Response Center/Network (CDRC/N) in 1984 as a response to the government’s inadequacy and the limitations of the prevailing view of disaster management at that time. The succession of disasters in the past and the growth of community based disaster management led the Philippine National Red Cross, World Vision, Caritas-Manila, and the Philippine Relief and Development Services to integrate community disaster planning. Similarly, the Department of Social Welfare and Development through its Bureau Emergency Assistance has promoted Family and Community Disaster Preparedness to local government units. Municipalities have become excellent in the local and community level disaster management so that in 2002, the Philippine Disaster Management Forum (PDMF), a network involving key disaster management agencies and advocates of CBDM, was organized. The PDMF assumes an anchor organization role. The following key elements of CBDM can be derived from practice in CBDM in the Philippines: (1) people’s participation, (2) priority for the most vulnerable groups, families, and people in the community like the informal settlements, (3) risk reduction measures are community-specific and are identified after an analysis of the community’s disaster risk (hazards, vulnerabilities and capacities and consideration of varying perceptions of disaster risk), (4) existing coping mechanisms and capacities are recognized, (5) the aim is to reduce vulnerabilities by strengthening capacities; the goal is building disaster resilient communities, (6) links disaster risk reduction with development, and (7) outsiders have supporting and facilitating role. Closely related to the features cited above are parameters of performance indicating, (1) participatory process and content (2) responsiveness, (3) integration, (4) pro-action, (5) comprehensiveness, (6) multi-sectoral and multi-disciplinary, (7) empowering, and (8) developmental.

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In general, the goal of CBDM is to transform vulnerable or at-risk communities to disaster resilient communities. Within this process, the formation and strengthening of community disaster response organization or community disaster management volunteers’ team is the key to mobilizing communities for sustainable disaster risk reduction. The community volunteers, disaster management committee, and disaster response organization are the necessary interface or the channel for outsiders such as NGOs or government agencies to assist/support the community at-large. The community groups and organizations are essential in sustaining the risk reduction process for the community to meet intended aims and targets in CBDM. 6.2.4 CIRCA51

CIRCA enhances the capacity of Albay residents to cope with climate effects brought about by the changing climate. Specifically, it will aim to: enhance awareness of the various sectors on the threats by a changing climate; develop academic curriculums for climate; change adaptation in all schools, colleges and universities; enhance the capabilities of farmers and fisherfolks to adapt to climate change; promote climate risk adaptation by enhancing resilience of the most vulnerable groups; mainstream climate change adaptation in the basic academic curricula of the primary, secondary, tertiary, vocational and technical institutions in the province; enhance the interdisciplinary knowledge-base of the province on climate change adaptation; and conduct and explore concrete policy studies that will support better climate risk adaptation. It is a repository of interdisciplinary knowledge and expertise of the “Albay in Action on Climate Change (A2C2)” for community development. The program covers biodiversity, agricultural and water resources, wetlands, dry and humid lands, marine and coastal resources’ climate adaptation based on quality education and public-private partnerships. The partners of the provincial government are the Bicol University and the Environmental Management Bureau Region V. The university provides access to academic and research facilities; EMB facilitates technical assistance and access to government funding support, environmental database, research studies, resource persons, laboratory and research facilities; and the Albay Provincial Government provides operating support and salary for staff. 6.2.5 EPM cities The successes attained by the cities of Lipa, Tagbilaran and Cagayan De Oro from the application of broad-base and bottom-up environmental planning and management process are fully documented. Also, the cities have particularly carried out ecological solid waste management as a CC adaptation. The Cagayan De Oro’s waste conversion to biofertilizer for allotment garden for growing vegetables and flowers was used by the BLGD-DILG as prototype for nationwide replication. The city has gained a national award from the experience. Documentation is stored at the Knowledge Management Center of the DILG, and is available to the public. Lipa City, on the other hand, has placed solid waste management as a priority undertaking under an environment of multi-stakeholderism. Meantime, the national documentation of the EPM experience has

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surfaced yield yet another potential application of the EPM process for CC adaptation as shown in Fig 23. The two products that are available for customization for CC work are the Institutional Support Development Strategy and the Capacity Building Strategy, respectively.

Strengthening Philippine

Institutions on CCIs: Cities and

NAs

Philippine EPM Situationer

SCP-EPM Approach Model: Philippine Case

Institutional Support

Development Strategy

Capacity Building Strategy

Experience of National EPM

Players

Experience of EPM Demonstration Cities

Philippine Climate Change

Initiatives

New Facility, e.g., SACN/CCCI-

SUDNet

Cities, AIs, HUDCC, DILG,

DENR, DOE, LCP/PUF

Fig 23. Potential uses of the products of the EPM process for CC work.

6.2.6 Montalban Methane Power Plant: CDM registered biogas The 19th CDM registered project was the Makati South Sewage Treatment Plant Upgrade with On-Site Power located in Magallanes Village, Makati City. These 19 project activities are expected to sequester 611,824 tCO2-e/year. According to the DNA-CDM Secretariat, 18 of the registered projects are into biomethanation.

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A CDM registered project could receive 1 CER/tonne CO2 equivalent which could be traded. Several financial supporters/investors have set up CDM funds, e.g., Prototype Carbon Fund, Community Development Carbon Fund, and BioCarbon Fund for CDM project activities. For example, a high profile inauguration by the President, DENR Secretary and the Provincial Governor was made for the 15 mw Montalban Methane Power Plant (MMPP) in Rodriguez, Rizal. It will produce 15-22 megawatts of electricity/annum from methane gas extracted from the Rodriquez sanitary landfill. 6.2.7 PhilGBC The Philippine Green Building Council is a non-stock, non-profit organization that “promotes the sharing of knowledge on green building practices to the building industry to ensure a sustainable environment. It promotes the transformation of design, construction and management methods of the building industry into practices that are safe, healthy and environmentally and socially responsible that improves the quality of life.” Alliances are forged with the public and private building and construction industries to set a nationally accepted green building rating standard. Specifically, the Council shall:

