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2110004 – ECE – Study Material

Introduction

BRANCHES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1) Surveying and Levelling:-

Surveying includes measurements of distances and angles in horizontal and vertical planes, while

levelling is the measurement of height in vertical plane.

Basic aim of surveying is to prepare a map of the area to some scale. It is also useful in selecting the site

for the construction of structure.

2) Building Planning And Construction:-

Civil engineers are concerned with many types of structure of which building are of prime importance.

Here in this branch building is classified as per its function.

Building is planned according to the fundamental principal of planning and bye-laws of municipal bodies.

It include component of building are foundation, masonry, doors, window, stairs, floors etc. materials like

brick, stone, lime, cement, aggregate, sand, aggregate, steel, wood etc.

3) Advanced Construction:-

Construction of dams, bridges, tunnels, ports, etc. required several advanced techniques of construction.

Under water construction, pile foundation, well foundation, large scale earth work, massive concrete

work, etc. these types of construction are advanced construction. These all works are done by the extra-

ordinary equipment’s like shovel, dragline, bulldozers etc.

4) Structural Engineering:-

This branch of civil engineering deals with the structural analysis and design of structures. It incorporates

the determining various load conditions and forces on the construction.

Structure engineers should also possess the knowledge of geo technical engineering. It includes the

design of reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and steel structure.

5) Geotechnical Engineering:-

This branch deals with detailed soil investigation for appropriate foundation design, Study of rock and

geological features of earth.

As geological features can help in determine suitable technology for earthquake prone zone. It includes

measurement of soil parameters and safe bearing capacity of soil.

6) Water resources engineering:-

Water resources engineering means measurement, utilization and development of water resource for

agriculture, municipal and power generation purpose.

7) Transportation engineering:-

This branch of civil engineering includes mode of movement of people and goods on land, water and by

air. Each mode of transportation in itself is a separate branch of civil engineering.


Where highway engineering deals with transportation on roads which includes traffic management also.

8) Environmental engineering:-

This branch deals with various environmental issues at local and global level.

At local level it deals with air pollution, noise pollution, and water pollution, and sewage, water

treatment plants, solid waste management etc.

9) Town Planning:-

Town Planning involves Planning of the town by zoning of the land. Planning road network, planning

other services like water supply and drainage.

Preparing master plan of town, Town planning schemes and regulating construction by provision of

Building Bye laws.

SCOPE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

The main scope of civil engineering or the task of civil engineering in planning designing, estimating,

supervision, construction, managing construction execution and maintaining of structure.

According to the field of work, Area of services and Type of the structure

1. Building construction

Construction residence building like apartment, tenement, flats, raw house, bungles, villas, quarters etc.

construction public building like schools, colleges, government offices, post office, hospitals, shopping

complex, hotels, etc. These are all building construction.

2. Construction of heavy structure

In heavy structure includes bridges, dams, ports, airports, under water construction, tunnels, cofferdams,

caissons, pile foundation, etc.

3. Geotechnical engineering

Construction several types of foundations like simple footing, well foundation, pile foundation, coffer

dams and foundation of machines subjected to vibrations is the main scope of geotechnical engineering.

4. Transportation engineering

Construction structure related to the transportation engineering like, roads, railway, bridges, tunnels,

ports, harbors, runways and airport.

5. Water resources engineering

Construction structure relating to water resources engineering like dams, barrages, channel, canal

structures and hydro power station.

6. Environmental Engineering

Construction structure relating to public health engineering like units of water treatment plant, water

distribution network, underground sump, over-head tank, unit of waste water treatment plant, etc.

7. Town Planning


Planning of the town by zoning of the land, planning road network, planning other services like water

supply and drainage. Prepare master plan of town planning schemes and regulating construction by

building byelaws.

According to the function of civil engineering

Surveying To carry out surveying for setting out of works and for preparing map of land. Levelling is carried out to

measure levels and to prepare contour map.

Planning

To carry out planning of the different units according to their functional needs.

Structure analysis and design

To carry out structure design of the structure by selecting the type of material like concrete or steel and

fixed the size and shape of various structural components like slab, beam column etc.

Professional practice

1) Estimating

To prepare estimate of work. Estimates are prepared from data of drawings, specifications, rates etc.

2) Costing and accounts

To carry out costing to know the actual expenditure in the payment of bills to the construction, and

many other expenditure, during construction of the work

3) Valuation

Valuation is carried out for the purpose of knowing the fair and just price or market value of the

property for the purpose of sales, purchases, insurance, taking loans and other purposes.

4) Contracts

To carry out the construction of work through contractor according to the conditions of the contract.

Construction management

1) Planning and scheduling

To carry out project planning and prepare different schedules.

2) Construction execution and supervision

To carry out the actual execution of the construction of the structure and to supervise the progress

of the work as per plan, design and specification and condition of the contract.

3) Quality control and research

To have a quality check by testing of materials and checking workmanship.


4) Maintenance of structure

To carry out the maintenance of the structure after the construction is over. Structure needs

maintenance and proper care.

ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY

Following are the main roles or duties of civil engineers.

Surveying, planning, designing, estimating and execution of structure like building, roads, bridges, railway,

ports, airports, dams, canals, water and waste water treatment plants, water distribution network and

sewerage system.

To use scientific and engineering principal for artistic, optimum, economical, and technical solution of

different engineering problems.

To implement management techniques.

To carry out surveying and leveling with surveying instrument.

To carry out soil investigation for the design of foundation of structures.

To carry out planning of building as per its functional needs.

To carry out the design of structure as per the principles of structural analysis and design.

To carry out quantity surveying.

To invite tender.

To do the supervision on the site.

To carry out valuation.

IMPACT OF INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT ON THE ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT OF A COUNTRY

For the growth of the country, wealth and prosperity, infrastructure of the nation must be so developed.

Infrastructure is the backbone of nation’s progress.

Most of the infrastructural projects are relating to construction of transportation systems and heavy

construction.

The infrastructure facilities mainly transportation, power, communication, science, water resources.

Road network bridge the whole country and by road most of financial and product based business is

done. For the facility of the common man all daily life needs are received from the transportation.

Now in the world, we can’t imagine life without the electricity. For the electricity high transmission line

tower constructed. And all industries never survive without electricity.

For the running of industries, survival of human and animal water is necessity and for this purpose dam

are constructed so that growth of agricultural product boosted and income increase with high rate.

Per capita income and gross domestic product is high for economic development.

Per capita income:

Per capita income is the average income of normal resident of country in a particular year. It is

obtained by dividing income os a country by its population.


Gross domestic product {GDP} Gross domestic product at market prices is the value of all fixed goods and services at prices

prevailing in the market product in the domestic territory of a country during a given year.


Surveying, Leveling and Mapping INTRODUCTION

SURVEYING:- Surveying is the art and science of determining the relative positions of various points or station on the

surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical distance, angle and taking the details of these

points and by preparing a map or plan to any suitable scale.

AIM OF SURVEYING The object of surveying is to prepare a map or plan to show the relative position of the object on the

surface of the earth.

It shows boundaries of districts, states, and countries.

APPLICATION OF SURVEYING To prepare a topographical map which shows hills, valley, rivers, forest& towns etc.

To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plot, house etc.

To prepare an engineering map which shows the positions of engineering works such as building, roads,

railways, dams etc.

To prepare contour map to know the topography of the area to find the best possible site for road,

railways, bridges, reservoirs etc.

It is also use to prepare military map, geological map, archaeological map etc.

For setting out of works and transferring details from the map on the ground.

PRIMARY DIVISION OF SURVEYING NO. PLANE SURVEYING NO. GEODETIC SURVEYING

1 The earth surface is considered as a plane surface.

1 The earth surface is considered as a curved surface.

2 The curvature of the earth is ignored. 2 The curvature of the earth is taken into account.

3 Line joining any two stations is considered to be straight line.

3 Line joining any two stations is considered to be curved line.

4 The triangle formed by any three points is considered as a plane triangle.

4 The triangle formed by any three points is considered as a spherical triangle.

5 The angles of the triangles are considered as plane angles.

5 The angles of the triangles are considered as spherical angles.

6 Carried out for a small area <250km2. 6 Carried out for a large area >250km2.


FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPAL OF SURVEYING:

Always Work from the Whole to the Part:- According to the first principle, the whole survey area is first enclosed by main stations (i.e. control

stations) and main survey lines.

The area is the divided into a number of divisions by forming well-conditioned triangles.

The main survey lines are measured very accurately with survey instruments. Then the remaining sides

of the triangle are measured.

During measurement, if there is any error, then it will not affect the whole work.

To Locate a New Station by At Least Two Measurements(linear or angular) From Fixed Reference Points:- According to the second principle the points or stations are located by linear or angular measurement or

by both in surveying.


If two control points are established first, then a new station can be located by two linear or two angular or

by one linear and one angular measurement.

Let points A & B (line AB) are control points.

A new point C can be established. Following diagrams are the shows the methods of locating point C

from the reference points A & B (line AB).

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING (1)LASSIFICATION BASED UPON INSTRUMENTS:

No. Type of survey Characteristics

1 Chain survey Chain or tape is used for linear distance measurement.

2 Compass survey Compass is used for measurement of horizontal angles.

3 Chain & compass survey Chain or tape is used for linear distance measurement. Compass

is used for measurement of horizontal angles.

4 Theodolite survey Theodolite is used for measuring vertical and horizontal angles.

(2) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON THE METHOD:


1 Triangulation survey The area is covered with a network of triangles and details are

collected.

2 Traverse survey A traverse is a circuit of survey lines. It may be open or closed.

When the linear measurements are done, the survey is called

traversing.

(3) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON THE NATURE OF FIELD OF SURVEY:


1 Land surveys Conducted on the earth’s surface

2 Hydrographical surveys Conducted on water bodies like ocean, rivers etc.

3 Aerial survey or

Photographic survey

An aerial survey is conducted from aircraft. Aerial cameras take

photographs of the surface of the earth in overlapping strips of

land.

(4) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON THE PURPOSES:


1 Geological

survey

Conducted for determining the different strata in the different strata in the

earth’s crust.


2 Mine survey Mine surveys include both surface and underground surveys about water.

3 Archaeological

survey

It is conducted to locate relics of antiquity, civilization, kingdoms, temples,

etc.

4 Topographic

survey

Conducted to determine the nature of features of hills, river, lakes,

villages, road, railways, etc.

PLAN AND MAPS

PLAN A plan is the graphical representation, to some scale, of the feature on, near or below the surface of the

earth as projected on a horizontal plane.

The horizontal plane is represented by the drawing sheet on which the plan is drawn to some scale.

MAPS It is the scale of the graphical projection on a horizontal plane is small the plan is called a map.

Thus graphical representation is called a plan if the scale is large while it is called a map if the scale is

small.

DIFFERENCE NO. PLAN MAP

1 Scale is large. Scale is small.

2 Area involved is small. Area involved is large.

3 Ground undulations are not shown on plan. Ground undulation can be shown on map.

4 Natural features are not included. Natural features are included, e.g. river, hill etc.

5 Plan is prepared by using Plane surveying. Map is prepared either by using plane or Geodetic Surveying.

6 Curvature of earth is not considered. Curvature of earth is considered if needed.

SCALES

PLANE SCALE The plane scale is the most commonly used in maps. This scale is used to represent two successive units,

such as units and tenths, meters, decimeters etc.

DIAGONAL SCALE Using a diagonal scale, one can measure three dimensions such as “units, tenths and hundredths”,

“meter, decimeter and centimeters”, and so on.

CHORD SCALE A scale of chord is used to measure or to set off angle. It is marked either on a rectangular protractor or on

an ordinary box.

VERNIER SCALE It consists of two approximating scales, one of them is fixed and is called the primary scale, the other scale,

and the other is movable and is called the Vernier.


UNITS OF MEASUREMENT The system of units used in India in the recent year is M.K.S and S.I. but all the records available in

surveying done in the past are in F.P.S. units.

Therefore, for an engineer it becomes necessary to know the conversion of units from one system to

another system.


Linear Measurements

METHOD OF MEASUREMENT

Direct methods {direct using a chain & tape} In the direct method, the distance is actually measured during field work using a chain or a tape. This is the

most commonly used method for linear measurements.

Optical methods {Distance computed indirectly using tachometry} In the optical methods, principles of optics are used. In optical method observations are made by telescope

and calculation are made for distances by dumpy level or tachometer.

E.D.M Methods {Electromagnetic Distance Measuring} Distances are measured with instruments that rely on reflection by light waves.

E.D.M. (Electromagnetic Distance Measurement) instruments have been used.

INSTRUMENTS USED IN CHAINING The following instruments are used while chinning:

Chains

Tapes

Arrows

Ranging rods and offset rods

Peg

Plumb-bob

CHAIN: Metric Chain: Available in 5m, 10m, 20m and 30m length.

Consist of 4mm galvanized mild steel wire.

Except end link, all are 20cm long between central rings.

At the ends brass handle is provided.

Tallies are provided at regular interval for distance identification.


Gunter’s chain It is of 66 ft long and having 100 links.

10 square chain is equal to 1 acre.

10 chains = 1 furlong and 8 furlong = 1 mile

Revenue chain It is 33 ft long and consists of 16 links.

Used in cadastral survey

Engineer’s Chain It is 100 ft long and consists of 100 links.

Each link is 1 ft long.

It was used for engineering survey in past.

