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HANDBOOK OF HUMAN FACTORSAND ERGONOMICS

HANDBOOK OF HUMAN FACTORSAND ERGONOMICS

Fourth Edition

Edited by

Gavriel SalvendyPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indianaand

Tsinghua UniversityBeijing, People’s Republic of China

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:Handbook of human factors and ergonomics/edited by Gavriel Salvendy. — 4th ed.Handp. cm.HaIncludes index.HandISBN 978-0-470-52838-9 (hardback); ISBN 978-1-118-12906-7 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-12907-4 (ebk);ISBN 978-1-118-12908-1 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-13135-0 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-13148-0 (ebk); ISBN978-1-118-13149-7 (ebk)H1. Human engineering–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Salvendy, Gavriel, 1938–HaTA166.H275 2012Ha620.8′2–dc23

2011045254

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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CONTENTS

1. Human Factors Function 1

1. The Discipline of Human Factors and Ergonomics 3Waldemar Karwowski

2. Human Factors Engineering and Systems Design 38Sara J. Czaja and Sankaran N. Nair

2. Human Factors Fundamentals 57

3. Sensation and Perception 59Robert W. Proctor and Janet D. Proctor

4. Selection and Control of Action 95Robert W. Proctor and Kim-Phuong L. Vu

5. Information Processing 117Christopher D. Wickens and C. Melody Carswell

6. Cross-Cultural Design 162Tom Plocher, Pei-Luen Patrick Rau, and Yee-Yin Choong

7. Decision-Making Models, Decision Support, and Problem Solving 192Mark R. Lehto, Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah, and Ji Soo Yi

8. Mental Workload and Situation Awareness 243Michael A. Vidulich and Pamela S. Tsang

9. Social and Organizational Foundations of Ergonomics 274Alvaro D. Taveira and Michael J. Smith

10. Human Factors and Ergonomic Methods 298Julie A. Jacko, Ji Soo Yi, Francois Sainfort, and Molly McClellan

11. Anthropometry for Product Design 330Kathleen M. Robinette

12. Basic Biomechanics and Workstation Design 347William S. Marras

3. Design of Tasks and Jobs 383

13. Task Analysis: Why, What, and How 385Erik Hollnagel

xvii

xviii CONTENTS

14. Task Design and Motivation 397Holger Luczak, Tanja Kabel, and Torsten Licht

15. Job and Team Design 441Frederick P. Morgeson, Michael A. Campion, and Patrick F. Bruning

16. Personnel Recruitment, Selection, and Turnover 475Jerry W. Hedge, Walter C. Borman, and Dan Ispas

17. Design, Delivery, Evaluation, and Transfer of Training Systems 490Chris W. Coultas, Rebecca Grossman, and Eduardo Salas

18. Human Factors in Organizational Design and Management 534Pascale Carayon, Peter Hoonakker, and Michael J. Smith

19. Situation Awareness 553Mica R. Endsley

20. Affective Engineering and Design 569Martin G. Helander and Halimahtun M. Khalid

4. Equipment, Workplace, and Environmental Design 597

21. Workplace Design 599Nicolas Marmaras and Dimitris Nathanael

22. Vibration and Motion 616Michael J. Griffin

23. Sound and Noise: Measurement and Design Guidance 638John G. Casali

24. Illumination 673Peter R. Boyce

5. Design for Health, Safety, and Comfort 699

25. Occupational Health and Safety Management 701Mark R. Lehto and Bradley T. Cook

26. Human Error and Human Reliability Analysis 734Joseph Sharit

27. Managing Low-Back Disorder Risk in the Workplace 801William S. Marras

28. Work-Related Upper Extremity Musculoskeletal Disorders 826David Rodrick, Waldemar Karwowski, and William S. Marras

29. Warnings and Hazard Communications 868Michael S. Wogalter, Kenneth R. Laughery, Sr., and Christopher B. Mayhorn

30. Use of Personal Protective Equipment in the Workplace 895Grazyna Bartkowiak, Krzysztof Baszczynski, Anna Bogdan, Agnieszka Brochocka,Rafał Hrynyk, Emilia Irzmanska, Danuta Koradecka, Katarzyna Majchrzycka,Krzysztof Makowski, Anna Marszałek, Grzegorz Owczarek, and Jan Zera