(1) Create a single voice in the promotion of holistic green building practices, (2) Promote market based green building practices, (3) Create a non-partisan venue for the development of a green building rating

system, and (4) Facilitate the sharing of green building information and practices for the

industry. Just recently organized, membership already included the Building Professional Associations, building contractors, developers, material suppliers, financial sector, government, civil society, and academe. It sponsored a green building exhibit in early 2008. The potentials for this independent initiative of the private sector is wide and must be supported by government and civil society. 6.2.8 Rehabilitation of Degraded Lands through a Carbon Sink Project: The Case

of Mirant Philippines52 Mirant Philippines, a power company, rehabilitated certain degraded areas in Quezon and the vegetated area to serve as carbon sink. Second Growth forest with patches of grasslands (248.62 ha) in Pagbilao were planted with Pterocarpus indicus (1 year old), and a coastal mangrove (157.09 ha) along Padre Burgos which was planted with Rhizophora apiculata (1 to 5 years old), Rhizophora mucronata (1 to 7 years old) and Rhizophora stylosa (1 year old). The Second Growth forest have biomass and carbon density of 108.92 ± 49.93 Mg/ha and 57.76 ± 21.45 Mg/ha respectively. Assuming its fully restored condition, total carbon storage may range from 12,505.6 to 13,823.3 Mg based on 50.3 to 50.6 Mg/ha estimates of Lasco and Pulhin (2000). Biomass and carbon density for mangrove plantation were generally low with 3.28 ± 1.27 Mg/ha and 1.45 ±

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0.57 Mg/ha respectively. Nevertheless, total carbon storage can possibly reach as high as 13,745.38 Mg based on the projected growth rate of 87.5 Mg C/ha/yr for this ecotype. Overall, these values suggest that Mirant’s carbon sinks have the potential to sequester large amount of atmospheric carbons in the future. Notes: 44 The study attempted to retrieve research papers, either through the internet and actually visiting offices.

The list was generated from the internet and practically no paper was collected from offices as there seemed to be a sense of (false) secrecy on researches. Perhaps, it is the lack of information that researchers are unwilling or lack the confidence to make their work known by the general public and receive critique. In fact, it has been disappointing to live through an indifferent scientific world in the Philippines.

45 ProVention was “established by the World Bank in 2000 to address the increasing frequency and severity of natural disasters and their social, economic and environmental impacts on developing countries. Addressing disaster reduction in this broad context requires a collaborative approach, involving different and diverse sectors and organizations where managing risk is seen as everyone’s business. The Consortium therefore includes a broad range of partners, from development to humanitarian organizations and from the public sector to the private sector, with the goal of providing a forum for dialogue and a framework for collective action. It offers an informal forum where different actors and constituencies can dialogue on risk issues, address critical problems, catalyze new ideas and collaborative initiatives, and share knowledge and experience

46 The UN-HABITAT has published voluminous materials on the EPM approach (11 volumes). In the Philippines, a book has come out, “EPM, Sustainable Cities and Climate Change: A Learning Resource by NCDuhaylungsod, et.al.; full-length documentation on Lipa, Tagbilaran and Cagayan De Oro Cities’ experience are available with Asian Institute of Management, UP SURP, and Liceo De Cagayan University, respectively; policy papers on the EPM process and SWM written by NCDuhaylungsod are available with the BLGD-DILG.

47 A main source of information is www.oneocean.ph; The Coastal Resource Management Project- Philippines. 1996-2004. Coastal Resource Management Project of the DENR.

48 The study wanted to get as much information on the interesting research work that PHILGARP is doing to no avail. The group is a strategic organization for evolving the national R&D agenda on CC.

49 UNDP. 2007. “Building Disaster Resilient Communities: Good Practices and Lessons Learned.” United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.

50 Extracted from a paper written by Lorna P. Victoria. Center for Disaster Preparedness. CSWCD Bldg., R. Magsaysay Avenue, University of the Philippines Campus, Diliman, Quezon City

51 Necery. 2007. CIRCA. Provincial Government of Albay. 52 Lasco, R.D., Pulhin, F.B., and D.T. Gevaña. This is taken from an abstract which shows good promise

for carbon sink work in estuarine ecosystems. The study failed to get a copy of the full article for details. However, the senior author has had a series of work on carbon sink from forest ecosystems.

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7.0 Issues and challenges The long list of unearthed policies that are directly and indirectly related to the CC issue suggests the scale of work done by the various sectors and government. Overarching national policies and sector-driven national policies have been issued, aside from the localized policies of cities and municipalities. From that period of shift on the development paradigm to sustainable development in the 90s, policies promoted the interconnectivity of actions of development players, thereby forging governance partnership between the public and private sectors. This spirit of multi-stakeholderism was carried for the issue on climate change, but on varying levels of appreciation. On the whole, the Philippines has fulfilled its global commitments on addressing the impacts of climate change, although through 1991, work has been biased to mitigation rather than adaptation. However, under the current policy environment, there is greater push for the logical adaptation measures. The policy overview has raised significant subject areas for consideration. To cite a few, for instance, papers from the ADB, WB, the UN and other international organizations observed, that while relevant national policies are in place, these are wanting implementation, particularly with regards to synchronically involving the various community stakeholders. There is now a growing concern on coordination between national bodies assuming the mandate to combat CC. Particular policies have to be developed and “old” policies re-visited for updating and upscaling. The limited number of available management tools and adaptation technologies reveals the need to re-focus CC research and development. Systematic and purposive documentation of practices, which supports R&D, is very much absent in the picture, such that the list of researches, tools and cases speaks clearly on this gap. These, among others are the challenges. In this section, the study implications for support are discussed, categorized into seven concerns, namely, (1) policy development, (2) coordination, (3) participation, (4) capacity building support, (5) progressive contextualization, (6) knowledge management, and (7) the follow through of PINCCC recommendations. 7.1 Policy development On building and developmental planning The present Building Code needs to be responsive to the changing climate, especially for the eastern seaboard communities. In these areas, the communities are squeezed by the twin threats of flooding from the rampaging surface runoff coming from valley walls and floodplains, and the physical damage associated with tropical storms, on the seafront. The on-going capture of dry land by the rising sea levels as exemplified by the Manila Bay cities and the anecdotal reports from the regional coastal cities like Cebu, Iloilo, Davao and General Santos are, in fact, architectural and engineering design challenges. Housing designs and construction materials appropriate for the increasing tidal action, strong winds and rains generated by escalating weather disturbances have to be made available