Steel Band or Band Chain It is of 20 to 30 m long.

It is wound on metal reels for convenience of handling and carrying.

It is marked suitably graduated at every meter and marked in the end portions in decimeters and

centimeters.

The band may be provided with brass studs at every 200 mm and numbered at every meter.

TAPES Cloth or Linen tape Tapes made of cloth or linen can be used for taking offset measurements.

However, they find little use in surveying due to their tendency to stretch easily, twist and shrink when

wet.

Metallic tape They are made up of yarn and metallic wire.

It comes in lengths of 2, 5, 10, 20, 30 and 50 m.

The outer end is reinforced for about 10 cm by a leather or plastic strip of the same width as the tape.

The width of the tape is usually 16 mm.

Steel tape Metric steel tapes can come in denomination of 1 to 50 m.

The tape is made of steel or stainless steel and can have a protective vinyl coating to prevent rust.

Longer tapes have a metal ring attached at the outer end of the tape.

The length of the tape includes the metal ring.

Invar tape It is made up of an alloy of steel and nickel and is used for very high precision work, as in base line

measurement for triangulation.

It has very low thermal coefficient of expansion, about 1/10th of steel.

It comes in length of 30 m, 50 m and 100 m and is about 6 mm wide.

It is very delicate requiring careful handling and is hence used for high precision work only.

Wooden pegs They are used for marking stations.

They are generally 150 mm to 200 mm long and have a 25 mm square cross section.

They are tapered at one end to facilitate driving them into the ground with a wooden hammer.

If ground is hard then steel pegs of nail shape are also used.


Arrow Arrows or marking pins are made of stout steel wire, and generally, 10 arrows are supplied with a chain.

An arrow is inserted into the ground after every chain length measured on the ground.

Arrows are made of good quality hardened and tempered steel wire 4 mm in diameter, and are black

enameled.

The length of arrow may vary from 25 cm to 50 cm, the most common length being 40 cm. one end of

the arrow is made sharp and other end is bent into a loop or circle for facility of carrying.

Ranging rod Ranging rods have a length of either 2 m or 3 m, the 2 meter length being more common.

They are shod at the bottom with a heavy iron point, and are painted in alternative bands of black and

white or red and white or black, red and white in succession, each band being 20 cm deep so that on

occasion the rod can be used for rough measurement of short lengths.

They are circular or octagonal in cross section of 3 cm nominal diameter, made of sell seasoned straight

grained timber or steel.

The rods are almost invisible at a distance of about 200 meters. Hence when used on long lines each rod

should have a red, white or yellow flag, about 30 to 50 cm square, tied on near its top.


Offset rods They are used to measure short offsets.

They are similar in construction to ranging rods but are generally longer and have a larger cross section.

They are generally 3 m in length and divided into 200 mm sections and painted alternate bands of black

and white.

Plumb bob Plumb bob is used to transfer points on the ground.

It is also used to fix the instrument exactly over the station point marked on the ground.

Thus, it is used as centering aid in theodolite and plane table etc.

SELECTION OF THE SURVEY STATIONS The station should be inter-visible.

Survey lines should be Minimum as far as possible.

Station should form well-conditioned triangle. {Interior angle not less than 30 and not more than 120}

Station points should be located that tie lines, check lines, base line etc…..

Station point should be selected within the boundary of the area to be surveyed.

The survey line should be taken through fairly level ground as far as practicable.

CHAINING

Chaining on the level ground The method of taking measurement with the help of a chain or a tap is termed as chaining.

Chaining involves following operations.

o Fixing the stations

o Unfolding the chain

o Ranging

o Measuring the distance

o Folding the chain

Stations are first fix with pegs and ranging rods to make them visible.

Use the method of folding and unfolding chain.

If the measurement is more than chain length pull the chain and keep in a two station line.

Follower hold at zero {at a starting station} and leader pull the chain and fix arrow at the end of chain.

And after then he moves forward and follower comes on the point. Which fix leader.

At the end of work, as a check the number of arrow are multiplied by the length of chain which is the total

length measured

Chaining on sloping ground There are two methods of finding out horizontal distance while chaining on a sloping ground.


Direct method This method is also called stepping method.

In this method, the distance is measured in small horizontal stretches.

A suitable length of chain or tap saysl1 is taken.

The follower holds the rear end of the tape at a point on the hill or sloping ground.

The tape is stretched horizontally from (A) and at small step length (L1) of 3 to 5 m, the point at the end

of l1 IS dropped and marked on the ground.

Finally the total horizontal length of line AB is

D = L1 + L2 + L3+……….+Ln

Where Ln is the last step for the given surveying line

INDIRECT RANGING

METHOD-1:

Horizontal distance of the segment is calculated by knowing sloping length of the segment and angle

inclination of that with horizontal.

The angle of the sloping surface with horizontal can be known by a simple handy instrument called

“Abney’s level”

Total distance D = ∑d

∑d = d1 + d2 + d3 + ………….+dn

d = l cosӨ {for d1 = l1cosӨ1

Ө = angle of sloping

L = sloping length

METHOD -2:

If elevation different between two terminal points and the sloping distance between the two terminal

points is known, the horizontal distance D can be calculated as

D = √𝑙2 − ℎ2


METHOD- 3: This method is also called the hypotenuse allowance method the chaining is done on the sloping ground,

but instead of putting the end arrow at actual end of chain, it is put at some advanced distance and that

point is considered as the one chain length

l = sloping length of chain AB,

θ = angle of inclination with horizontal

In this method, as shown in figure, the chain of 20m length ends at point B. Therefore, sloping length l

is20 m, but the actual horizontal length (D) is less than 20 m and calculation is required to calculate

horizontal distance based on 0, an angle of inclination of ground.

Instead of that practice, in the method of hypotenuse allowance, the allowance in advance of end of the

chain is made in such a way that the total distance, i.e. the length of chain on sloping ground plus

allowance, is directly equal to 20 m

Horizontal distance between those two points as shown in figure

From figure, the horizontal distance D = (l + a) cos θ

Where D is intended to make equal to one chain shown

So, D = (l + a) COSθ,

Here, AB = one chain length = l = D = 20.00m

Put D = l = 20.00 m

20 = (20 + a) cos θ

a = 20 sec θ – 20 = 20 (sec θ – 1) or a = 100(sec θ – 1) links

Thus, the arrow is inserted at (l + a) distance on the ground instead of at the end of chain. Thus the

horizontal distance for this sloping distance on ground is equal to one chain length (l).

RANGING The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line between two end points is known as

ranging.

There are two methods of ranging.

Direct Ranging

Indirect ranging


Direct ranging When intermediate ranging rods fixed on a straight line by direct observation from end stations, the

process is known as direct ranging. Direct ranging is possible when the ends ofstation are inter-visible.

The following procedure is adopted for direct ranging.

Assume A and B are two stations

Suppose to fix a intermediate point M on the chain line

A,M and B are in the straight line

The surveyor stands half a meter behind the ranging rod at A

Looking towards the line AB

The assistant holds a ranging rod at M vertically at arm’s length.

The rod should be held lightly by the thumb and fore-finger.

Now the surveyor direct the assistant to move the ranging rod to the left or right until the three ranging

rod comes exactly in the same line.

The code of signals used is stated in fig below.

Direct ranging with a line ranger: A line ranger consists of two right angled isosceles triangular prisms placed one above the other.

The diagonals of the two prisms are silvered so as to form the reflecting surfaces. There is a handle at the

bottom of the instrument to hold the instrument in one hand. A hook is provided below the handle for

attaching the plumb bob to transfer the point on the ground.

E

M

da

b c

A B

Bottom

PrismTop

Prism

Eye

A

B

A

B


Hold the line ranger in hand at the level of the eye and stand at M very near the line AB, as judged by

eye.

Observe the ranging rod at A through the upper prism abc. The ray of light from A enters the upper

prism, gets-reflected from the silvered diagonal ac and enters the eye at right angles to the line AB, as

the incident ray makes an angle of 45° with the reflecting surface.

Also observe the ranging rod at B through the lower prism dbc. The ray of right from B enters the lower

prism, goes reflected from the silvered diagonal db and enters the eye at right angles to the line AB.

Check whether the images of the ranging rods at A and B are seen in one vertical line or not. If the point

at which the line ranger is held is not exactly on the line AB, the two images appear separated

INDIRECT RANGING (RECIPROCAL RANGING) When the end stations are not itervisible due to there being high ground between them, intermediate

ranging rods are fixed on the line in an indirect way. The method is known as indirect ranging or

reciprocal ranging.

PROCEDURE

Suppose A and B are two end stations which are not itervisible due to high ground existing between

them.

Suppose it is required to fix intermediate points between A and B, two chain men take up positions at

M1 and N1 with ranging rods in their hands. The chainman at M1 stands with his face towards B so that

he can see the ranging rods at N1 and B.

Again, the chainman at N1 stands with his face towards A so that he can see the ranging rods at M1 and

A. Then the chainmen proceed to range the line by directing each other alternately. The chainman at M1

directs the chainman at N1 to come to the position N2 so that M1, N2 and B are in the same straight line.

Again, the chainman at N2 directs the chainman at M1 to move to the position at M2 so that N2, M2

and A are in the same straight line.

Thus, the two chainmen are now at M2 and N2 which are nearer to the chain line than the positions M1

and N1. The process is repeated till the points M and N are located in such a way that the chainman at

M finds the chainman at N in line with MB and the chainman at N finds the chainman at M in line with

NA. Thus the points A, M, N and B are in the same straight line.

A M N B

B

NM

A

M1

M2

M3

N1

N2

N3

RECIPROCAL RANGING

OFFSETTING The method of taking perpendicular distance from the chain line to the object which are to be plotted is

known as offsetting.


Two type of offsetting:

Perpendicular offsets: When angel of offset is 90°, it is called perpendicular offset.

By method of offsets, the point or object is located by measurement of a distance and angle (generally

90°) from the point on the chain line

Oblique offsets: The offsets which are not taken at right angle to chain line, it is called an oblique offsets.

The distance on the chain line at which the foot of the offset is taken is known as a chainage.

S QP

R

PERPENDICULAROFFSET

S QP

R

OBLIQUEOFFSET

ERRORSIN CHAINING The nature of error is either cumulative or compensating

Thus, errors are classified as compensating errors and cumulative errors.

Cumulative errors The errors, which occur in the same direction and tend to accumulate are called cumulative errors. These

errors have serious effects on accuracy of survey works.

Compensating errors The errors, which occur in either direction and tend to compensate {balance} are called cumulative

errors.

These have minor final effects at the end.

Sources of Errors in Chaining are Instrumental errors Errors occurring due to faulty adjustment or imperfections of the instruments or devices as such as

chains or tapes are called INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS. It may be too long or too short.

Natural Errors Errors occurring due to variations in phenomenon of nature such as temperature, moisture, nature of

terrain etc. are called natural errors.

Personal Errors Errors due to chain or tap not being straight or working with faulty methods or mistakes done while

writing and reading measurements etc. are termed as personal errors.

The errors in chaining are regarded as +ve or –ve which are according to their result too great or to small


Errors due to Incorrect Chain If the length of the chain used for measuring distance is found incorrect, then correction has to be

applied to the measured distance to find correct distance.

If the chain is too long, the measured distance will be less and the correction to be applied is

positive. But if the chain is too small, the measured distance will be more and the correction to be

applied negative.

Correction

Corrected length of line= 𝐿′

𝐿×measured length

Where L’= incorrect or actual length of the chain

L= Designated or standard length of the chain

True area of field= (𝐿′

𝐿)2× measured area

Truea volume= (𝐿′

𝐿)3× measured volume


ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

INSTRUMENTS USED Instruments used for the direct measurement of directions of survey lines.

o A compass

Instruments use for the measurement of horizontal angle between survey lines

o A box- sextant

o A theodolite

o A total station

Types of compass

THE PRISMATIC COMPASS The prismatic compass is the most convenient and portable form of magnetic compass which can

either be used as a hand instrument or can be fitted on a tripod. The main parts of the prismatic

compass are shown in figure.


Pivot

Pivot is made of hard steel material. It is fixed at the centre and on which magnetic needle with

graduated circle can be balanced.

Lifting pin

A lifting pin is pivoted just below the sight vane. When the sight vane is folded, it presses the lifting

pin.

Lifting lever

To prevent undue wear, the needle when not in use should be lifted off the pivot by means of lifting

lever.

Brake pin

When brake pin or knob pressed gently, it touches the edge of the graduated ring in order to bring it

rest and thus damp the oscillations of the graduated ring and give the easy way to take the accurate

reading.

Magnetic needle

The needle measures angle of a line from magnetic meridian as the needle always remains pointed

towards north and South Pole at two ends of the needle when freely suspended on any support.

Graduated circle or ring

Graduation from 0o to 360o are marked on aluminum ring which helps in taking reading of bearing of

line.

Prism

Looking through the prism, the observer can see the graduation erect and magnified and hence

bearing of the line can properly and accurately be taken.

Object vane

It is diametrically opposite to the prism and eye vane. The object vane is carrying a horse hair or

black thin wire to sight object in line with eye sight.

Eye vane

It is a fine slit provided with the eye hole at bottom to bisect the object from the slit and to take

reading simultaneously from the eye hole.

Reflecting mirror

Reflecting mirror is an adjustable mirror which can be made to incline of any angle so that object

too high or too low may be sighted by reflection.