31. Human Space Flight 910Barbara Woolford, Walter E. Sipes, and Edna R. Fiedler

CONTENTS xix

6. Performance Modeling 929

32. Modeling Human Performance in Complex Systems 931K. Ronald Laughery, Jr., Beth Plott, Michael Matessa, Susan Archer,and Christian Lebiere

33. Mathematical Models in Engineering Psychology: OptimizingPerformance 962Donald L. Fisher, Richard Schweickert, and Colin G. Drury

34. Human Supervisory Control 990Thomas B. Sheridan

35. Human Digital Modeling in Design 1016Vincent G. Duffy

36. Virtual Environments 1031Kay M. Stanney and Joseph V. Cohn

37. Neuroergonomics in Human–System Interaction 1057Dylan Schmorrow, Kay M. Stanney, Kelly S. Hale, Sven Fuchs,Glenn Wilson, and Peter Young

7. Evaluation 1083

38. Accident and Incident Investigation 1085Patrick G. Dempsey

39. Human Factors and Ergonomics Audits 1092Colin G. Drury and Patrick G. Dempsey

40. Cost/Benefit Analysis for Human Systems Investments 1122William B. Rouse and Kenneth R. Boff

41. Methods of Evaluating Outcomes 1139Paula J. Edwards, Francois Sainfort, Julie A. Jacko, Molly McClellan,and Thitima Kongnakorn

8. Human–Computer Interaction 1177

42. Visual Displays 1179Kevin B. Bennett, Allen L. Nagy, and John M. Flach

43. Information Visualization 1209Chris North

44. Human Factors in Online Communities and Social Computing 1237Panayiotis Zaphiris and A. Ant Ozok

45. Human Factors and Information Security 1250E. Eugene Schultz

46. Usability Testing 1267James R. Lewis

47. User Requirements Collection and Analysis 1313Dieter Spath, Fabian Hermann, Matthias Peissner, and Sandra Sproll

48. Website Design and Evaluation 1323Kim-Phuong L. Vu, Robert W. Proctor, and Fredrick P. Garcia

xx CONTENTS

49. Human Factors in Ambient Intelligence Environments 1354Constantine Stephanidis

50. Interactivity: Evolution and Emerging Trends 1374Constantine Stephanidis, Vassilis Kouroumalis, and Margherita Antona

9. Design for Individual Differences 1407

51. Design for People with Functional Limitations 1409Gregg C. Vanderheiden and J. Bern Jordan

52. Design for Aging 1442Walter R. Boot, Timothy A. Nichols, Wendy A. Rogers, and Arthur D. Fisk

53. Designing for Children 1472Valerie J. Berg Rice

54. Design for All: Computer-Assisted Design of User Interface Adaptation 1484Constantine Stephanidis, Margherita Antona, Anthony Savidis,Nikolaos Partarakis, Konstantina Doulgeraki, and Asterios Leonidis