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to communities, since demand for more adaptive housing design built with appropriate materials will be increasing in these areas. Active professional organizations and manufacturing firms will find the task of developing adaptable designs and processed/manufactured local construction materials as economic opportunities, if there is a general policy environment of encouragement and incentives. Deriving signals from the public pronouncement of the HUDCC Chair and Vice President of the Philippines,53 to increase the housing sector’s efforts on climate change adaptation, makes the re-crafting of the Building Code urgent. Accordingly, “we’ll scale up initiatives in human settlements’ resiliency to impacts of climate change”… by enhancing the adaptation capability of LGUs to risks of sea level rise. These LGUs comprise 1,610 municipalities nationwide (50% of total) occupy the coastal zones of the archipelago. “It’s likewise important to provide templates on how human settlements can address effects of climate change.” On this aspect, the government plans to develop an infrastructure guideline template that will increase communities’ climate change adaptation. “As housing sector head, I’m committed to help vulnerable sectors adapt to climate change.” Such infrastructure policy of government will guide the permitting functions of the LGUs on which housing safety standards apply for their locale or, retroactively, define the adjustments that have to be done for existing infrastructures including houses. Associated with building/housing safety standards is developmental planning with an a priori task of enhancing as climate change-sensitive LGU planning instruments, foremost are the Comprehensive Land Use Plan and the Comprehensive Development Plan (CDP). Until today, the CLUP and CDP formulation processes are integrating insufficiently the climate change challenges and opportunities. Due to the serious vulnerabilities of the Philippines to climate changes, every CLUP, for that matter, should conduct a vulnerability assessment as background profiling, and “adaptation mapping”, which, for now, is a methodology gap. Thereafter, recasting concepts of urbanization and urban space could evolve from the adaptation mapping. At a national supervisory level that is worth supporting, is the BLGD-DILG’s function on policy development. Specifically, the EPM experience has raised possibilities of mainstreaming CC adaptation in CDP through the empowering EPM approach model. Cases showing the integration process are expected from at least two initiatives, Sorsogon City and Luisiana, Laguna. As more cases are tested and validated, the formulation of a policy guide for the mainstreaming of the CC adaptation concerns in CDP will be drawn for national replication. On the mitigation side, the incipient effort of the Philippine Green Building Council to model structures which are energy efficient and water conserving will likely prosper if there is a clear policy support for big infrastructures, high rise buildings and even for mass housing. Parallel research and development efforts with respect to fabrication and processing of local materials or importation of affordable construction materials will be necessary to eventually put the policy in the move.

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On urban development It is a priority for an urbanizing LGU to locate the safest area for human habitation with adequate access to centers of social services, industrial, commercial and institutional sites for employment. Such locational patterning tends to be more problematic for secondary cities like the coastal cities which insist on building on the narrow coastal plains. Otherwise, there are better opportunities for relevant planning for urban development for those LGUs which are innovative. The Tagbilaran City’s “Up-town Master Planning” is a good example on adaptive urban development planning. Some three years ago, an uptown development planning was started, which virtually re-crafted their CLUP and CDP with inputs from the broad-base and bottom-up EPM process. The idea was to de-link the congested coastal plains from employment, commerce and services, instead bring urban development to higher grounds. This transient de-linking of opportunities from population concentrations will naturally result to linking as houses will be built closer to the new urban site. The city is experiencing exactly this phenomenon. The Master Plan is now being implemented safe from sea rise, sea waves, flooding and direct hit of typhoons. It is believed that a policy guideline on “up-town development” will be useful for Local Chief Executives and planning officers of coastal communities. Presumably, it will be expensive to start with, but since sea rise is inevitable, adaptation costs for adjustment of infrastructures and houses will steadily go higher as the CC impacts will dictate. Documentation of cases like this could provide basis for drawing a policy scenario of “National Up-town Development for Coastal Communities”. A more complex situation is the proposal to transfer (or an alternative description is merger) Dagupan City to Urdaneta City based on the vulnerability of the city to subsidence, which could in fact be exacerbated by increased water seepage from excessive rain events coupled with seismic activities. Again, this is adaptation. As vulnerability assessments are continually done for coastal cities, similar decision making challenges are expected. Urban development is critical for LGUs with little suitable dry land options within their political jurisdiction. Adaptation or avoidance strategies will be expensive. Besides occupying the constricted space, thus competing for other uses, infrastructures like sea walls, diversion dikes, pumping stations and even underground water cisterns will sap the economy for expenses on technology, expertise, and thereafter for maintenance and upgrade. The question is partly policy and opportunity for innovative governance such as gearing the metropolitanization approach from the perspective of locational planning for the best positioning against the impacts of climate change, at a cluster level. The political scene for this environment, an ecotone so-to-speak, will then invoke shifts in administration arrangements. A “Programmatic CLUP and CDP” is a CC adaptation policy development area ushering in new political, technical, economic and environmental management approaches for established and highly vulnerable coastal urban centers. The concept is akin to the Programmatic EIA54 as applied to large scale economic ventures such as an industrial estate. Territorial boundaries will be re-configured and the concomitant electoral bases