Sun glasses

Sun glasses are attached to the frame of reflecting prism which can be interposed into the line of

sight, when the sun or other luminous objects are to be sighted.

The surveyor’s compass It is similar to a prismatic compass exact that it has a only plain eye slit instead of eye slit with prism

and eye hole. This compass is having pointed magnetic needle in place of broad from needle as in

case of prismatic compass.


TYPES OF MERIDIAN

Magnetic meridian: The direction shown by a freely suspended needle which is magnetized and balanced properly

without influenced by any other factors is known as magnetic meridian.

Magnetic bearingof a line is the horizontal angle formed by the line with the magnetic meridian

True meridian: True meridian is the line which passes through the true north and south. The direction of true

meridian at any point can be determined by either observing the bearing of the sun at 12 noon by

sun’s shadow.

True bearingthe horizontal angle which the line makes with the meridian is known as the true

bearing or azimuth.

Arbitrary meridian In case of small works or in places where true meridian or magnetic meridian cannot be determine,

then, any direction of a prominent object is taken as a reference direction called as arbitrary

meridian.

Arbitrary bearing the horizontal angle made by a line with the arbitrary meridian is called arbitrary

bearing.

Types of bearing The bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with a reference line.


True bearing The true bearing of a line is the horizontal angle between the true meridian and the surveying line.

The true bearing is measured from the true north in the clockwise direction.

Magnetic bearing The magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which line makes with the grid meridian.

Grid bearing The grid bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which the line makes with the grid meridian.

Arbitrary bearing The arbitrary bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which the line makes with the arbitrary

meridian.

Measurement of bearings Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B.) Quadrantal Bearing (Q. B.)

1 Always measured with respect to North. Measured from either North or South whichever is nearest.

2 Always measured in clockwise direction. It may be either in clockwise or anticlockwise manner.

3 Value of bearing may range 00 to 3600 Value of bearing may range 00 to 900

4 No provision for denotation of quadrant. Quadrant must be shown.

5 e.g. 500,1000,2000,3000 e.g. N500E,S800E, S200W, N600W


6

Compass traversing In traversing, when compass is used for making angular measurement, it is known as compass

traversing or compass surveying.

Local Attraction The magnetic needle is under the influence of some external attraction forces. This deviation of the

needle from the magnetic north (its original position) under the influence of magnetic substance is

known as “LOCAL ATTRACTION”.

Local attraction is a term used to denote any influence, such as the above, which prevents the

needle from pointing to the other magnetic north in a given locality.

Some of the sources of local attraction are: magnetite in the ground, wire carrying electric current,

steel structures, railroad rails, underground iron pipes, keys, steel-bowed spectacles, metal buttons,

axes, chains, steel tapes etc., which may be lying on the ground nearby.

Detection of local attraction The local attraction at a particular place can be detected by observing the fore and back bearings of

each line and finding its difference.

If the difference between fore and back bearing is 180⁰, it may be taken that both the stations are

free from local attraction, provided there are no observational and instrumental errors.

If the difference is other than 180⁰, the fore bearing should be measured again to find out whether

the discrepancy is due to avoidable attraction exists at one or both the stations.


LEVELLING

Aims of levelling: The aim of levelling is to determine the relative heights of different points on or below the surface of

the earth and to determine the undulation of the ground.

Application of levelling To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area

To determine the heights of different important point on a hill or to know the reduced levels of

different points with reference to datum line on or below the surface of the earth.

To prepare a longitudinal section and cross-sections of a engineering project like road, railway, canal,

etc. in order to determine the quantity of filling or cutting of earth work.

To prepare a layout map for water supply, sewage treatment or drainage scheme.

Definition of various terms used in levelling Level surface: A surface parallel to the mean spherical surface of the earth is called level surface,

such a surface is obviously curved.

Level line: It is a line lying on a level surface is called a level line. This line is normal to the plumb

line at all points.

Horizontal plane: It is a plane tangential to the level surface at any point is known as the

horizontal plane. It is perpendicular to the plumb line which indicates the direction of gravity.

Horizontal line: It is line lying on the horizontal plane. It is a straight line tangential to the level

line.

Vertical line: It is a line perpendicular to the level surface and lies along the plumb line through

that point.

Vertical plane: A plane which is passing through the vertical line is known as the vertical plane.

Datum surface or datum line: Datum surface is a level surface whose elevation is known or

assumed. The vertical distances of different points (above or below this line) are measured from the

datum surface in a vertical plane.

Reduced level (RL): The vertical distance of a point above or below the datum surface is known

as the reduced level (RL) of that point.

Elevation: It is the vertical distance at the point above or below the datum surface.

Bench mark (BM): The bench mark is a fixed point of known RL above the datum. A point

whose RL is known can be used as a bench mark.

Mean Sea Level:Mean sea level is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At any

particular place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a long period of 19 years. The

mean sea level is commonly taken as the reference level surface.


Instruments for levelling

DumpyLevel

Description of dumpy level: Tripod stand: The tripod stand consists of three legs which may be solid or telescopic. The legs are

made of wood or aluminum. The lower ends of the legs are fitted with iron shoes.

Levelling head: The levelling head consists of two parallel plates having three grooves to support the

foot screws.

Foot screws: Three foot screws are provided between the trivet and tribrach. These are used for

levelling.

Telescope: The telescope consists of two metal tubes. One moving within inside of other. It also

consists of an object glass and an eye-piece on opposite ends. A diaphragm is fixed with the

telescope just in front of the eye-piece.

Bubble tubes: The bubble tubes are fixed on top of the telescope. Two bubble tubes, one called the

longitudinal bubble tube and other the cross bubble tube, are placed at right angles to each other’s.

Compass: in some instrument compass is provided just below the telescope for measuring the

bearing of a line when required.

Axis of the telescope: This axis is an imaginary line passing through the optical center of the object

glass and the optical center of the eye piece.

Line of collimation: It is an imaginary line passing through the intersection of the cross-hairs at the

diaphragm and the optical center of the object glass and its continuation. It is also known as the line

of sight.


Description of levelling staff: The levelling staff is used for measuring the vertical distances between the points on the ground and

the line of collimation.

Types of levelling staff

o Self reading

Solid staff

Telescopic staff

Folding staff

o Target staff


Methods of levelling Simple leveling: the method is used for determining the difference of elevations of two points

which are visible from a single position of the instrument.

Differential leveling:The method is used when the two points whose difference of elevation is

required are situated quite apart or when their difference of elevation is large.

Fly leveling: when differential leveling is done in order to connect a bench mark to the starting

point of the alignment of any project (i.e. road, railway, canal, etc.), it is called fly leveling.

Profile leveling:This is a type of differential leveling done for the purpose of determining the

elevations of the ground surface along an alignment of a road, canal, railway, etc.

Cross section leveling: This type of differential leveling is done to determine the difference of

elevations of the ground surface along the lines perpendicular to the alignment of the proposed

road, railway, canal, etc.

Check leveling:This leveling is done for the purpose of checking of elevations of which have already

been obtained. The fly leveling is done at the end of each day’s work from the last station to the

starting station for checking that day’s work.

Reciprocal leveling: It is a method of leveling used for determining the difference of elevations of

the two points which are situated on the opposite banks of a river. It is not possible to set up the

instrument in the river bed, in this case reciprocal leveling is used.

Recording observation in level book These points should be remembered while recording the level book:

The first reading of any set up is always recorded as BS.

Before shifting the instrument last reading is recorded as FS as well as at the end of survey work last

reading is recorded as FS.

All reading taken between BS and FS in any set up of the instrument is recorded as IS.

For getting arithmetic check, a page always starts with a BS reading and finishes with FS reading.

If a page finishes with an IS reading, this reading is recorded as FS though it is IS and same reading is

recorded as BS on a new page.

The FS and BS of any change point are entered in the same horizontal line.

If FS and BS of any change point are recorded in the last line of a page, only FS is considered in FS

and BS is not considered in BS on this page but it is considered on a next page while getting the

arithmetic check i.e. nos. of BS and nos. of FS should be same.

The RL of the HI is recorded in the same horizontal line in which the corresponding BS was recorded/

Important note, RL of B.M. and change points should be clearly described in the last remark column.

Computing reduced levels by HI and rise & fall method

Calculation of the reduced levels may be done by following two methods:


Height of instrument method (H.I. method) or collimation method The height of instrument is calculated by adding the back sight reading (BS) to the RL of the BM (1st

point).

Before shifting the instrument, the RLs of the intermediate points and changing point (CP) are

obtained by subtracting the respective staff readings (IS or FS) from the RL of HI.

Then the level is shifted for the next set up and again the new height of the instrument is obtained

by adding the back sight reading to the RL of CP (which was obtained in first set up).

The height of instrument is different in different set ups of the level.

For a change point FS reading is taken before shifting the instrument and BS reading is taken on the

same staff position after shifting the instrument.

Page of level book as per Height of Instrument method.

St. BS IS FS HI RL Remark

Rise and fall method: In this method, the height of instrument is not at all calculated but the difference of level between

consecutive points is found by comparing the staff readings on the two points for the same setting

of the instrument.

If the forward staff reading is smaller than the immediately preceding staff reading, it indicates a

rise.

If the forward staff reading is greater than the immediately preceding staff reading, it indicates a fall.

The rise is added to the RL of the preceding point to get the RL of the forward point and the fall is

subtracted from the RL of preceding point to get the RL of the forward point.

Page of level book as per Rise & Fall method.

St. BS IS FS RISE FALL RL Remark

Definition of contour A contour line may be defined as imaginary lines passing through points of equal reduce levels. A

contour line may also be defined as the intersection of a level surface with the surface of the earth.

Characteristic of contours of different terrains The following are the important characteristics of the contour line useful for interpreting and plotting

the contour map. A series of closed contours with higher values inside the loop always indicates the hill

or summit (fig.1)


A series of closed contours with lower values inside the loop always indicates the lake, pond or

depression (fig.2)

Closer contour lines near a top of a hill or near bank indicates steep slope. (fig 1 & 2)

Wide apart contour lines near a foot of a hill or center of a depression indicates the flatter slope (fig.

1 & 2)

Uniformly spaced contour lines indicate a uniform slope (fig. 3)

Contour lines always form a closed circuit. These lines may be within or outside the limits of the map

(fig. 4)

Contour lines meet at a point in case of a vertical cliff as shown in fig 5

Contour line do not cross each other except in case of the overhanging cliff or cave (fig. 6)

Contour lines cross a ridge or valley lines at right angles. The higher values are inside the loop in case

of ridge and lower values inside the loop in case of valley. (fig. 7 & 8)


Applications of contour maps Following are the specific application uses of the contour map:

To select sites for engineering projects such as roads, canals, railways etc.

To find the possible route of communication between different places.

The capacity of a reservoir and the area of submergence can be computed.

To ascertain the inter visibility of stations.

To ascertain the profile of the ground surface along any direction.

A suitable route for a given gradient can be marked on the map.

To estimate the quantity of cutting, filling etc.

To know the drainage characteristics of the area.

It helps to select sites for culverts, bridges, drainage systems etc.

Introduction to Planimeter The planimeter is used for computation of area from a plotted map.

The area obtained by planimeter is more accurate that the obtained by the graphical method.

There are various types of planimeter in use.

But the Amslar polar planimeter is the most commonly used now.

The construction details of this planimeter are shown in figure.


It consists of two arms. The first arm is known as the tracing arm. Its length can be adjusted and it is

graduated. The tracing arm carries a tracing point which is moved along the boundary line of the

area.

The other arm is known as the pole arm or anchor arm and carries a needle pointed weight or

fulcrum at one end. The weight forms the centre of rotation the other end of the pole arm can be

pivoted at pivot point by a ball and socket arrangement.

There is a carriage which can be set at various points of the tracing arm with respect to the vernier

of the index mark.

The carriage consists of a measuring wheel and a venire.

The wheel is divided into 100 divisions and the vernier into 10 divisions.

The wheel and the vernier measure readings up to three places of decimal.

The wheel is geared to a counting disc which is graduated into 10 divisions. For ten complete

revolutions of the wheel, the disc shows a reading of one division.

Thus, the planimeter shows a reading of four digits. The counting disc shows units. ( 1, 2, … etc.).

The wheel shows – tenth and hundredth and the vernier shows- thousands.

The planimeter rests on the tracing point, anchor point and the periphery of the wheel.

Using the planimeter: The vernier of the index mark is set to the exact graduation marked on the tracer are corresponding

to the scale as given in the table. Suppose the scale is 1 : 1, then the vernier of the index mark

should be set to 21.51(as per the value given in the table).

The anchor point is fixed firmly in the paper outside or inside the figure. But it is always preferable to

set the anchor point outside the figure. If the area is very large, it can be divided into number of

small divisions. It should be ensured that the tracing point is easily able to reach every point on the

boundary line.

A good starting point is marked on the boundary line and the tracing point is placed over it.

The tracing point is moved gently in a clockwise direction along the boundary of the area till it

returns to the starting point.

The number of times the zero mark of the dial passes the index mark in a clockwise or anticlockwise

direction should be noticed.

Finally, by observing the disc, wheel and vernier the final reading (FR) is recorded.

The difference of the final and initial reading gives the required plan area A.

A = M (FR – IR + 10N + C)

M = multiplier constant given in table

N = number of times the zero mark of the dial passes the index mark

C = the additive constant given in the table

FR = Final reading

IR = initial reading


Introduction to Global Positioning System (GPS) GPS stands for Global Positioning System.