10. Selected Applications in Human Factors and Ergonomics 1509

55. Human Factors and Ergonomics Standards 1511David Rodrick, Waldemar Karwowski, and Bohdana Sherehiy

56. Office Ergonomics 1550Marvin Dainoff, Wayne Maynard, Michelle Robertson,and Johan Hviid Andersen

57. Human Factors and Ergonomics in Health Care 1574Pascale Carayon, Bashar Alyousef, and Anping Xie

58. Human Factors and Ergonomics in Motor Vehicle Transportation 1596Paul A. Green

59. Human Factors and Ergonomics in Automation Design 1615John D. Lee and Bobbie D. Seppelt

60. Human Factors in Manufacturing 1643Dieter Spath, Martin Braun, and Katrin Meinken

61. Human Factors and Ergonomics in Aviation 1667Steven J. Landry

Index 1689

ABOUT THE EDITOR

Gavriel Salvendy is professor emeritus of Industrial Engineering at Purdue University and Chair Professorand Head of the Department of Industrial Engineering at Tsinghua University, Beijing, China. He is theauthor or co-author of over 550 research publications, including over 300 journal papers and is the authoror editor of 42 books. His publications have appeared in seven languages. He is the major professor to 67former and current Ph.D. students. His main research deals with the human aspects of design, operation,and management of advanced engineering systems. Gavriel Salvendy is the founding editor of twojournals: the International Journal on Human–Computer Interaction and Human Factors and Ergonomicsin Manufacturing and Service Industries . He was the founding chair of the International Commission onHuman Aspects in Computing, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1990 he became the first memberof either the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society or the International Ergonomics Association to beelected to the National Academy of Engineering. He was elected “for fundamental contributions to andprofessional leadership in human, physical, and cognitive aspects of engineering systems.” In 1995 hereceived an Honorary Doctorate from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, “for great contributions to thedevelopment of science and technology and for the great influence upon the development of science andtechnology in China.” He is the fourth person in all fields of science and engineering in the 45 years of theAcademy ever to receive this award. In 2006, he received the Friendship Award presented by the People’sRepublic of China. The award is the highest honor the Chinese government confers on foreign experts.In 2007, he received the John Fritz Medal which is the engineering profession’s highest award for his“fundamental international and seminal leadership and technical contributions to human engineering andindustrial engineering education, theory, and practice.” He is an honorary fellow and life member of theErgonomics Society and fellow of Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Institute of Industrial Engineers,and the American Psychological Association. He has advised organizations in 31 countries on the humanside of effective design, implementation and management of advanced technologies in the workplace. Heearned his Ph.D. in engineering production at the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom.

v

CONTRIBUTORS

Bashar AlyousefResearch AssistantIndustrial & Systems EngineeringUniversity of Wisconsin—MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Johan Hviid AndersenProfessorDepartment of Occupational MedicineDanish Ramazzini CentreHerning HospitalHerning, Denmark

Margherita AntonaCoordinator of the Centre for Universal Access

and Assistive TechnologiesInstitute of Computer ScienceFoundation for Research and

Technology—Hellas (FORTH)Heraklion, Crete, Greece

Susan ArcherSenior Vice PresidentAlion Science and TechnologyBoulder, Colorado

Grazyna BartkowiakResearcher, Department of Personal Protective

EquipmentLab Manager, Protective Clothing LaboratoryCentral Institute for Labour Protection—National

Research InstituteWarsaw, Poland

Krzysztof BaszczynskiResearcher, Department of Personal Protective

EquipmentLab Manager, Laboratory of Safety Helmets and

Equipment Protecting against Falls from aHeight

Central Institute for Labour Protection—NationalResearch Institute

Warsaw, Poland

Kevin B. BennettProfessor and Human Factors Area LeaderDepartment of PsychologyWright State UniversityDayton, Ohio

Kenneth R. BoffPrincipal ScientistTennenbaum InstituteGeorgia Institute of TechnologyAtlanta, Georgia

Anna BogdanResearcher, Department of ErgonomicsLab Manager, Thermal Load LaboratoryCentral Institute for Labour Protection—National


Walter R. BootAssistant ProfessorDepartment of PsychologyFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Walter C. BormanProfessorDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of South Floridaand Personnel Decisions Research InstituteTampa, Florida

Peter R. BoyceConsultantCanterbury, United Kingdom

Martin BraunSenior ScientistFraunhofer Institute for Industrial EngineeringStuttgart, Germany

vii

viii CONTRIBUTORS

Agnieszka BrochockaResearcher, Department of Personal Protective

EquipmentLaboratory for Respiratory Protective EquipmentCentral Institute for Labour Protection—National


Patrick F. BruningGraduate Research AssistantOrganizational Behavior and Human ResourcesKrannert School of ManagementSchool of BusinessPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

Michael A. CampionHerman C. Krannert Professor of ManagementKrannert Graduate School of ManagementPurdue UniversityWeat Lafayette, Indiana

Pascale CarayonProctor & Gamble Bascom Professor in Total

QualityDepartment of Industrial and Systems

EngineeringDirector of the Center for Quality and

Productivity ImprovementUniversity of Wisconsin—MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

C. Melody CarswellAssociate ProfessorDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of KentuckyLexington, Kentucky