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for LGUs which belong to say, different districts but strategically appropriate to cluster on the basis of the CC threats. The “LGU Subsidiarity principle” may be borrowed for a programmatic CLUP and CDP, which among others, could be applied to move/zone urban centers to best places where adaptation costs will be least while CC risks are substantially reduced. This thinking will need further exploration especially from the background that the current process of land use planning is indifferent with the threats of CC or even with geologic hazards like fault lines, earthquake belt, etc. The private sector, on the one hand, led by the real estate developers will also eventually subscribe to the changing policy of land development vis-à-vis climate change impacts. Logically, HUDCC is the agency that is expected to lead in this policy development because it has oversight functions on the land use planning process of LGUs. Its current capacities on urban development however, require augmentation. Therefore, it is imperative that parallel efforts in building up the internal capacities of the HUDCC on urban development are suggested to commence in the near future. On population There is a distinct policy gap on population management vis-à-vis climate change. The population growth rate of 2.04 % which translates to 2 million persons a year and a 2007 population of 90 million according to the National Statistics Office, mean about 100 million Filipinos in five years. The issue is not simply controlling population growth rates, although this has evolved into a highly charged debate because of the position taken by the church and its faith constituency. At least there is universal recognition that the Philippine population could not afford to grow any bigger than what the resources could provide. This double squeeze (population growth vs resource limitation) is so apparent in city informal settlements. For example, the mounting problem of waste disposal contributes to the GHGs build-up apart from the increasing demands for energy and transport, thus further generating GHGs. Struggle for urban space will be critical in some cities and further tripling the risks to human-caused disasters like fire in congested areas. This population and space relationship appears never ending unless population is curbed to manageable levels. Indeed, urban space is considered as one of the most significant factors in planning for CC adaptation and disaster management. Populations congregate in urban centers for many good reasons. In 2007, about 48% of the population is in urban centers of the country. This value is expected to increase as the city maintains itself as the engine for growth with even increased productivities supplying the increased demands of the population for food, shelter, clothing, water, waste disposal centers, electricity, hospital centers and other services. However, population concentration has to be deliberately controlled in anticipation of the impending hazards due to the impacts of climate change. For areas with deficient basic services such as the informal settlements, the CC impacts will be far greater and almost certainly, loss to lives and properties will be more in these areas. De-congestion and re-distribution of the population has remained a problem and several resettlement models have been tried to solve the concern with varying successes. But just as advocated by NGOs, only through

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comprehensive approaches with strong CC sensitivity will result to sustainable solutions to congestion. The discussion on Programmatic CLUP with eventual appropriate zoning may also be viewed as a CC-population control measure and risk reduction approach. On research and development The absence of an overall CC-oriented R&D policy or agenda explains the sparse research on adaptation science and technologies. Even for the research on natural resources which is traditionally led by the biological science colleges and departments of UP Diliman and Los Banos, focus has been on the “efficacy of improved natural systems” as carbon sink and few effectiveness research have been conducted for example on strategic plants with good growth yields under threat of drought and flood. Limited are basic researches on biotechnology vis-à-vis food production under “sub-normal conditions”, medical research for diseases developed due to CC or for that matter epidemiology of certain “evolving diseases, which appear more common than rare” or for those which have re-surfaced, development or fabrication of locally available materials which are appropriate for building and construction, alternative forms of renewable energy, marine farming, and others. In other words, a national CC adaptation R&D policy with adequate resource support will boost the development of adaptation management tools and models by capable research institutions. This policy is a priority and urgently needed. Subsequently, capacity building activities like training and workshops on adaptation technologies, and policy education will equip a handle for the general population to collectively and individually set up adaptation measures. Further downstream R&D work should be on the generation of responsive techniques and approaches on disaster and risk reduction management given the increasing impacts of climate change. It is known that indigenous or traditional communities have been adapting to changes in climate and many have remained resilient even through harsh environments. Only a segment of this knowledge is recorded and systematically analyzed for up-scaling. A CC-oriented R&D policy should provide the guidelines and perspective in unraveling insights from tradition and indigenous knowledge on CC adaptation. A corollary task is to systematically document adaptation experiences which have manifested sustainable resiliency. Elsewhere, it was stated that several cases with potentials to CC adaptation are waiting to be documented. 7.2 Coordination Institutions maybe described as composed of systems of rules, decision making procedures, and programs that give rise to social practices, assign roles the participants in these practices, and guide interactions among the occupants of the relevant roles. They include both rules on paper and rules in use.55 Operationally, institutions are perceived to have a dual feature of constraining and facilitating the adaptive and mitigative actions of

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people that oftentimes result to a mix of responses. It is therefore required for institutions to set clear structures and mechanisms of practice on agreed policies. As in the case of the climate change concern, key institutions of governing boards or committees need to cohere in order for “occupants of relevant roles” like the LGU and civil society act accordingly to reach programmed targets. Agencies have been assigned roles which are usually based on their traditional functions, although the cross cutting issue on climate change adaptation and mitigation would challenge this perspective. At the moment, there are at least five key governmental aggrupations on Philippine climate change action, characterized as inter-agencies, with the latest, the Presidential Adviser on Global Warming and Climate Change. An early national direct action of the Philippines in addressing the impacts of climate change was the establishment of the Inter-Agency Committee on Climate Change in 1991. The response took off from the proposals of the “Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development, 1989”, which was the official country position presented to the 1992 Earth Summit. This was followed by four more structures until late 2008 and, through an Executive Order, the PAGW&CC was created to also orchestrate the efforts of National Agencies. Overall, the structures established for CC policy implementation include the, (1) NDCC, (2) IACCC-ACCCMAC/DNA-CDM, (3) PCSD, (4) PTFCC, and (5) PAGW&CC. Also, there is an emerging private sector-led or independent non-governmental initiatives from business and the academe which is becoming a loud voice on the climate change issue (Table 29). For instance, biomethanization corporations constitute 60% of the 19 DNA-CDM registered projects. A few months ago, a green building exhibit by the Philippine Green Building Council was held to campaign for the construction of environment-friendly infrastructures.

Table 29. Key support structures.

Date

Brief on the support structure

Government

1978 The NDCC is the highest policy-making body on disaster management; coordinates the actions of member agencies

1991 The main tasks of the IACCC are to coordinate various climate change related activities and propose climate change policies.

1992 The PCSD, a multi-stakeholder body, will chart sustainable development direction of the country.

2005 Assigned the DENR as the Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism (DNA-CDM)

2007 The PTFCC is mandated to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change. At the moment, the focus has been on improving compliance to air emission standards and combating deforestation and environmental degradation.