The system consists of a constellation (An arrangement of parts or elements) of satellites in the

Earth’s orbit, and control stations and GPS receivers on the Earth.

The system works by the ways of receivers on the ground calculating their geographic position by

using the signal from the satellites which, in turn, is controlled from the ground control stations.

The calculated positions are then used to orient oneself, find places, record positions of and layout

features, etc.

Components of GPS System: Satellite Within the GPS system, there are 24 satellites orbiting the Earth at 20,200 km.

Each satellite orbits the Earth in 12 hours. At any time there are 5-7 satellites visible from any point

on the earth. The satellites send radio signals that travel at the speed of light.

Control Stations GPS satellites are supported with a network of monitor stations placed around the world.

The purpose of the network is to receive the signal from the GPS satellites correct it and send back

to the satellites which then send this corrected signal to the receivers on the earth.

Receivers GPS receivers are GPS units used by travellers, outdoor recreationalists, foresters, farmers,

telecommunication professionals, etc.

A GPS receiver receives radio signal from GPS satellites containing satellites’ orbits and the time of

sending the signal, then uses this information to calculate by trilateration its own position on the

earth.

Signal from at least four satellites is required to calculate the horizontal and vertical geographic

position.


Uses of GPS Navigation: Air Navigation, Transport vehicles, Water Navigation Ships etc.

Surveying:

Geodetic survey

Staking out

Contour plot

Topographical survey

Layout works

Generation of GIS maps

Introduction to Remote sensing (RS) Remote sensing is the science of deriving information about an object from measurements made at

a distance from the object, i.e., without coming into contact with it.

Remote sensing is restricted to methods that employ electromagnetic energy

Aircrafts & satellites are common platforms for R.S.

It includes all the methods of obtaining pictures or other forms of electromagnetic records of the

earth’s surface from a distance

Types of Remote Sensing Passive Remote Sensing:

o Sun is the main source of energy

o Records naturally radiated energy

o Photographs are taken at bright sunny day

Active Remote Sensing:

o Own source / manmade energy source

o Directed towards the object

o Luminescence / fluorescence

RADAR

SONAR

Basic principle


Uses of Remote Sensing Agricultural: To find the available water types of soil, nutrition value of soil etc.

Forestry: To find growth of vegetation cover, Types of trees, density of the forest area

Environment: To check environmental degradation, Contamination of soil etc.

Costal mapping: Mapping of the Costal area

Marine application: Depth of the sea bed, Types of terrain under sea etc.

Urban environment

Land and water resource development: Availability of the water resources, watershed development,

construction of dams, canals etc.

Geology: Types of rock and soil strata, availability of the minerals

GIS : Helps to prepare and construct Geographic Information System

Introduction to Geographical Information System (GIS) “An organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data, and personnel designed

to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze and display all forms of geographically

referenced information.”

Key Components of GIS


People: People who are going to use the GIS

Software: Software which is used to provide necessary information about the required attribute such

software’s are ArcView and ArcInfo by ESRI

Data: Data which is required to be collected and applied to particular system which can be used for

analysis

Hardware: High end computer system is required for collection and analysis of the data also it is supported by

the Satellite imaginary and Remote Sensing

Analysis:

Based on the collected data and requirement of the user (people) data can be analyzed and put in to

graphical manner.

Questions a GIS can answer: What is at...? (Location)

Where is it? (Condition)

What has changed since...? (Trends)

What spatial patterns exist? (Patterns)

What if...? (Modeling)

List of Application of the GIS Engineering Mapping

Automated Photogrammetric

Tax mapping

Highway mapping

Utility / facility mapping / management

Demographic profile

Environment impact assessment

Natural resource management

Routing Urban and Regional Planning


BUILDING MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION Materials

Material used in construction is as listed below: Stone

Bricks

Lime

Cement

Sand

Aggregate

Timber

Mortar

Concrete

Bitumen

STONE:- BUILDING STONES

ROCKS

Geological classification Physical classification Chemical classification

Igneous Rocks Stratified Rocks Silicious Rocks Sedimentary Rocks Unstratified Rocks Argillaceous Rocks Metamorphic Rocks Foliated Rocks Calcareous Rocks


Requirements of a good stones: Strength: For a good structural stone, the crushing strength should be greater than 100 N/mm2

Durability: Stone must have the property to resist loads, chemical actions of atmosphere, rain,

water, snow etc.

Appearance: A good building stone should be uniform color and free from clay holes, spots of other

color etc.

Hardness: Stones should have good resistance against wear and tear.

Specific gravity: the specific gravity of good building stones should be between 2.4 to 2.8.

Weight: light weight stones are preferred for domes and arches. Heavy stones are preferred for

construction of dams, weirs, barrages, docks and harbors.

Facility of dressing: Giving a definite shape to a natural stone is known as dressing. The stones

should be such that they can be easily carved, moulded, cut and dressed.

Seasoning: A period of about 6 to 12 months is considered to be sufficient for proper seasoning.

Uses of common building stones: Sr.No.

Types of stone

Types of rock Uses

1. Basalt and trap

Igneous Road metal, Aggregate, rubble masonry, foundation work, paving stones.

2. Granite Igneous Steps, sills, facing work, bridge piers, columns, road metal etc.

3. Sandstone Sedimentary Steps, facing work, columns, flooring, ornamental carving etc.

4. Limestone Sedimentary Floors, steps, paving and roofing, manufacture of lime in blast furnaces etc.

5. Chalk Sedimentary Glazier`s putty, for the manufacture of cement.

6. Kankar Sedimentary Road metal, manufacture of hydraulic lime etc.

7. Gneiss Metamorphic Street paving, rough stone masonry work etc.

8. Laterite Metamorphic Building stone, road metal, aggregate for concrete etc.

9. Marble Metamorphic Flooring, facing work, columns ornamental work etc.

10. Slate Metamorphic Roofing work, sill, damp proof courses, wall linings etc.

11. Quartzite Metamorphic Retaining walls, road metal aggregate, pitching, rubble masonry, bridge piers etc.

BRICKS Bricks are rectangular blocks made from clay. Clay is molded to form rectangular blocks to standard size,

which are dried and latter burnt to high temperature to make dense and compact.

Composition of brick: 20-30% Alumina It gives plasticity to the brick earth.

50-60% Silica It is hard cementing material. It prevents shrinking and warping of raw bricks.

< 5% Lime It makes burning and hardening of the bricks quicker.

0.1% Magnesia It imparts yellowish color to the brick and decreases the shrinkage.

5-6% Iron oxide It imparts red color to the bricks.


Types of bricks: Traditional bricks (23cm X 11.4cm X 7.6cm – approximately)

Modular bricks (19cm X 9cm X 9cm)

Classification as per manufacturing: Hand moulded

Machine moulded

1stclass brick: A brick should have compressive strength not less than 10.5 N/mm².

Water absorption less than 20%

Well burnt, table molded, sharp edges, hard.

Used for face-worked structure or superior work.

2nd class brick (Grade-B) A brick should have compressive strength not less than 7 N/mm².

Water absorption less than 20% To 22%

Bricks are used for ordinary structures.


Bricks are used for ordinary structures.

3rd class brick (Grade-C) A brick should have compressive strength not less than 3.5 N/mm².


The bricks are slightly soft.

These bricks are used for unimportant and temporary structures.

4th class brick (Grade-D) Fourth class bricks are over burnt.

They are very hard.

They are irregular in shape and dark in color.

They are used as metal or aggregates for concrete in foundation, floors, roads etc.

Requirements of good quality bricks The brick should be well burnt, copper-colored and free from cracks.

The edges should be sharp.

The color of the brick should be red or copper and uniform.

The bricks should be uniform in shape and with standard size.

When two bricks are struck with each other, it should give a clear metallic ringing sound.

The clay used for bricks should be free from organic matter, salts, pebbles etc.

When the burnt clay brick dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about 1.0 m, it should not

break.

Bricks should not absorb water more than 20% of the dry weight, when submerged in water for 24

hours.

Burnt clay bricks should be sound-proof and should have low thermal conductivity.

Types of special bricks


Refractory bricks: They can stand a temperature up to 1700º C. these bricks are used in the construction of furnaces,

lime flues, hearths etc.

Acid resistant bricks: They are used in chemical plant.

Silica bricks: These bricks contain about 95 to 97% of silica and 1 to 2% of lime.

The silica bricks can stand a high temperature up to 2000ºC. hence,

These bricks are used in the construction of chimneys.

Fly ash bricks: These bricks contains fly ash, sand and lime in the proportion of 80 : 13 : 7.

The hydraulic press is used for making fly ash bricks. Semi-dried bricks are cured in a steam chamber.

No kiln burning is required.

The silica bricks can stand a high temperature up to 2000ºC.

These bricks are used in the construction of chimneys.


Perforated bricks: These type of bricks contain cylindrical holes throughout their thickness.

They are light in weight.

They are used in the construction of light weight structure and partition walls in multistoried framed

structures.

LIME Lime is a product obtained by burning limestone.

Types of lime 1. Fat lime Fat lime is also termed as pure lime, or rich lime or white lime or quick lime.

It is used for white washing and plastering of walls.

Fat lime is soluble in water.

It hardens slowly.

It has high degree of plasticity.

2. Hydraulic lime The lime which sets under water is called hydraulic lime or water lime.

It contains silica, alumina, and iron oxide.

This lime slakes slowly and absorbs moisture from the atmosphere.

3. Poor lime It is also termed as impure lime or lean lime.

It contains more than 30% of clay, hence is colour is muddy.

It is used for inferior works.

It slakes slowly and hardens slowly.

Hydraulic lime

Feebly Hydraulic lime

(5 - 10% impurities)

It slakes after few minutes.

Moderately Hydraulic lime


It slakes after one or two hour.

Eminently Hydraulic lime


It slakes with difficulty.


Properties of lime Fat lime hardens very slowly.

Fat lime slakes vigorously.

Fat lime sets slowly in the presence of air.

Fat lime has perfectly white colour.

Hydraulic lime hardens in combination with water.

Hydraulic lime does not shrink much.

Hydraulic lime can set under water and even in the absence of air.

Poor lime slakes and sets very slowly.

Uses of lime It is used as lime mortar in masonry work.

It is used for plastering and white washing of buildings.

It is used as lime concrete, for foundations.

It is used for soil stabilization.

It is used in the treatment of water and waste water.

It is used in the manufacture of glass, sand lime bricks and paints.

CEMENT Cement is a product obtained by burning a well-proportioned mixture of siliceous (containing silica),

argillaceous (containing alumina) and calcareous (containing lime) materials and crushing the same

into grey color fine powder.

Cement is the most potential building material used in construction of all types of civil engineering

structures. When mixed with fine aggregates (sand), coarse aggregates and water in specified

proportion it forms concrete. About 80% of the civil engineering structures use various types of

cement concrete in one or the other form.

Ingredients of cement: SiO2 Silica Provide strength

CaO Lime Provide strength

Al2O3 Alumina Makes the cement quick setting

Fe2O3 Iron oxide Provides color, hardness and strength

MgO Magnesia Provide hardness and color

CaSO4 Calcium sulphate (Gypsum) Increase the initial setting time


Properties of Cement Physical properties of cement: Fineness: finer grain size of cement particles react with water more quickly and thus reduce the time

for hardening thereby producing a cement of high early strength.

Soundness: soundness is the capacity of cement to form a hard and uniformly strong mass on

setting.

Setting of cement: it is defined as the capacity of the set cement to withstand loads without cracking.

Some cement set quickly, whereas others may take longer time. Time required for setting depends

upon: (1) Temperature (2) Percentage of water added (3) Humidity of the atmosphere.

Setting time: some cement set quickly, within a few minutes whereas others may take more time

between few minutes to an hour or more.

Mechanical properties of cement: The compressive strength at the end of 3 days should not be less than 115 kg/cm2 and that at the

end of 7 days should not be less than 175 kg/cm2.

The tensile strength at the end of 3 days should not be less than 20 kg/cm2 and that at the end of 7

days should not be less than 35 kg/cm2.

Chemical properties of cement: Ratio of percentage of lime to percentage to silica, alumina and iron oxide, should not be less than

0.66 and should not be more than 1.0.

Weight of magnesia should not exceed 5%.

Total loss on ignition shall not exceed 4%.

Total sulphur content should not be more than 2.75%.

Some other properties of cement are- It acts as an excellent binding material.

It provides strength to the masonry.

It possesses good plasticity.

It is easily workable.

It stiffens or hardens early.

It offers good resistance to the moisture.

Uses of Cement It is used to prepare cement mortar (cement + sand + water) for building construction works like

masonry, plaster, pointing, flooring etc.

It is used to prepare cement concrete (cement + sand + coarse aggregate + water) for various

construction works.

It is used to prepare R.C.C. structures of building by using reinforcement with cement concrete.

It is used in construction of buildings, bridges, Culverts, tanks, rowers, chimneys, domes, road

pavements, flyovers, dockyards, water tanks, railway sleepers etc.

It is used in making joints for drains, pipes etc.

Types of cement


Quick setting cement: it is produced by adding a small percentage of aluminium-sulphate by finely

grinding the cement. The setting action of the cement starts within 5 minutes after addition of water

and cement becomes hard in less than 30 minutes. Use: - under water construction.