John G. CasaliJohn Grado ProfessorGrado Department of Industrial and Systems

EngineeringDirector, Auditory Systems LaboratoryVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State

UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia

Yee-Yin ChoongResearch ScientistNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyGaithersburg, Maryland

Joseph V. CohnAerospace Experimental PsychologistOffice of Naval ResearchU.S. NavyArlington, Virginia

Bradley T. CookManaging EngineerMiller Engineering, Inc.Ann Arbor, Michigan

Chris W. CoultasGraduate Research AssociateDepartment of Psychology & Institute of

Simulation and TrainingUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Sara J. CzajaProfessor and Co-DirectorDepartment of Psychiatry and Behavioral Center

on Aging SciencesUniversity of Miami Miller School

of MedicineMiami, Florida

Marvin DainoffDirector, Center for Behavioral SciencesLiberty Mutual Research Institute for SafetyHopkinton, Massachusetts

Patrick G. DempseyResearch Industrial EngineerNational Institute for Occupational Safety

and HealthPittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Konstantina DoulgerakiResearch EngineerInstitute of Computer ScienceFoundation for Research and


Colin G. DruryDistinguished Professor EmeritusDepartment of Industrial EngineeringUniversity at Buffalo: State University of

New YorkBuffalo, NewYork

CONTRIBUTORS ix

Vincent G. DuffyAssociate ProfessorSchool of Industrial EngineeringPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

Paula J. EdwardsDirectorHIMformaticsAtlanta, Georgia

Mica R. EndsleyPresidentSA Technologies, Inc.Marietta, GeorgiaEdna R. FiedlerAerospace Psychology ConsultantsTucson, Arizona

Donald L. FisherProfessor and HeadDepartment of Mechanical & Industrial

EngineeringUniversity of Massachusetts—AmherstAmherst, Massachusetts

Arthur D. FiskProfessorSchool of PsychologyGeorgia Institute of TechnologyAtlanta, Goergia

John M. FlachProfessor and Department ChairDepartment of PsychologyWright State UniversityDayton, Ohio

Sven FuchsSenior Research AssociateHuman-Systems IntegrationDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Fredrick P. GarciaLab Manager/Lead Usability SpecialistCenter for Usability in Design and AccessibilityLong Beach, California

Paul A. GreenResearch ProfessorTransportation Research InstituteUniversity of MichiganAnn Arbor, Michigan

Michael J. GriffinProfessorHuman Factors Research UnitInstitute of Sound and Vibration ResearchUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton, United Kingdom

Rebecca GrossmanGraduate Research AssociateDepartment of PsychologyInstitute for Simulation & TrainingUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Kelly S. HaleSenior Vice PresidentDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Jerry W. HedgeSenior Research ManagerSurvey Research DivisionRTI InternationalResearch Triangle Park, North Carolina

Martin G. HelanderProfessorSchool of Mechanical and Aerospace

EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore

Fabian HermannCompetence-Center Human-Computer

InteractionFraunhofer Institute for Industrial

EngineeringStuttgart, Germany

Erik HollnagelProfessorUniversity of Southern DenmarkOdense, Denmark

Peter HoonakkerResearch ScientistCenter for Quality & Productivity Improvement

(CQPI)University of Wisconsin—MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

x CONTRIBUTORS

Rafal HrynykAssistant ResearcherLaboratory of Head and Foot ProtectionDepartment of Personal Protective EquipmentCentral Institute for Labour Protection—National


Emilia IrzmanskaResearcherLaboratory of Head and Foot ProtectionDepartment of Personal Protective EquipmentCentral Institute for Labour Protection—National


Dan IspasAssistant ProfessorDepartment of PsychologyIllinois State UniversityNormal, Illinois

Julie A. JackoProfessorSchool of Public Health Faculty FellowInstitute for Health InformaticsPrincipal Investigator and DirectorUniversity Partnership for Health InformaticsUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolis, Minnesota

J. Bern JordanResearcherIndustrial & Systems EngineeringUniversity of Wisconsin—MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Tanja KabelRWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany

Waldemar KarwowskiProfessor and ChairDepartment of Industrial & Management SystemsUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Halimahtun M. KhalidExecutive DirectorPrincipal Scientist and ConsultantDamai SciencesKuala Lampur, Malaysia