2007 The (ACCCMAC) created through DENR Special Order 2007-653, is a technical arm of the PTFCC.

2008 The PAGW&CC is charged to lead the CC challenge. UP Los Banos Interdisciplinary Program on Climate Change rests on

their strength on natural resources management. They support

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groups like CIRCA, IPCC. UP-SURP active in land use regional planning

Non-government (sample only)

Late 80s Several NGOs like CEC, Haribon, PEAN, Kalikasan, TDC, CPD, TTK, many others

1992 PCSD, NGO Secretariat is the counterpart of the government secretariat based in the NEDA

Mid 90s Corporate NGOs like FPE, CODE NGO - Philippine Association of Tertiary Level Educational Institutions in

Environmental Protection and Management 1999 The Klima Climate Change Center disseminates information on

climate change, raises awareness, conducts relevant research, and supports national capacity building. Manila Observatory is the mother unit, which was organized in 1800s.

Various years

Sectoral organizations like on solid waste management, coastal resource management, Clean Air Initiative, Green Army, Consumer watch, etc

2007 Philippine Green Building Council is a convergence of engineers, architects and practitioners, other professional groups active on design and manufacture.

The big task of orchestrating five autonomous government structures is assumed by the PTFCC until mid 2008. (Fig 24). However, in late 2008, the PAGW&CC is believed to be the coordinating body since it is inside Malacanang. There is a tacit acceptance that agencies coordinate because they are often together in functions convened by the central government. Indeed, it is hoped that the agencies coordinate with each other on the CC issue. The problem is, based on public pronouncements and press releases, the agencies appear disjointed (?). On one end are the non-government groups, which could be harnessed, based on their possessed strengths on adaptation and mitigation. Some of the sectoral organizations on energy, solid waste, and air are already represented in the governmental bodies. Another node of coordination that has to be defined is between the national CC governmental bodies and the LGUs along with their federations. Climate change laws (policies) have subscribed to the major role that LGUs play in effective implementation so that bringing them upfront would yield greater and wider positive results. This norm of participatory governance has to be seen and felt at the national and local levels. From concrete experience, the SCP-EPM has argued for the inclusion of LGUs in conceptualizing, planning and implementing of programs through participative processes. For cross cutting issues such as climate change, appreciation on the connection between national and local policies is often a challenge requiring understanding on the power dynamics or politics and markets. This dilemma has been identified as the cause of tension between national bodies, the LGUs and communities that implement policies from their local context. The 2005 policy discussion on ENR functions has suggested for a more systematic approach on policy implementation as well as coherence of sectoral policies ushered into articulation of national laws. The complexity of climate change

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adaptation and mitigation even demands greater concern for interconnectivity of thought and process amongst agents of development. The trans-boundary character of climate change impacts will define new forms of governance that could adapt at micro and macro levels. The academe-based players could assist on this problematique as most managers have been schooled from science which has long been into single-equilibrium systems. ? ?

Government

`` ? ? ? ? ? ? ! ! ? ?

DNA-CDM

PTFCC (DOE-based

ACC-CMAC

PCSD (NEDA-based)

IACCC (DENR-based NDCC

(DND-based)

Non-government

• Academe-based • Business-based • Sector-based • Professional

groups Fig 24. Communication between Government and Non-Government structures The tradition to “assign” all matters pertaining to the environment and natural resources to the DENR has graduated to a more liberal application of scope. For example, the ENR could substantially include governance, thus the task may be assigned to the DILG, or sectorally specific as in the case of energy, which is logically located with the DOE. On the broad side, ENR may be subsumed under the wider coverage of urban development, for which the HUDCC is tasked. These shifts of operational management reflect the transboundary character of the issues on environment, but even more encompassing is climate change. Coordination between sectors is initially strained by the fact that each of the sector has a Department which is independently funded and programmed, although at the Malacanang level, the cabinet provides the connector for sectoral interaction. In the case on transboundary CC, sectorally housing the IACCC and PTFCC delimits the scope of interconnection since there is the natural tendency to be sectoral in approach. Operationally, for instance, the DOE which is financing the operation of the PTFCC logically will tend to be energy-biased, and similarly would be the sectoral scenario for the IACCC, which is with the DENR. It is therefore understandable to notice that a very important institution on DRR such as the NDCC, is institutionally left out in the quest against climate change. Earlier, it was pointed out that there is need for the major institutional players on CC (PTFCC, IACCC & ACCCMAC, PAGW&CC, independent organizations) to cohere or

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systematize defined tasks. The succession of creating bodies charged on CC has been criticized as too much bureaucracy thus deterring action against climate change impacts.56 In fact, the most recent development in the appointment of a Presidential Adviser on Global Warming and Climate Change in August 21, 2008 with similar, if not overlapping 57 , functions with the PTFCC (created 2007), which also moved chairpersonship from the DENR to DOE created a stir. Last November 20, 2008, the Presidential Adviser presided over the Carbon Cutting Congress versus Climate Change (CCC-CC), which was convened to draft the Philippine declaration to the 14th Session of the Conference of Parties on Climate Change in Poznan, Poland. It is recalled that the IACCC led the preparation of the country’s position and presented this at the Bali Conference on Climate Change in December 2007. This event is pivotal in crafting the succeeding steps to be undertaken after the expiration of the Kyoto Protocol in 2012. The Poznan Conference was a direct target of the Bali Conference. Conspicuously, the key officials of the PTFCC and IACCC were absent in the CCC-CC. Given these three powerful institutional bodies, a quick representation of interconnections between players may be forwarded, as below. In the scenario, the PTFCC and IACCC are directly orchestrated by the Presidential Adviser on Global Warming and Climate Change, the logic being that it is closest to the Office of the President. The concern whether this arrangement is possible for the three political appointees is not a coordination issue. However, the expectation that these bodies will coalesce into a single platform on CC is a possibility. Subsequently, the Secretariats of the PTFCC, IACCC and DNA-CDM could collapse into the Philippine Secretariat on CC with a single Executive Director. Financing this “super CC body” would then fall in the hands of the Office of the President (Fig 25). Some legal minds have stressed that coordination between institutional bodies established from Executive Orders, may be that last of the concerns. Conceptually, they viewed these organizations to be transient in principle or if another EO is issued which practically supersede the former. Usually, these bodies are short-term task oriented and financed internally by the Department or a “special initial fund” is allotted. In brief, an EO is a politico-development action by the President, so that for the CC problematique which will possibly outlive most institutions, a law-based action becomes a more lasting effort, they argued. On this aspect, the scene for coordination will change in the event that a CC Commission is created by the Philippine Congress. While a bill on CC in Congress is studied, the Presidential Adviser on GW&CC could serve as the gravitating point of coordination. The Presidential action is hoped to resolve for now the sector-biased approach for a universally impacting CC.