Rapid hardening cement: it is also known as high early strength cement. It may gains maximum

strength within 2-4 days.

High alumina cement: it is made from fusion of bauxite and limestone. Use: - specially used against

corrosive action of sea water at near seashore.

Blast furnace cement: for this cement, the slag as obtained from blast furnace is used. It has slow

rate of hardening and less heat of hydration. Use: - to construct marine structure.

Low heat cement: it has low amount of heat of hydration during setting and hardening. Use: - to

construct massive concrete structure like dams.

White cement: it is made from china clay and white chalk in place of limestone and clay. It gives

milky or snow white appearance. White cement is costly and is used only for interior decoration and

architectural finish.

Colored cement: pigments (oxide of lead etc.) are used for giving color to the cement. Use: - for top

coat in flooring and decoration of buildings.

Sulphate cement: manufactured by adding quantities of calcium sulphate and blast-furnace slag to

the ordinary cement. Use: - for massive concrete work in sea water.

Expanding cement: it is produced by adding an expanding medium like sulpho-aluminate and a

stabilizing agent to ordinary cement. Use: - water retaining structure and to repair damaged

concrete.

Pozzolanacement: this is a cement of blended mixture of Portland cement and pozzolana(containing

silica and alumina in reactive form). Use: - hydraulic structures like dams, weirs etc.

Hydrophobic cement: it contains admixtures which decrease the wetting ability of cement. Use: - for

application in bold, frost-forming conditions.

Water proofing cement: it is produced by mixing some water proofing agents while grinding process.

This cement is more impermeable and is more resistance to chemical attack.

Acid resistant cement: it has base of high silicates and high resistance to acids. Use: - for binding and

joining acid proof bricks and tiles, to construct acid resistant industrial flooring and lining of acid

storage vessels.

TIMBER Timber is a natural building construction material obtained from trees.


Requirement of good timber: The annual rings of the section must be close to each other.

Freshly cut log surface should emit sweet smell.

It should have dark uniform color.

It should be dense.

It should be workable, good machinability.

It should have uniform texture.

When it is struck it should produce a sonorous sound.

It should be free from crakes, splits, warp etc.

Types of trees

Flowering trees

Outward grow

soft wood

Pine,Deodar,Kail,chir,fir etc.

hard wood

Sal,Teak,Beech, Oak,Sisum etc.

Inward grow

Non flowring trees


Pith: it is the inner-most central portion of the tree having a dark-brown colour.

Heart-wood: The inner annual rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood. Around the pith,

there is a layer of darker colour wood, which is dense, and has a compact structure.

Sap wood: This is a raw wood layer over the heart wood. It is yellowish in colour and can be easily

decayed.

Cambium layer: The thin layer of wood between the sap wood and the inner bark ids known as

cambium layer. It is a thicken layer of sap.

Medullar layer: the thin radial fibers extending from the pith to the cambium is known as medullar

rays. The function of these fibers is to hold the annual rings together.

Bark: it is the outermost zone and makes the skin of the tree.

Qualities of a good timber: A freshly cut timber should exhibit a hard and shining appearance.

It should have a dark-brown and uniform colour.

A god timber should be free from all defects.

A good timber should be durable.

It should have straight and close fibers.

A good timber should be tough.

Timber should be easily workable.

Uses of timber: It is used for marking door and window chaukhats.

It is used for making shutters of doors and windows.

It is used for making piles.

It is used for making railway sleepers.

It is used for temporary bridges, scaffolding etc.

It is used for making agricultural instruments, sport goods, musical instruments, etc.

It is used for flooring, roofs, lintel, etc.


SAND Sand particles consist of a small grain of silica (SiO2)

Requirements of good sand: It should be clean, free from organic and vegetable matter.

Maximum permissible clay contents its 3 to 4 % in sand.

It should contain sharp, angular and durable grains.

It should be free from salts.

It should be well graded.

Types of sand: Natural: Natural sand is obtained from pits, river beds and sea beds.

Artificial: Artificial sand is formed by decomposition of sandstone due to various weathering effects.

As per size sand are of two types:

o Fine sand

o Coarse sand

Sand passing through 4.75 mm IS sieve is called fine sand and retained on it is called coarse sand.

Uses of sand: It is used for making lime mortar.

It is used for making cement mortar.

It is used for making of cement concrete.

It is used for masonry work, plastering, pointing works.

Properties of good sand: It should be clean and free from silt, clay and other injurious materials.

It should be chemically inert.

It should have sharp angular grains.

It should be strong and durable

AGGREGATES: Aggregates act as fillers or volume increasing components on the one hand and are responsible for

strength.

Most of the aggregates used are naturally occurring aggregates such as crushed rock, gravel and

coarse sand.

Classification of aggregates: Aggregates are variously classified on the basis of their grain size, origin and volume/weight as follows :


As per grain size:

o Fine aggregates: Aggregates less than 4.75 mm are known as fine aggregates. Usually, the

material river sand is used as fine aggregates.

o Coarse aggregates: Aggregates more than 4.75 mm are known as coarse aggregates. The

broken stone is generally used as coarse aggregates where gravels are not easily

available.

As per origin bases:

o Natural aggregates: Sands from riverbeds.

o Artificial aggregates: Broken bricks or crushed air cooled blast furnace slag.

As per density:-

o Normal aggregates: 2300-2500 kg/m3

o High density aggregates: above 4000 kg/m3

o Light weight aggregates: 350-750 kg/m3

Uses of aggregates: Aggregates are generally used to make concrete.

For making light weight concrete, blast furnace slag is a very suitable aggregate.

Heavy concretes are specially useful as shield against X-rays and radiations in atomic power plants.

Light weight concretes which are used in sound proofing and heat proofing.

Aggregates are used as road metal, ballast for railway sleepers, etc.

MORTAR Mortar is a paste composed of material like cement and/or lime, fine aggregate and water. They acquire

stone like properties as a result of hardening.

TYPES OF MORTAR: Mortar are generally classified in to four categories-


Lime mortar: In this type of mortar, lime is used as binding material. Lime may be fat lime or hydraulic lime.

Fat lime shrinks to a great extent and hence, it requires about 2 to 3 times to its volume of sand.

Lime should be slaked before used. This mortar is unsuitable for water logged areas or in damp

conditions.

For hydraulic lime, proportion of lime to sand by volume is about 1:2 or so. This mortar should be

consumed within one hour after mixing.

Cement mortar: In this type of mortar cement is used as binding material. Depending upon the strength required and

importance of the work, proportion of cement to sand by volume varies from 1:2 to 1:6 or more.

Cement-lime mortar (composite or gauged mortar) To improve the quality of lime mortar, cement is sometimes added to it. This process is known as

gauging. It makes lime mortar more economical, strong and dense. Usual proportion of cement to

lime mortar by volume is about 1:6 to 1:8.

Special mortar: Fire resistant mortar: This mortar is prepared by adding aluminous cement to finely crushed powder

of firebricks. Usual proportion is 1 part of aluminous cement to 2 parts of powder of firebricks.

Light weight mortar:This mortar is prepared by adding materials such as saw dust, wood powder etc.

to lime mortar or cement mortar. Other materials which may be added are asbestos fibers, jute

fibers etc. This mortar is used in sound proof and heat proof construction.

Properties of good mortar: Approximate safe compressive strength of the masonry in

o Cement mortar (1:3) is 750 KN/m2

o Cement mortar (1:6) is 450 KN/m2.

o Lime mortar (1:3) is 450 KN/m2.

o Cement lime mortar (1:1:6) is 500 KN/m2.

The quantity of water for greatest strength of mortar is between 20 to 25% by volume.

It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as bricks, stones etc.

It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.

It should be capable of resisting penetration of rain water.

It should be cheap.

It should be durable.

It should be workable.

It should not affect the durability of materials with which it comes into contact.

It should set quickly so that speed in construction may be achieved.

The joints formed by mortar should not develop cracks and they should be able to maintain their

appearance for a sufficiently long period.

Use of mortar: To bind the building units such as bricks, stones etc.

To carry out pointing and plaster work on exposed surface of masonry

To form an even bedding layer for building units


To form joints of pipes

To improve the appearance of structure

To prepare moulds

To serve as a matrix or cavity to hold coarse aggregates etc.

CONCRETE: Concrete is well defined mixture of binding material, fine aggregates, coarse aggregate and water.

Fine aggregates and coarse aggregates are inert materials while as cement is a binding material.

Concrete when hardened assume the shapes of the form work wherein they are poured, have very

good compressive strength but lack in tensile strength.

Lime Concrete:- The ingredients of lime concrete are hydraulic lime, work as a binding material, sand, surkhi or

cinder which are fine aggregates and broken bricks or stones are used as a coarse aggregate.This

concrete has less strength, cheap and is used in foundation works, sub base for floors and over

roofs.

Cement Concrete: Cement is the binding material in cement concrete, sand is the fine aggregate and gravel, broken

bricks or crushed stones are the coarse aggregate.

Aggregates not passing through sieve no 480 (4.75mm) are coarse aggregate.

Mass concrete to be used in dam construction may have coarse aggregate as large as 20 cm. For un-

reinforced concrete it may not exceed 60 mm. The maximum size is 20 mm.

The strength of the concrete depends on the strength of coarse aggregates. Therefore coarse

aggregates obtained from hard rock like granite, basalt, quartzite etc. will have higher strength.

The usual proportions of ingredients in cement concrete are 1 part of cement 1.5 to 6 parts of clean

sand and 3 to 12 parts of coarse aggregates by volume.

The concrete is classified into different grades for the purpose of its structural use. The classification

is denoted by letter ‘M’ and its crushing strength after 28 days measured on 150 mm cubes. Thus

M15 refers to concrete with crushing strength of 15 N/mm2 after 28 days.

Concrete Mixes:- Cement, fine aggregates and coarse aggregates in proportion such as 1:2:4, 1:3:6 are decided either

by volume or weight.

Sr. No

Type of work Recommended mix Grade

1 Column, beams etc. 1:1:2 M25

2 Water tank, retaining 1:1.5:3 M20

3 Ordinary reinforced concrete slab 1:2:4 M15

4 Dam, foundation, Machine foundation 1:3:6 M10

5 Mass Concrete 1:4:8 M7.5


Concrete Operation: The following are the important operations in concreting.

Mixing: Mixing may be either hand mixing or machine mixing.

Water in required amount is added and mixing is carried out till the uniform color is obtained.

In machine mixing, Mixing is carried out for about 1 to 2 minutes for 1 m3 of concrete.

Transportation: After mixing the concrete should be placed in the formwork within 30 minutes as the cement starts

setting after 30 minutes.

There should not be loss of water during transportation. The segregation of ingredients also should

not take place during transportation.

Normally concrete is transported manually in water tight containers. While placing concrete in the

form work it should be placed in layers not exceeding 10 –12 cm and from a vertical distance of not

more than 1m to avoid segregation.

Compaction: The concrete is to be properly compacted after it is placed in the form work or else the resulting

concrete will have honeycombing. Over compaction may result in segregation.

Compaction may be done manually by using steel rods or bamboo. Or mechanical vibrators can be

used for compaction.

Curing: Concrete can achieve good quality and required strength only if it is properly cured at required

humidity and temperature. Setting of cement is emits heat during hydration. If this heat is not

dissipated, it can result in cracking of concrete.

For curing the water is sprinkled on the concrete. Wet gunny bags can also be used for curing.

Concrete curing is to be done for 3 weeks but in no case less than 10 days.

Properties of cement concrete: It has a high compressive strength.

It is free from corrosion and no appreciable effect of atmospheric agents on it.

It hardens with age and process of hardening continues for long time.

It is proved to be more economical than steel.

It binds rapidly with steel and as it is weak in tension steel reinforcement is placed in cement

concrete to take tensile stress. This is termed as “Reinforced Cement Concrete”

Because of loss of water it has a tendency to shrink.

Because of presence of voids it is porous.

It forms a hard surface capable of resisting abrasion.

BITUMEN Bitumen is an oil based substance. It is a semi-solid hydrocarbon product produced by removing the

lighter fractions (such as liquid petroleum gas, petrol and diesel) from heavy crude oil during the refining

process. As such, it is correctly known as refined bitumen.


Classification of bitumen: Asphalt: it is defined as a natural or artificial mixture in which bitumen associated with inert mineral

matter. It is black or brownish-black in color.

Tar: tar is also one of the important bituminous materials which are produced by destructive

distillation of organic material such as coal, oil, lignite, peat and wood. It is black to dark brown in

color.

Cut-back: it is obtained by fluxing asphaltic bitumen in presence of some suitable liquid distillates of

coal tar or petroleum.

Emulsion: for cold application asphalt is available in the form of emulsion. It is a liquid product

containing bitumen to a great extent in an aqueous medium.

Functions of bituminous materials: Binding effect: the bitumen binds the surface particles together.

Cushion: it acts as a cushioning material on the surface and absorbs impact, friction, etc. due to

movement of wheels of vehicles on road.

Sealing of surface: when used with the dense-graded angular material, it seals the surface of the

road against ingress of water.

Resistance to weathering agents: it can resist effectively the action of weathering agents like the

wind and the sun.

Properties of bitumen materials: Adhesion: Bitumen has the ability to adhere to a solid surface in a fluid state depending on the

nature of the surface. The presence of water on the surface will prevent adhesion.

Resistance to Water: Bitumen is water resistant. Under some conditions water may be absorbed by

minute quantities of inorganic salts in the bitumen or filler in it.