Thitima KongnakornSenior Research AssociateCenter for Health Economics & Science PolicyUnited BioSource Corp.Lexington, Massachusetts

Danuta KoradeckaProfessor and DirectorResearcherCentral Institute for Labour Protection—National


Vasilis KouroumalisResearch EngineerInstitute of Computer ScienceFoundation for Research and


Steven J. LandryAssistant ProfessorSchool of Industrial EngineeringPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

Kenneth R. Laughery, Sr.Professor EmeritusDepartment of PsychologyRice UniversityHouston, Texas

K. Ronald Laughery, Jr.PresidentAlion Science and TechnologyBoulder, Colorodo

Christian LebiereResearch FacultyDepartment of PsychologyCarnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburgh, Pennsylvania

John D. LeeProfessorIndustrial & Systems Engineering DepartmentUniversity of Wisconsin—MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Mark R. LehtoProfessor and Associate HeadSchool of Industrial EngineeringPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

CONTRIBUTORS xi

Asterios LeonidesResearch EngineerInstitute of Computer ScienceFoundation for Research and


James R. LewisSenior Human Factors EngineerIBM Software GroupBoca Raton, Florida

Torsten LichtRWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany

Holger LuczakProfessor EmeritusInstitute of Industrial Engineering and

ErgonomicsAachen, Germany

Katarzyna MajchrzyckaResearcherHead, Department of Personal Protective

EquipmentCentral Institute for Labour Protection—National


Krzysztof MakowskiAssistant ResearcherLaboratory for Respiratory Protective EquipmentDepartment of Personal Protective EquipmentCentral Institute for Labour Protection—National


Nicolas MarmarasProfessorSchool of Mechanical EngineeringNational Technical University of AthensAthens, Greece

William S. MarrasHonda Chair ProfessorDirector, Biodynamics LaboratoryDirector, COHAMExecutive Director, Institute for ErgonomicsDepartment of Integrated Systems EngineeringOhio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio

Anna MarszalekResearcherThermal Load LaboratoryDepartment of ErgonomicsCentral Institute for Labour Protection—National


Michael MatessaLead Cognitive ScientistMA&D OperationAlion Science and TechnologyBoulder, Colorado

Christopher B. MayhornAssociate ProfessorDepartment of PsychologyNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleigh, North Carolina

Wayne MaynardManager, Technical ServicesLoss Control Advisory ServicesLiberty Mutual Research Institute of SafetyHopkinton, Massachusetts

Molly A. McClellanBusiness AnalystOffice of Occupational Health and SafetyUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolis, Minnesota

Katrin MeinkenDipl.-Biol.Human Factors EngineeringFraunhofer Institute for Industrial

EngineeringStuttgart, Germany

Frederick P. MorgesonProfessor and Valade Research ScholarDepartment of ManagementMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing, Michigan

Allen L. NagyProfessor of PsychologyDepartment of PsychologyWright State UniversityDayton, Ohio

xii CONTRIBUTORS

Fiona Fui-Hoon NahAssociate Professor of Management Information

SystemsDepartment of ManagementUniversity of Nebraska—LincolnLincoln, Nebraska

Sankaran N. NairDirector, Research DataCenter on AgingUniversity of Miami Miller School of Medicine

Dimitris NathanaelLecturerSchool of Mechanical EngineeringNational Technical University of AthensAthens, Greece

Timothy A. NicholsUser Research EngineerMicrosoft Game StudiosMicrosoft CorporationRedmond, Washington

Chris NorthAssociate ProfessorDepartment of Computer ScienceVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia

Grzegorz OwczarekLab Manager, Eye and Face Protection

LaboratoryResearcher, Department of Personal Protective

EquipmentCentral Institute for Labour Protection—National


A. Ant OzokAssociate ProfessorDepartment of Information SystemsUniversity of Maryland Baltimore CountyBaltimore, Maryland

Nikolaos PartarakisResearch EngineerInstitute of Computer ScienceFoundation for Research and