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Pres’dtl

Adviser

IACCC PTFCC

Philippine Secretariat

on CC

Division with focus on air (incl. CDM) & water quality, and natural resources

Division with focus on energy

Fig 25. A simple representation of converging CC-bodies. 7.3 Participation Based on the principle of good governance58, the broad-base and bottom-up participation process is not well reflected in the three CC bodies (PA GW&CC, PTFCC, IACCC & ACCCMAC). The inadequate representation of the LGU in these bodies may be the cause for the slow process of localizing CC national policies or in some cases, the limited expression of these policies on ground. Whilst the DILG is championing the interests of the LGU in these policy making bodies, it is equally important that the LGU “owns” the policy by directly participating in its development. We have seen the strong advocacies that the Leagues (cities, municipalities, barangays) often take on issues which affect them most or on concerns that they are major sponsors. A corrective opportunity for participation is to include the LGU via their federations in the policy governing bodies of the PA GW&CC, PTFCC, IACCC & ACCCMAC. A reason that cities play a prominent role on the issues of SWM, AQM, and DRR is because the overall policies were crafted with the city’s direct representation and hence, participation to the policy and decision making activities of the National Solid Waste Management Commission, Air Quality Management Board and the National Disaster Coordinating Council. Another indispensible player that needs to be brought into the CC policy development picture is the business and industry sector. The representation of small scale enterprises in the policy governing bodies is not sufficient to translate the vast capacities of the business

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and industry sector to make things work with their expertise and resources. Certainly, their participation in policy formulation and implementation planning will be advantageous in rationalizing the reduction of GHGs from their large ventures. The perceived antagonism between business and industry, on the one hand, and civil society organizations, on the other, which is oftentimes avoided by having only one group in the circle, is altogether a mistaken perception. Given the hugeness of the CC issue, there is no development player that could think and act in isolation. On this aspect, it is easier to bring in business and industry since these are organized into clubs or directorates compared to civil society, which remains fractious and of varying persuasions. Gender sensitivity in the policy making CC bodies should be upheld, similar to the DRR’s policy as exemplified by the SNAP. The vulnerable situation of women, children and the aged during and after natural disasters is a significant consideration in planning adaptation measures. 7.4 Capacity building support The 2006 NCSA Change Report identified the capacity building needs of the IACCC, DNA-CDM and EMB to satisfy the Philippine commitment to the UNFCCC. This need could be extended for the PTFCC. The Report suggested harmonizing policies on CC. Specifically, capacity building efforts such as developing training modules and conduct of policy research could be directed on CC-population interaction; CC-sensitive food crops, animals and fish, training on participatory CC governance, and vulnerability mapping. Based on personal knowledge (not part of the overview), other types of training may be considered like, CER/VER availment, innovative schemes of financing of CO2 reduction/sequestration projects and marketing of CO2, and private-public sector partnerships. On the main, the AIs are the logical groups to spearhead capacity building. The priority to capacitate the LGU on CC adaptation came from discussions with the DILG (national, regional) and the federations last September-October 2008. Until recently, the DILG has tasked a bureau to take the cudgels on CC, although it has yet to synthesize an overarching CC framework and operational guidelines vis-à-vis, on-going supervision on solid waste management, air and water management, planning, administration, among many. The challenges and opportunities for good governance are great. For example, the BLGD has planned for policy upscaling of the EPM experience into the mainstay planning functions of the LGU, principally which is, to enhance or develop CC-sensitive Comprehensive Development Plans through broad-base and bottom-up. Beginning 2009, the bureau will have a hands-on prototype on this innovative process with the Luisiana municipality in Laguna in tandem with the CERP, UP Los Banos and an adviser of the UN-HABITAT. The banner Sorsogon City59 is another possibility of going into this activity of mainstreaming CC in LGU governance. UP Los Banos and Bicol University could together evolve a module for training on this planning

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route while at the same time subjecting the process into farther theorizing in classrooms and researches. Apart from capacitating on the planning process, there is a general clamor for information on CC impacts, management tools and good practices. The concept of CC adaptation is not as well understood as CC mitigation, although, arguments on this problematique oftentimes are difficult to handle. Rather than going into “academic discussions”, more importantly, increasing the understanding on the operational meanings of adaptation and mitigation as well as approaches are the better themes for capacity building. On tools, there is an array of assessment tools which are suitable for CC assessment purposes, developed by disciplines, such as coastal resource assessment, land assessment, air and water quality assessment, hazard mapping, geologic assessment, etc.. However, there is a critical gap on CC adaptation management tools as these are applicable to archipelagic and active land forming ecosystems like the Philippines. This call for CC management tools was expressed by the September 2008 policy workshop on the potential of the EPM process to develop climate change adaptation strategies and action. The DILG officers re-articulated the task60 to document good practices especially the adaptation technologies/approaches, and draw CC management tools which could be used by replicating cities. The concept of AI was used by the EPM process for the tasks on documentation, substantive reflection activities, training module development, tools development, policy enhancement, and training. The UN-HABITAT has a resource pool of AIs that could be utilized for documenting good adaptation practices. These adaptation practices are found in communities which have been adapting to the changing climate in agriculture, fisheries, forest production, use of renewable energies, and waste diversion techniques. For example, a Dumaguete City resident has developed a combination of vermiculture-microbial waste digesting process for all types of biodegradable wastes of the city. The family venture has been producing BFAD-registered good quality biofertilizer from the process; in fact, the provincial government of Negros Oriental has issued a memorandum circular adopting the technology provincewide. Indeed, the poultry and piggery farms and city water pond that were visited which utilized the technique appeared clean and odorless. It was suggested that Silliman University, DILG and the city monitor this technological upscaling, while systematically documenting the practice at the Dumaguete City vermiculture-microbial waste processing plant as a CO2 sequestration technique. The information should be stored in the DILG’s Knowledge Management Center for access by other LGUs. A simplified route diagram as below describes the work direction of the BLGD-DILG following the gains of the GO-FAR project.61 This surfaced during the December 2008 and January 2009 meetings with key officials of the bureau (Fig 26). A usual comment generated from cities during policy discussions is the need to understand the context, intentions, and process for implementation of national policies like climate change. In short, cities are wanting for continuing policy orientation or a single capacity building design which will assist them by the-end-of-day to effectively localize national policies. At least five capacity building proposals will require fusing so