Hardness: Commonly a weight of 100 gm is applied for 5 sec at a temperature of 77 °F. The

penetration is a measure of hardness. Typical results are 10 for hard coatingasphalt, 15 to 40 for

roofing asphalt and up to 100 or more for water proofing bitumen.

Viscosity and Flow: The viscous or flow properties of bitumen are of importance both at

high temperature during processing and application and at low temperature to which bitumen is

subjected during service.

Construction


CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDING Based upon the occupancy

Based upon the structure

Buildings based upon occupancy: Residential building:

o Bungalows, flats, cottages, huts, hostels, hotels, quarters, motels, chawls, lodges,

dormitories etc. all are residential buildings.

Educational building

o These are meant for running schools and colleges, training institutes, libraries, university

etc.

Institutional building

o These are meant for hospitals, sanatoria, welfare centers, clinics, jails, prisons, homes for

the aged and infirm, orphanages etc.

o These is used for medical or other treatment or care of persons suffering from physical or

mental illness, disease or infirmity.

Assembly building

o These are buildings meant for assembly of a large number of people for amusement,

recreation, social, religious, patriotic, civil, travel and similar purpose.

o Theaters, halls, auditoria, museums, gymnasiums, restaurants, places of worship, dance

hall, club, art galleries, lecture halls, amusement park, recreational centers etc. are in this

category.

Business buildings

o These are meant for running business. For transaction, keeping of accounts and records

and similar purposes.

o Banks, city halls, court houses etc. are in this category.

Mercantile buildings

o These are used as shops, stores, markets, for display and sale of merchandise either

wholesale or retail.

Industrial building

o These are the buildings in which products or materials of all kinds and properties are

fabricated, assembled or processed. They accommodate plants and machinery,

refineries, power plants, dairies, saw mills, cleaning plants, pumping stations etc.

Storage buildings

o These are used for the storage or sheltering of goods, wares, vehicles etc.

o Warehouse, cold storage, godowns, freight depots, transit sheds, store houses, garages,

hangers etc.

Based upon structure: Load bearing structure


It has load bearing walls which receive the loads and transmit the same to the ground through their

foundations. These load bearing walls support RCC beams and slabs.

Columns are avoided.

20, 30 and 40 cm thick walls are load bearing walls.

Load bearing structure is adopted for the buildings up to 3 storey constructions.

It is provided where soil strata is hard at shallow depth


G.L.

DOOR

SOIL FILLING

FLOORING

STEPPEDWALL FOOTING

BRICK WALL

WINDOW

CHAJJA

FLOOR SLAB

P.C.C.

TERRACEPARAPET

SLAB

Fig. Load Bearing Structure

Framed Structure It consists of a rigidly connected network of columns and beams.

The beams support the walls and slabs.

The columns receive the whole load of the structure and transmit the same to the ground through

their footings.

The walls are partition walls.

Addition and alternations can be more easily done in framed structure.

On lower floors finishing work is easily carried out when frame work of upper floors is in progress.

R.C.C. SLAB

R.C.C. FOOTING

SOIL FILLING

G.L.

FLOORSLAB

R.C.C. COLUMN

P.C.C.

FLOORING

CHAJJA

TERRACE

BEAM

PARAPET

Fig. framed Structure


Composite structure In composite structure column as well as load bearing masonry walls is provided.

Floor load are transmitted to walls and beams.

The load is transmitted to the ground by columns and load bearing walls through their foundations.

Composite structure are preferred for construction of floors which has to cover larger area by slabs.

The construction of halls, godowns, public buildings prefer composite structure.

DOOR

G.L.

FLOOR SLABFLOORING

SOIL FILLING

R.C.C. FOOTING

P.C.C.

STEPPEDWALL FOOTING

BRICK WALL

WINDOW

BEAM

PARAPET

CHAJJA

TERRACE

Fig. Composite Structure

Comparison of Load bearing and Framed Structure Comparison between Load bearing, Framed structure and Composite Structure:

Item Load bearing structure Framed structure Composite structure

Load

transfer

Through walls Through columns,

beams to footing

Partially by walls and

partially by columns, beams

Wall

thickness

Varies at each level. Lower floors are

having more thickness compared to

upper floors.

Uniform thickness

at all levels

Exterior walls are thicker

than inner walls

No of floors Ground + three Any number Ground + two

Usable area Less usable area at lower floors than

upper floors

Same Moderate floor space

Flexibility in

planning

Wall position cannot be changed,

less flexible

Flexible planning Difficult to make

alternatives

Cost Lower Higher Moderate

Types of loads acting on structure Various loads are taken into account while designing the foundation of a structure. Loads coming on a

structure are


Dead Load Dead load comprise of the weight of all walls, partitions, floors and roofs including all other

permanent construction in the building. e.g. for Concrete 25 kN/m3, Brickwork 20 kN/m3

Live Load Live loads consist of moving or variable loads due to people or occupants, their furniture, temporary

stores, machinery etc. e.g. Stairs 3 to 5 kN/m2, shops 4 kN/m2

Wind Load It is considered as basic wind pressure which is an equivalent static pressure in the direction of wind.

Wind load is effective for tall buildings.

Snow Load Actual load due to snow will depend upon the shape of the roof and its capacity to retain the snow.

The load due to snow may be assumed to be 2.5 kg/m2 per cm depth of snow.

Earthquake Load An earthquake produces waves in every possible direction below ground. As per the intensity or

scale of earthquake, jerks and shocks are acting on earth. And the structures should be designed to

bear these loads.

Building components and their function It is divided into two parts


o Sub-structure

o Super structure

The portion of the building below the surrounding ground is known as sub-structure or foundation.

It is the lower portion of the building which transmits the loads of the super structure to the

supporting soil.

The portion of the building above the ground is termed as super structure.

The components of a building are as under. Foundation

o It is the lowest part of a structure below the ground level. The basic function is to

transmit all the loads to the sub-soil in such a way that settlements are within permissible

limits and soil does not fail in shear.

o To distribute the weight of the structure over the large area

o To give enough stability to the structures against various disturbing loads such as wind,

rain etc.

o To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work.

Plinth o The portion of the building between the ground and the top of the floor immediately

above the ground is known as plinth.

o The level of the surrounding ground is known as ground level and the level of the ground

floor of the building is known as the plinth level.

o The Plinth height should be such that after proper levelling and grading of the ground

level there is no possibility of rainwater to enter in the house.

Walls o Walls are the most essential components of a building. The primary function of the wall is

to enclose or divide space of the building to make it more functional and useful. In

addition, walls provide privacy, security and give protection against adverse weather

effect.

o Walls can be classified in to two category

Load bearing walls

Non-load bearing walls

Columns o A column may be defined as isolated vertical load bearing member. The function of

column is to transfer loads from structure to foundation

Floors o Flat supporting elements

o Divides building into different levels

o More accommodation

o Function is to provide flat, dry surface for placement of furniture, store, equipment and

movement of people

Doors, windows and ventilators o Door barrier secured in an opening left in a wall


o Gives access and security to a building, room or passage

o Window Opening provided in wall for light, ventilation and vision.

o Ventilator Light and ventilation

Stair o Structure comprising of a number steps connecting one floor to another

o Mode of vertical transport

Roof o Uppermost component of a building

o Covers the space below

o Provides protection

Building finishes o Plastering, painting, surface treatment etc

o Protection


Detailed sketch of a cross section of a wall showing the components of the building


BUILDIG PLANNING AND DRAWING

General principles of building planning

ASPECT Arrangement of rooms and external wall in harmony with nature is known as aspect.

Geographical & topographical conditions are considered

Every place will have different sun diagram Based on the latitude & longitude,

Every place will have different comparative direction of movement of sun over it.

This relative path of sun movement over plot and relative height above mean sea level of plot

controls the direction of sunlight, rays, wind, breeze direction, rain direction, & intensity, scenery.

To take maximum advantage of the nature and sun arrangement & location of rooms position of &

size of doors & windows in the external walls can be made.

Aspect provides comfort and hygin, as the sunrays destroy organic poisons, prevents growth of

bacteria’s. Thus cheerful and fresh air would be available inside.

A room, which receives light and air from particular direction, is said to have an aspect of that

direction.

Kitchen: Place to store and prepare food.

It should receive morning sunlight and fresh air throughout the day.

Because of these requirements kitchen is normally located towards eastern aspect. Thus, kitchen

would remain cool during later part of the day.

Living room: - This room should have southern or southwest aspect.

Reason being, movement of sun is towards southern direction, particularly in the winter direction.

Gives straight additional heat in winter

Summer sun would be either in northern direction or on overhead, because of this, during summer

season no direct heat would be available

Bed room: - Sufficient fresh cool wind- breeze shall be available throughout the night particularly in the summer

season.

For these requirements, bedroom should be located in the west or southwest direction.

Direction of cool breeze is from southwest to northeast in summer season.

However, sort of verandah or balcony projection should be taken out in front of bed-room, if they

are located in west or s/w direction

Other areas: - During most part of the year, the movement of sun would never be straight in the northern

direction.

Whatever amount of light we receive in the northern direction, during the day, would be a reflected,

diffused light,


Do not produce any glaring in the eyes.

Reading room, staircase area, Puja room, cold storage is normally located in the northern direction.

All classrooms in the school-college enjoy northen aspects. Even industrial sheds enjoy northern

aspects.

PROSPECT Desired view from the doors and window located in outer wall.

This depends on the orientation of the building on the site

Beautiful landscape consisting of garden or hill from window

Also important to conceal some of objectionable views – dead wall or screen

Prospect need can be achieved by orienting the same window, selecting the type & size of some

window in such a way that, requirements of aspects i.e. receiving sunlight and air are not compared

and at the same time, requirements about prospect i.e. covering up of certain outside views are

combinly achieved by the same window.

ROOMINESS: Efficient utilization of space available

Maximum benefits from minimum room dimensions

Economy on space by arrangement of furniture

Sufficient storage space is required

Planning from beginning

Concealed cupboards, storage space below staircase, lofts etc.

L-B-H of any room, their mutual ratios create desirable or undesirable impressions/effects.

A square-room, - appears smaller then rectangular room of same floor area

Desirable L/W ratio 1.2 to 1.5

Small rooms with more ceiling height look smaller

Position of doors and windows should not occupy important space while open

Compare both the dining room

Gives idea about the roominess

Note that area is same for both the rooms


GROUPING: Logical relationship of individual room & space with other room based on their function

Grouping means, placing of two rooms of common relation / utility or connected utility, in close

proximity with each other.

It is an exercise of coordinating their location, movement; transit between two rooms should be

smooth & clear.

Constant movement from one space to another through connection like passages

Improper connection means waste of space, discomfort, waste of time and feeling of detachment

Wash area and kitchen should be properly connected

Easy access between dining room, kitchen and living room

Grouping of Bed room, dressing room, toilets

Each room should have separate, clear, shortest access

CIRCULATION: This means access or through fairness between different rooms in a building.

Horizontal circulation: It is on the same floor, this means passages, lobbies. o Straight-without abnormal bend

o No projection or hurdles in between,

o Shortest

o Should maintain privacy of other rooms

Vertical circulation: This means access between various levels i.e. floor, like stair lift escalators.

Stair: Circulation between floors.

Emergency exit

Good light and ventilation

Well-proportioned size of tread and riser

Easy access

Hand rails, safety

PRIVACY: It is important to maintain privacy of any room

Internal privacy (between rooms)

External privacy (between neighboring building)

Privacy – location of doors and windows

External privacy: Plantation, screen wall, landscape, compound wall

Privacy in bed room


SANITATION: Easy accessibility, proper lighting, efficient ventilation are the main point to be observed for this

area. Plenty of sunlight is good for health & hygienic point of view. Available light should be from

one direction and uniformly distributed.

Generally upper parts of windows are good for illuminating for side of room, generally vertical

windows are preferred to toilet block.

Normally for a windows in a toilet block bottom portion in a fixed glass and top louvers are also

made of glass so it serves for illumination purpose also.

Provision of exhaust fan is also considered to be essential for toilet block.

To stop foul gas vent pipe with cowl at top should be fixed in such a way that bad air is released

about terrace floor level.

Even location of toilet block w.r.f. other rooms should not fall on wind direction, otherwise foul air

gas, bad smell will spread throughout the house through air circulation.

ELEGANCE: Elegance is the effect produced by the treatments given to the external elevation, landscaping work

& overall general layout of building.

A well-knit layout correct in every respects produce elegant effect of building.

Major-minor elevation detailing and treatment play an important role in creating elegance effort.

Smooth cement finishing plaster is hardly done on external wall reason being, during monsoon in the

presence of splashing\flowing water, black-ugly, looking patches would develop over it.

In present days’ time, elegance of building i.e. elevation treatment is given wider weight age.

At least, elevation should have aesthetic sense, without that, it does not produce overall elegance

effect.

ECONOMY: This factor controls section amongst various alternative, any addition or omissions of work or part of

work is primarily controlled by economy criteria.

Entire planning & execution of work should be completed well within the fixed budget i.e. within

financial limits set out initially at the time of first planning stage.

FLEXIBILITY: The plan of the building should be prepared by keeping in mind the future requirements. Expansion

should be possible economically without major alterations in existing planning. Planning should be

such that with minor adjustments, it becomes possible to satisfy needs when the occasion arises.