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that more coverage is attained and will not be confusing primarily to the LGU. Those with full texts include, the CHANGE report of UNDP titled “Capacity Enhancement for the Global Environment”, UN-HABITAT/SCP’s “National Capacity Building Strategy”, and “Strategic National Action Plan” for the DRR. Other documents that have to be culled for capacity building ideas are the Action Programs/Plans of the PTFCC, and the IACCC & ACCCMAC. There are other sector-specific capacity building proposals such as for coastal resource management, forestry, and agriculture, which also have to be fused with the above. In other words, when drawn, an encompassing “National Capacity Building Framework on Climate Change Adaptation” shall be critically significant in orchestrating all sectors in localizing national CC adaptation policies. (UN-

Knowledge Management Center

ThereeducaThe sand m

Up-scaling by re-contextualizing the EPM process to CC adaptation

Mainstreaming in the City planning and

management functions

NR

Fig 26. Work direction folloGO-FAR Project.

after, the conduct of capacition materials by sectors will cenario will include exchangeodels for replication, among

GO-FAR Products HABITAT/BLGD-DILG)

ational eplication

PCC

a

Prototype CC-Sensitive City

IEC

wing the success of t

ty building activitiebe more focused but of evaluative and mother innovative eff

Re-engineering olicy/Structures on -Sensitive Planning

nd Management of City

CC Adaptation Tools’Development

he BLGD-DILG/UN-HABITAT

s and production of advocacy cross-linked with other sectors. anagement tools, methodologies

orts that will come out from the

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collective consciousness. In this connection, it is advised that the UN-HABITAT take on this initiative to dispel sectoral turfs. It will not be easy to say the least, as the governance environment is strongly sectoral. However, the hope to get major players into something that is more operational rather than administrative in nature is less contentious. 7.5 Progressive contextualization Just as the impacts of climate change escalate, policies have to be progressively contextualized so as to increase their relevance to current and the emerging contexts. Policies needing update were cited in this paper, prominently, is the National Building Code. The continuing debates since 2004 on the “incongruence” of laws (NBC from which the Structural Building Code is drawn and the Architectural Act of 2004, RA 9266, on the other end of the scale), have affected efforts to adapt construction with CC impact. An effect of this long-drawn debate between engineers and architects is it is not common to learn of initiatives to fabricate/adapt locally-sourced materials receiving no substantial support from government and industry. The concern for resolution is important since local (LGU) permitting is based on the national policy. Meantime, the massive housing backlog will find the HUDCC as using the “usual” housing designs and materials. Big construction will also have the usual designs, although some efforts of independent groups like the PGBC is worth supporting. A good example of progressive contextualization of a policy is on disaster management. From a “purely national” administration of DRR, governance has been devolved to the LGU and the community, hence the developed concept on Community-Based Disaster Management (CBDM). Dependence with national agencies has been de-linked, instead, the empowering process is allowed to prosper locally but under a national framework on DRR. In this particular case, the civil society has come forward to constructively innovate on the present policy. 7.6 Knowledge management There is a need to institutionalize the inventory process within the various participating agencies and organizations and store information in a systematic fashion making it accessible to other researchers and policy makers, particularly to the IACCC, PTFCC and PAGW&CC. The experience in this policy overview work reflects the scattered and unavailable information. A similar recommendation for knowledge management was made by the PINCCC. Communicators are expected to transform the information into materials that could be used and referred to by educators for their advocacies and practitioners for their adaptation measures. Building such knowledge center could be anchored with the ROAP-UNH Knowledge Management Center or the SUDNet-CCCI where information is generally free of charge. In this manner, the Philippines could pick up relevant ideas, cases, tools and approaches which maybe adopted for the situation. In like manner, it opens up to neighboring countries in Asia the experience of the Philippines on CC adaptation.

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7.7 Follow through on PINCCC proposals The PINCCC has listed the financial, technological needs and constraints that have to be addressed for greater adaptation measures for each of the sectors, respectively (Table 30). The list was made in 1999, so that is apt for government, through the Philippine CC Secretariat with IACCC in the helm and in tandem with the PTFCC and PAGW&CC to re-visit these and determine the levels at which the CC players have responded. In other words, an enabling performance audit with regards to the recommendations will guide everyone on which areas they should focus as a matter of assistance. The task is timely since the IACCC has started formulating the second country communication, besides building the continuity of the communications. Many of the recommendations were specific and were deemed integral to better understanding of the country’s vulnerability and the setting up of adaptation measures. A great part of the recommendations are on R&D. Interesting action researches include the setting up of standards for energy mixes, GHG accounting, and methodologies for more accurate assessments and inventories. Also, it suggested the institutionalization of information storage for the range of uses (knowledge management). The impact on the natural resources was likewise highlighted. By combining these subject areas with those identified in this policy overview, like appraising the interactions between CC-population, developing CC-sensitive food crops, animals and fish, participatory CC governance, vulnerability mapping of the country, and CO2 accounting system, will indeed produce a more comprehensive diagnosis of the problem and solutions.

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Table 30. Vulnerability and adaptation issues and recommendations (PINCCC).

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8.0 Recommendations The following are recommended:

(1a) It is timely to re-visit the National Building Code, with the end view to adjust to the challenges of climate change. Since the private sector, e.g., PGBC have the resources and expertise to pursue an industry-oriented R&D, they should be encouraged to lead in the development (manufacture/fabrication) of construction materials. Government patents for construction materials maybe sold to industry for wider production to supply the socialized/mass housing projects of government.

(1b) Formulate a national policy requiring LGUs to sensitize their CLUP and

CDP on climate change will expand the opportunity of private sector to produce CC-responsive construction materials.

(1c) Evolve a Programmatic CLUP and CDP for cities facing extreme

problems of space coupled with the threats of storm surges, typhoon, flooding, etc. Explore a national policy on Uptown Development for Coastal Zones.

(1d) Corollary to 1c, draw up a National Policy on Up-Town Development for

congested coastal cities. (1e) Establish a National Strategy on Population-Climate Change.

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(1f) A CC-oriented R&D Agenda will certainly improve understanding of vulnerabilities thereby increase development of tools, approaches and models on adaptation. However, R&D work should start from documenting traditional and indigenous knowledge on adaptation and reflect on their wider application. Adequate budgetary support, both for government research institutions and private sector research centers and organizations should be provided.

(2) Coalesce the IACCC-ACCCMAC, PTFCC, and the PAGWCC with just

one Philippine Secretariat on Climate Change. Bring in strongly the strategic organizations like the NDCC, HUDCC and the LGUs in the scheme of coordination. A National Institutional Support Development Strategy will be required to guide the coalition of the bodies. In the long term, a legislated policy on CC will ascertain a regular budget allocation.

(3a) Ensure that the LGU through their federations and more civil society

groups are represented in decision making structures. Unless they are legally included, ownership of efforts will be an issue that will affect their participation in adaptation actions, on ground.

(3b) Include the strategic big business and industry in the policy development

arena possibly through their clubs and councils. The big energy consumers must be prioritized.

(3c) The decision making process needs to be participatory and gender

sensitive. (4a) Evolve a National Capacity Building Framework on Climate Change

Adaptation by integrating existing capacity building plans. Use the CHANGE Report, “Capacity Enhancement for the Global Environment” and the DRR’s Strategic National Action Plan as base materials on the subject.

(4b) Document systematically good practices on adaptation technologies and

approaches. The “old” cases reported as success stories should be re-visited for elements of resiliency and adaptation approaches and techniques, and new and evolving success stories have to be systematically documented. Reflection activities on the documents will provide good bases for drawing out CC management tools to be used by replicating cities. The anchor institutions are in the best position to conduct the documentation and reflection process.

(5) Build a Philippine Knowledge Management Center on Climate Change

which is accessible to the public at least cost, provided that pertinent rules such as the intellectual property rights are observed. Explore schemes of de-centralized administration of the KMC.

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(6) Re-visit the PINCCC for relevance of the 1999 recommendations and

juxtapose with the recommendations of the current policy overview. The timing is perfect since the IACCC is formulating the Second National Communication.

Notes: 53 A Philippine News Agency item, “VP to hike housing's climate change adaptation efforts” was taken

from the address of the Vice President of the Republic of the Philippines to the “Carbon Cutting Congress vs. Climate Change (CCCvsCC)” held in Malacanang. November 20, 2008.

54 The DENR needed to issue a policy in the form of a DAO 42 to define the nature, coverage, and process for Programmatic EIA. This policy was a response to the inadequacy of project-based EIA for large scale undertaking. The same level of argument may be forwarded for the programmatic CLUP since the CLUP is intended for a single LGU. There is a provincial CLUP formulation, which the proposed policy could use as guide.

55 Young OR 1999. (ed) Institutional Dimensions of Global Environmental Change. Science Plan. IHDP Report No. 9. IHDP: Bonn, Germany.

56 Romero, P.S. “Too much bureaucracy weakens RP’s fight vs climate change”. abs- cbnnews.com Newsbreak. April 22, 2008.

57 A.L. Malinao. “Fighting global warming: Who’s in charge?”. MEN & EVENTS. [email protected]. 2 December 2008.

58 UNDP. 1997. Governance for Sustainable Human Development. The set of characteristics have been evolved from lessons drawn from practice of LGUs worldwide. The Good Governance Report Card on MDG #7, Targets 10, 11, and 12 (Ensure environmental sustainability), recommends four elements which need to be indicated and measured for sustainability. (1) On effectiveness and efficiency, sample indicators include: proportion of land area covered by forest, land area protected to maintain biological diversity, GDP per unit of energy use as proxy for energy efficiency, CO2 emissions, O3 depletion and accumulation of GHGs, proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water source, proportion of people with access to improved sanitation, proportion of people with access to secure tenure, and the disaggregation of some indicators will show the improvement of lives of slum dwellers. (2) On accountability, indicators could include number of taxes imposed on production-level waste generation, and the local enforcement capacity in terms of percentage budget allocation for environmental management. (3) On participation, number of communities practicing LA21-type activities, and the number of local level activities per year on environmental sustainability addressing public awareness. (4) On equity, ratio of producers/consumers represented in local policy-making bodies, and number of women involved in budgetary decisions on allocation of resources to sustainable environmental management.

59Sorsogon City is the only Philippine LGU which was selected by the UH-HABITAT to showcase a CC-sensitive LGU. Three other cities each from South America, Western Africa, and Central Africa are models for the task.

60 A follow through workshop was convened December 2008 to identify the institutionalization route of the UN-HABITAT/GO-FAR products. The activity was basically a project completion workshop. A separate discussion with senior officials of the BLGD-DILG on follow through efforts has identified the need to systematically document cases, draw insights and develop CC management tools and approaches.

61 The GO-FAR Project was a joint undertaking between the UN-HABITAT and DILG. The main products of the effort include the following: (1) policy papers on the EPM process, (2) curriculum for a graduate program based on the EPM process, (3) Knowledge Management Center, and (4) case documentation.

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