RWP(rain water pipe) and other pipes should be concealed. Projected windows permit more light

and air inside the rooms as shown in figure.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING PLANNING: Selection of site for a residential building.

Building bye-laws.

Orientation of building.

Requirements of a building.


Functional requirements of a residential building.

Selection of site for a residential building: It should be on fairly level ground.

It should be located on a developed or fast developing locality.

Topographic features of the area also play an important role in selection of site.

The site should have a good landscape so as to promote healthy and peaceful living.

The site should be on elevated land so as to have easy surface drainage.

The site should be away from kilns, quarries, industries, factories, congested and noisy localities.

Orientation of a building: Cross Ventilation

Damp proof course

Placing of walls

Projections

Roof

Treatment of ground

Wind direction

Functional requirement of a building: The structure of the building should be strong and sound enough to resist load comes on it.

The building should be well planned to give maximum comfort and convenience to the occupants of

the building.

o Comfort and convenience

o Dimensional stability

o Durability

o Economy

o Fire protection

o Thermal insulation

o Light and ventilation

o Damp proofing

o Strength

o Termite Proofing

Bye-laws: These are the restrictions laid down by the municipal, town planning or revenue authorities on

construction and planning of different types of buildings.

Thus building byelaws differ from place to place. For example building byelaws for Mumbai will not

be same as that of some district or TALUKA place having municipality or a village having

GRAMPANCHAYAT.

The above-mentioned authorities sanction the building plans only after scrutinizing them regarding

the byelaws.

Necessity of Building Bye-laws: To curb the haphazard growth of towns or cities.


To facilitate future use of land, widening of streets, controlling the ribbon development in an area.

To reduce pollution in area by restricting population density in an area there by providing hygienic

environment

To ensure that every citizen will receive facilities like water supply, sanitation, ventilation, electric

supply, parking and safety.

The open space around the building is required to be provided to meet requirements regarding

lighting, ventilation, future expansion, and approach.

The provision of the bye laws would change from place to place and would be designed by the

authority. The provision for the margin and height for the PMC is as follows.


WATER RESOURCES

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE The science which deals with the occurrence, distribution and circulation of water is called hydrology

and the earth’s water circulatory system is known as hydrological cycle.

Expect from the deep ground water, the water supply of the earth is in constant circulation from

earth to atmosphere, and back to the earth.

The water of the universe always changes from one state to another in a cycle order under the

influence of the sun. The water from the surface source like lakes, rivers, oceans etc. converts to

vapour by evaporation.

Transpiration Due to the solar radiation water evaporated from leaves and vegetation cover.

Combined evaporation and transportation is known as evapotranspiration.

This vapour is lifted up in atmosphear and starts cooling down it reduces carrying capacity of air to

hold moisture. This moisture is converted in to small rain drops which attract dust particles and thus

clouds are formed.

In hilly region clouds are lifted up due to increase in size of water droplet they start falling down in

the various forms.

The rain water received on surface of earth starts flowing towards streams and oceans which is

called runoff.

Some of rain water percolates through porous land surface known as infiltration. Once water comes

back to ocean and lakes evaporation starts and thus continuously recirculation occurs.

USES OF WATER Water is required for the following important uses.


Water requirements for different uses

Water supply Irrigation hydropower Navigation -municipal water

supply -industrial water

supply

Water required for crops

Water required for power generation

Recreation

Water requirements for Municipal Supplies:

Water is required by the public for various uses, such as domestic use, industrial use, commercial

use, public utility purposes, fire demand, water losses etc.

The quantities of water required for these different uses are explained below.

o Domestic use = 135 litres/day/person

o Industrial use = 50 litres/day/person

o Commercial use = 20 litres/day/person

o Public utility = 10 litres/day/person

o Water losses = 55 litres/day/person

o Total = 270 litres/day/person

The total yearly water required for public supplies in litres can be obtained as follows.

= Design population per capita demand 365

Water requirements for irrigation: For proper growth and maturity of the crops, water is of vital importance throughout the crop

period.

Every crop requires a certain quantity of water after a certain fixed interval, thought the period of

growth.

The water requirement may vary from crop to crop, from soil to soil and from period to period.

If the natural rain is sufficient and timely so as to satisfy crop requirements, no irrigation water is

required for raising these crops.

Generally, the seasonal rainfall cannot meet the total water requirement. Hence, the additional

requirement is fulfilled by the irrigation system.

The total depth of required by a crop during its sawing to harvesting period is known as delta in cm.

The water requirements for certain important Indian crops are shown in below table:

Sr. no. Crop Delta on field

(cm)

1. Sugarcane 120

2. Rice 120

3. Cotton 50

4. Wheat 40


5. Maize 25

6. groundnut 30

7. Gram 30

8. Bajara 30

9. Vegetables 45

10. Potato 75


Water requirements for hydropower generation: Production of electric power by using the energy of the flowing water is an excellent use of water, as

no water is consumed in it.

Only a certain minimum head is required, which is dissipated in generating power.

Hydroelectric power is generated by running the turbine blades by the energy of the flowing water

and thus generating electricity from the generator coupled to the turbines.

The continuous flow of water is required in order to ensure the continuous production of

hydropower.

The construction of a dam is, therefore, needed for the generation of this power.

Water requirements for navigation, recreation: Navigation: Requirements for inland navigation are that there should be adequate flow in the river to maintain

the required water depth.

Navigation is another important use of water, which provides us cheap means of transport without

any consumption of water.

Recreation: The basic requirements for recreation is that the reservoir should remain nearly full during the

recreation season to permit boating, fishing, swimming and other water sports.

Water conservation Life on the earth cannot be sustained without water, weather of human beings, animals, flora or

fauna.

The fresh water is available on the land surface in the form of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, soil moisture

and some part of it in the atmosphere.

Various types of water requirements for different uses like water supply, irrigation, and hydropower

generation and navigation systems. As the world population is growing, demand for the same is

increasing day by day.

The demand for fresh water is increasing every day and the available source of good quality water is

in the form of precipitation only, which is more or less constant.

Conservation of fresh water and development of water sources is the prime need of the time.

Water Conservation Measures: Domestic conservation

Industrial conservation

Irrigation (Agricultural) conservation

Rain water harvesting

Domestic conservation: Repair all leakages.

Have the optimum use of water


Use different appliances which use less water for the purpose.

In the distribution system meter should be provided for the effective use of water.

Industrial conservation: Use such coding system which uses less water.

Use dry cooling system or cooling tower that uses less water.

Reuse the coding water for the irrigation or other purposes.

Install treatment plants for waste water and used recycled water for other purposes.

Develop new equipment’s of the efficient use of water.

Irrigation (Agricultural) conservation: Use new techniques of irrigation like sprinkle or drip irrigation system.

Improve the distribution system which reduces the water losses in conveyance.

Provide roofs to reduce the evaporation losses at small reservoirs.

Construct ground water storage reservoirs which reduce the evaporation losses.

Use lined canals. Price agricultural distribution to improve the conservation of water.

Water harvesting can be done by collecting the water from roofs and pavements and constructing

small storage tanks.

Conservation of wet lands preserves natural water storage capacity and aquifer recharge zones.

Rain water harvesting: Rain water harvesting is the accumulating and storing, of rainwater for reuse, before it reaches the

aquifer.

It has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water for irrigation, as well as other-

typical uses given to water.

The traditional method of rain water harvesting is the most effective and simple way to conserve the

water.

Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses, schools and local institutions can make an important

contribution to the availability of drinking water.

Introduction to dams, weirs, barrages and check dams A dam is a hydraulic structure constructed across a river or a natural stream to store water on its

upstream side.

This stored water is then utilized as and when it is required for different purposes (i.e. irrigation,

water supply, power generation etc.)

Types of Dams: Sr no Type Uses Remark

1 Gravity dam Storage dam Rigid dam

2 Arch dam Storage dam Rigid dam

3 Buttress dam Storage dam Rigid dam


4 Check dam Storage dam Rigid dam

5 Earth dam Storage dam Non-rigid dam

6 Rock fill dam Storage dam Non-rigid dam

7 Weir Diversion dam Overflow dam

8 Barrage Diversion dam Overflow dam

Gravity dam: A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from concrete or stone masonry.

They are designed to hold back large volumes of water. By using concrete, the weight of the dam is

actually able to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing against it.

This is why it is called a gravity dam. Gravity essentially holds the dam down to the ground, stopping

water from toppling it over.

However, now-a-days with improved methods of construction, quality control and curing concrete is

most commonly used for the construction of gravity dams.

A gravity dam may be either straight or curved in plan.

The various forces acting on a gravity dam are water pressure, weight of dam, uplift pressure,

earthquake forces, silt pressure, wave pressure, ice pressure and wind pressure.

Grand DIXENCE dam in SWIZERLAND is the world's highest concrete gravity dam which has the

maximum height of 285m.

BHAKRA dam in India is the world's second highest concrete gravity dam which has a maximum

height of 226m.

SARDAR-SAROVAR (Narmada dam) in Gujarat is a concrete gravity dam which has a maximum height

of 146.50m.


Arch Dam An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side.

They transfer the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by arch action.

An arch dam is quite suitable for narrow canyons with strong flanks which are capable of resisting

the thrust produced by the arch action.

The section of an arch dam is approximately triangular like a gravity dam but the section is

comparatively thinner.

The arch dam may have a single curvature or double curvature in the vertical plane.

Generally, the arch dams of double curvature are more economical and are used in practice.

Buttress Dams: Buttress dams are of three types:


o Deck type

o Multiple-arch type

o Massive-head type

A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by buttresses.

Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from the deck slab to the

foundation.

Buttresses are compression members. Buttresses are typically spaced across the dam site every 6 to

30 meter, depending upon the size and design of the dam.

Buttress dams are sometimes called hollow dams because the buttresses do not form a solid wall

stretching across a river valley.

The deck is usually a reinforced concrete slab supported between the buttresses, which are usually

equally spaced.

In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by horizontal arches supported by

buttresses.

The arches are usually of small span and made of concrete.

In a massive-head type buttress dam, there is no deck slab.

Instead of the deck, the upstream edges of the buttresses are flared to form massive heads which

span the distance between the buttresses. The buttress dams require less concrete than gravity

dams. But they are not necessarily cheaper than the gravity dams because of extra cost of form

work, reinforcement and more skilled labour.

The foundation requirements of a buttress are usually less stringent than those in a gravity dam.


Check dams: A check dam is a small dam, which can be either temporary or permanent, built across a minor

channel, or drainage ditch.

Similar to drop structures in purpose, they reduce erosion and gulling in the channel and allow

sediments and pollutants to settle.

They also lower the speed of water flow during storm events.

Check dams can be built with logs, stone or sand hogs of these, the former two are usually

permanent or semi-permanent; and the sandbag check dam is usually for temporary purposes.

Check dams are constructed in natural channels to impound the runoff water up to certain depth in

the channel.

The excess water is allowed to flow over the dam.

The impounded water slowly infiltrates into the soil and recharges the ground water aquifer.

Small check dams are constructed over the stream bed thereby checking runoff and increasing the

contact period of the rainwater with underlying formations.

Earth Dams: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting successive layers of earth, using the

most impervious materials to form a core and placing more permeable substances on the upstream

and downstream sides.

A facing of crushed stone prevents erosion by wind or rain, and an ample spillway, usually of

concrete, protects against catastrophic washout should the water overtop the dam.

Earth dam resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of the soil. Although the

weight of the structure also helps in resisting the forces, the structural behaviour of an earth dam is

entirely different from that of a gravity dam.

The earth dams are usually built in wide valleys having flat slopes at flanks (abutments).

The foundation requirements are less stringent than those of gravity dams, and hence they can be

built at the sites where the foundations are less strong.

They can be built on all types of foundations. However, the height of the dam will depend upon the

strength of the foundation material.


Rock fill Dams A rock fill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size.

An impervious membrane is placed on the rock fill on the upstream side to reduce the seepage

through the dam.

The membrane is usually made of cement concrete or asphaltic concrete.

In early rock fill dams, steel and timber membrane were also used, but now they are obsolete.

A dry rubble cushion is placed between the rockfill and the membrane for the distribution of water

load and for providing a support to the membrane.

Sometimes, the rock fill dams have an impervious earth core in the middle to check the seepage

instead of an impervious upstream membrane.

The earth core is placed against a dumped rock fill.

It is necessary to provide adequate filters between the earth core and the rock fill on the upstream

and downstream sides of the core so that the soil particles are not carried by water and piping does

not occur.

The side slopes of rock fill are usually kept equal to the angle of repose of rock, which is usually


Weir A weir is a barrier across a river designed to alter its flow characteristics.

The weir is a solid obstruction put across the river to raise its water level and divert the water into

the canal.

In most cases, weirs take the form of obstruction smaller than most conventional dams, which cause

water to pool behind them, while allowing water to flow steadily over their tops.

If a weir also stores water for tiding over small periods of short supplies, it is called a storage weir.

The main difference between a storage weir and a dam is only in height and the duration for which

the supply is stored.

Weirs are commonly used to alter the flow of rivers to prevent flooding, measure discharge, and

help render rivers navigable.

Types of weir are o Masonry weirs

o Rockfill weirs

o Concrete weirs

Barrage A barrage is a type of low-head, diversion dam which consists of a number of large gates that can be

opened or closed to control the amount of water passing through the structure, and thus regulate

and stabilize river water in the upstream for use in irrigation and other systems.

Difference between a barrage and a dam is that

A dam is built for water storage in a reservoir, which raises the level of water significantly.

A barrage is built for diverting water, and raises the water level only a few feet.

Barrages are much more costly than the weirs.

The function of a barrage is similar to that of weir, but the heading up of water is achieved by the

gates alone.

The most of the pond is done by gates and a smaller or nil part of it is done by the raised crest.


TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING

Role of transportation in national development The importance of transportation in national development is multidimensional.

One of the basic functions of transportation is to link residence with employment and producers of

goods with their users.

Transportation facilities provide the options for work, shopping and recreation and give access to

health, education and other amenities.

The connection between transportation and sustainability is recognized worldwide. There is an

interconnection between human behaviour and transportation.

Transportation is for advancement of community. Transportation is essential for economic, cultural,

social and general development of the country.

Transportation increase personal mobility. Mobility has always been important to human society.

Transportation permits greater freedom to people to choose, where they live, work and shop, and in

the case of goods they lower the cost of production and distribution tending to national economic

growth.

Transportation is the link between rural and urban areas.

Transportation can improve purchasing power and life style of inhabitants of any nation.

Vehicular traffic in both urban and rural areas has in recent years increased manifold.

India is on the threshold of a major forward thrust in the field of transportation infrastructure.

Vehicular traffic in both urban and rural areas has in recent years increased manifold.

The government has realized that developing the transportation infrastructure is the key to overall

development of the country.

Modes of transportation Major modes of transportation are:


Roadways

Railways

Waterway

Airways

Roadways Road transport is the nearest mode of the people.

The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service to one and all.

Roadways only can provide door to door service.

The passengers and goods have to be first transported by road before reaching a railway station or

an airport or a port.

The road network alone would serve the remote areas.

Roadways have maximum flexibility for travel with reference to route, direction, time and speed of

travel. Wide variety of vehicles is available.

Roads are classified as per the location and function. As per the Nagpur road plan, roads are

categorized like National Highway (N.H.), State Highway (S.H.), Major District Road (M.D.R.), Other

District Road (O.D.R.) and Village Road (V.R.).

As per the type of pavement it may be rigid pavement or Flexible pavement.

Railways Railways are convenient and economical for longer distance.

Speed and capacity to transport people and goods is also higher than roadways.

On railways only passenger coaches and wagons can make train movement with the help of

locomotives.

The railways could serve as arteries for transportation by land and roads could serve as feeder

system for transportation to the interior parts and to the intermediate localities between the railway

stations.

Different types of locomotives like diesel and electric locomotives are used.

Different types of gauges are there like Broad gauge (1.676 m), Meter gauge (1.0 m) and Narrow

gauge (0.762 m).

Waterways Waterways are cheaper but slowest among the four modes.

Movement of persons and goods through boats and ships on river, lake, and sea like water bodies is

mode of transportation-waterway.

Types of waterways are oceanic and inland.

The vehicles of waterways are of various capacities. These vehicles may be hollow vessels of wood or

metal or a combination of both, which are made to pass over water by natural or mechanical power.

A large number of persons and tons of cargo can be handled at a place by ships through waterways.

Docks are covered areas for berthing of ships. Loading and unloading of cargo from ships require

cargo lifting equipment’s. The crane like equipment’s is provided on docks for loading and unloading

of cargo.

Port is an area where marine terminal facilities are provided. The terminal is served by rail, road or

inland waterway connections.


Airways The transportation by air is the fastest among all the mode of travel.

Airways provide more comfort with saving in travel time but it is costlier than other modes of

transportation and capacity is also limited.

Aviation operating expenditures are high. Fuel consumption is high and costly.

Construction cost, operation and maintenance cost of aircrafts and airports are high. Airways are

planned as regional planning

Airport may be of different type like international, domestic or military airports.


INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TRAFFIC Traffic is defined as “the actual movement of vehicles of pedestrians on a road”

Traffic engineering is a branch of civil engineering that uses engineering techniques to achieve the safe

and efficient movement of people and goods.

It deals with the improvement of traffic performance of road networks.

It focuses mainly on research and construction of the immobile infrastructure necessary for this

movement, such as roads, railways, tracks, bridges, traffic, signs and traffic lights.

Traffic engineering covers a broad range of engineering applications with a focus on the safety of the

public, the efficient use of transportation resources, and the mobility of people and goods.

The road traffic is composed of various categories of vehicular traffic and the pedestrian traffic.

Each category of vehicular traffic has two components, the human element as the driver and his machine

as vehicles.

Traffic engineering has now been recognized as an essential tool in the improvement of traffic

operations.

The basic object of traffic engineering is to achieve efficient free and rapid flow of traffic, with least

number of traffic accidents.

The traffic engineer must first understand the traffic flow behaviour and characteristics by extensive

collection of traffic flow data and analysis. Based on this analysis, traffic flow is controlled so that the

transport infrastructure is used optimally as well as with good service quality.

Road user characteristics

Physical Mental Psychological Vision Knowledge Perception

Hearing Skill Intellection Strength Intelligence Emotion

General reactions Experience Volition literacy

INTRODUCTION TO TRAFFIC CONTROL Good transportation is that which provides safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical and

environmentally compatible movement of both goods and people.

The regulations should be framed so as to achieve safe and efficient movement of traffic and

pedestrians.

Installation of traffic control devices like signs, signals and pavement markings are most common means

to regulate and control the traffic.

Traffic regulations cover matters dealing with the control of vehicle, drivers and road users.

Traffic regulations: Traffic regulation cover matters dealing with the control of vehicle, drivers and road users.

Traffic regulations


Regulation of vehicles Driver regulation Road users regulation

Registration Weight

Size Design

Construction & insurance

Driving License Physical fitness Age of drivers

Disqualification of license Speed laws

Rules for pedestrians Rules for cyclists

Rules for motorcyclists

Traffic control devices: The various aids and devices used to control, regulate and guide traffic may be called traffic control devices.

Traffic Control Devices (T.C.D.)

Signs Signals Marking Island Lights Regulatory sign

Warning sign Informatory sign

Fixed time Manually operated

Automatic Pedestrian

Special traffic

Pavement kerb

Object Reflector

Delineators

Divisional Channelizing

Pedestrian loading Rotary

Warning signs: Warning or cautionary signs are used to warn the road users of certain hazardous conditions that exist

on or adjacent to the roadway. The warning signs are in the shape of equilateral triangle with its apex

pointing upwards. They have a white background, red border and black symbols.

Regulatory Signs: Regulatory or mandatory signs are meant to inform the road users of certain laws, regulations and

prohibitions. The violation of these signs is a legal offence.


o Stop and give way

o Prohibitory signs

o No parking and no stopping signs

o Speed limit and vehicle control signs

o Restriction ends sign

o Compulsory direction control and other signs

Informatory signs: These signs are used to guide the road users along routes, inform them of destination and distance and

provide with information to make travel easier, safe and pleasant.


Direction and place identification signs.

o Destination signs

o Direction

o Reassurance

o Route marker

o Place identification

Rectangular with white background, black border and black arrows and letters.

Facility information signs Public telephone, Petrol pump, Hospital, First aid post, Eating place, Resting place.

Rectangular with blue back ground and white/black letters/symbols.

Other useful informationsigns No through road

No through side road

Parking signs Square sign board with blue back ground and white coloured letter ‘P’.

Flood gauge To indicate the height of the flood above road level.

Traffic signals: At intersection where a large number of crossing and right turn traffic, there is possibility of collision and

accident. To provide orderly movement with safety and speed,, signals are provided at intersection. The

crossing streams of traffic flow are separated by time segregation.


Traffic signals are control devices which could alternately direct the traffic to stop and proceed at

intersection using red and green traffic light signals automatically.

Fixed Time Signals: They are set to repeat regulatory a cycle of Red, Amber and Green lights. The timings of each phase of

the cycle are predetermined based on the traffic studies. They are simplest type of automatic traffic

signals which are electrically operated.

Traffic Actuated Signals They are those in which the timings of the phase and cycle are changed according to traffic demand to

clear off the intersection with the help of detectors which are installed at the approaches. These are very

costly.

Pedestrian Signal They are meant to give the right of way to pedestrians to cross a road. The vehicular traffic should be

stopped by red or stop signal on the traffic signal of the road.

When there are series of signals on urban streets of city there should be proper co-ordination of signal

system for fast movement of people and goods with minimum delay.

Road Markings Road markings are made of lines, patterns, words, symbols or reflectors on the pavement, kerb, and

sides of islands or on fixed objects within or near the roadway to control, warn, guide or regulate the

traffic.

The markings are made by using white, black, yellow colour paints. Longitudinal lines are 10 cm thick and

traverse lines should be made in such a way that they are visible at sufficient distance in advance.

Yellow colour markings are used to indicate parking restrictions, continuous center line and barrier line

markings.

Longitudinal solid lines are used as guiding and regulating lines and are not meant to be crossed by the

driver.

White colour stop lies are meant for vehicles to stop near the signalized inter section and pedestrian

crossing.

Traffic Islands They are raised areas constructed within the roadway to establish physical channels through which the

vehicular traffic may be guided.


Divisional

Channelizing

Pedestrian loading

Rotary

Intersection It is the location of roadway where two or more approaches from different directions are meeting.

All road intersection which meet at about the same level allowing traffic maneuvers like merging,

diverging, crossing and wearing are called intersection at grade.


Channelized intersection It is achieved by introducing islands into the inter sectional area to reduce conflicts. The intersection area

is paved and there is absolutely no restrictions to vehicles to use any part of inter section area.

Where there is intolerable congestion and accident at the inter section of two highway carrying very

heavy traffic grade separated inter section are provided which are known as interchange.


Rotary intersection It is an enlarged road intersection where all converging vehicles are forced to move round a large control

island in one direction (clockwise) before they can weave out of traffic flow into their respective

directions radiating from the control island.

Advantages of traffic signals Signal is provided at intersection to manage the traffic flow.

Signals provide safety to vehicular traffic and pedestrian. They reduce and avoid the accidents.

Signals are easy to understand compare to traffic police management at intersection.

Disadvantages of signals Fast moving vehicles may cause rear end collision at signalized intersection.

Improper design of signal cycle length can cause fixed delay.

During off peak hour unnecessary delay occurs at signalized intersection.

INTRODUCTION TO MASS TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM Mass transportation or public transportation deals with study of transportation system that meets the

travel need of several people by sharing a vehicle.

Generally this focuses on the urban travel bus and rail transit.

Various modes of mass transportation or public transport are:


o Travelling by bus

o Travelling by taxi

o Travelling by auto-rickshaw

o Travelling by metro trains

o Bus rapid transit system (BRTS)

Travelling by bus: Each city has a local bus network.

Though fares are cheap, buses can get very crowded during peak hours and this is not the fastest mode

of transportation.

The conductor collects fares and issues tickets. Bus passes are also available.

There is separate seating for women at the front of the bus.

This bus service serves as a cheap and convenient mode of transport for all classes of society.

Air-conditioned Volvo buses are being introduced in many cities, which offer a more comfortable and

faster ride than the older city buses.

Travelling by taxi Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata have old-fashioned black, yellow or black and yellow taxis, which run on a

meter and can be flagged down in the street.

Depending on the city/state, taxis can either be hailed or hired from taxi-stands.

In cities such as Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, taxis need to be hired over phone, whereas in cities

like Kolkata and Mumbai, taxis can be hailed on the street.

According to government of India regulations, all taxis are required to have a fare-meter installed.

There are additional surcharges for luggage, late-night rides and toll taxes are to be paid by the

passenger. Rates are generally fixed by the hour or on the kilometres or by the day.

These are normal taxis which carry one or more passengers and the passengers are charged according to

the number of people with direct destination.

A similar system exists for auto-rickshaws, known as share autos.

Travelling by auto-rickshaw: An auto-rickshaw is a three-wheeler vehicle for hire that has no doors and is generally characterized by a

small cabin for the driver in the front and seat for passengers in the rear.

Generally it is painted in yellow, green or black colour and has a black, yellow or green canopy on the

top, but designs vary considerably from place to place.

The colour of the auto-rickshaw is also determined by the fuel that it is powered by, for example

Ahmedabad and Delhi have green autos indicating the use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), whereas

the autos of Mumbai, Bangalore have3 green or black autos indicating the use of LPG.

The auto-rickshaws generally run on a meter system and are a convenient mode of transport.

Travelling by metro-trains: Delhi and Kolkata have an extensive metro system, which is the quickest way to get around, especially

during peak hours.

The Delhi metro in New Delhi is the second conventional metro and began operations in 2002.

These trains are very crowded during peak times and can be a challenge to navigate.

Government of Gujarat is also planning metro train service between Ahmedabad to Gandhi agar cities

Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS):


New initiatives like Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) and air conditioned buses have been taken by the

various state government to improve the bus public transport systems in cities.

The idea of a BRTS concept in India – based on the successful system in Curitiba, Brazil – was first

introduced in the year 2000 in the form a feasibility study for Bangalore carried out by Swedish

consultant but was not implemented at the time.

Today, however, the concept has caught on and Bus Rapid Transit Systems (BRTS) already exist in Pune,

Delhi, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Mumbai and Jaipur with new ones coming up in Kolkata, Hyderabad, Luck

now, Bangalore, and Surat.

introduction - darshan institute of engineering & technology€¦ · 2110004 – ece – study...

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