Matthias PeissnerHead of Competence Center Human-Computer

InteractionCompetence Center Human-Computer InteractionFraunhofer Institute for Industrial EngineeringStuttgart, Germany

Tom PlocherStaff ScientistAutomation and Control Solutions LaboratoryHoneywell InternationalGolden Valley, Minnesota

Beth M. PlottDivision ManagerDevelopment DivisionAlion Science & TechnologyBoulder, Colorado

Janet D. ProctorLead Academic Advisor, PsychologyLiberal ArtsPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

Robert W. ProctorDistinguished University ProfessorDepartment of Psychological SciencesPurdue UniversityWet Lafayette, Indiana

Pei-Luen Patrick RauDirector, Human Factors Institute andProfessor, Department of Industrial EngineeringTsinghua UniversityBeijing, China

Valerie J. Berg RiceGeneral ErgonomicsSelma, Texas

Michelle RobertsonResearch ScientistCenter for Behavioral ScienceLiberty Mutual Research Institute for SafetyHopkinton, Massachusetts

Kathleen M. RobinettePrincipal Research AnthropologistAir Force Research Laboratory711th Human Performance Wing/RHPAWright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio

CONTRIBUTORS xiii

David RodrickAssistant ProfessorDepartment of Industrial & Manufacturing

Systems EngineeringThe University of Michigan—DearbornDearborn, Michigan

Wendy A. RogersProfessorSchool of PsychologyGeorgia Institute of TechnologyAtlanta, Georgia

William B. RouseExecutive Director & ProfessorTennenbaum InstituteGeorgia Institute of TechnologyAtlanta, Georgia

Francois SainfortMayo ProfessorBiomedical Health InformaticsUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolis, Minnesota

Eduardo SalasPegasus Professor & University

Trustee ChairDepartment of PsychologyInstitute for Simulation & TrainingUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Anthony SavidisAssociate Professor, Department of Computer

ScienceUniversity of CreteResearcherInstitute of Computer ScienceFoundation for Research and


Dylan SchmorrowU.S. NavyArlington, Virginia

E. Eugene SchultzChief Technology OfficerEmagined SecuritySan Carlos, California

Richard SchweickertProfessor of Psychological SciencesDepartment of PsychologyPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

Bobbie D. SeppeltResearch AssociateIndustrial & Systems Engineering DepartmentUniversity of Wisconsin—MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Joseph SharitResearch ProfessorDepartment of Industrial EngineeringUniversity of MiamiCoral Gables, Florida

Walter E. SipesNASA Johnson Space CenterHouston, Texas

Bohdana SherehiyIndependent ConsultantWashington, District of Columbia

Thomas B. SheridanFord Professor of Engineering and Applied

Psychology EmeritusDepartment of Mechanical Engineering and

Department of Aeronautics and AstronauticsMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, Massachusetts

Michael J. SmithThe Duane H. and Dorothy M. Bluemke

Professor EmeritusDepartment of Industrial and Systems

EngineeringUniversity of Wisconsin—MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Dieter SpathProfessor and Head of InstituteFraunhofer Institute for Industrial EngineeringStuttgart, Germany

Sandra SprollSenior ScientistFraunhofer Institute for Industrial EngineeringStuttgart, Germany

xiv CONTRIBUTORS

Kay M. StanneyPresidentDesign Interactive, Inc.Oviedo, Florida

Constantine StephanidisProfessor, Department of Computer ScienceUniversity of CreteDirector, Institute of Computer ScienceFoundation for Research and


Alvaro D. TaveiraProfessor and ChairDepartment of Occupational and Environmental

Safety and HealthUniversity of Wisconsin—WhitewaterWhitewater, Wisconsin

Pamela S. TsangProfessorDepartment of PsychologyWright State UniversityDayton, Ohio

Gregg C. VanderheidenProfessor, Department of Industrial & Systems

Engineering and Department of BiomedicalEngineering Director, Trace Center

University of Wisconsin—MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Michael A. VidulichPrincipal Research PsychologistAir Force Research LaboratoryWright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio

Kim-Phuong L. VuAssociate ProfessorDepartment of PsychologyCalifornia State University—Long BeachLong Beach, California

Christopher D. WickensProfessor Emeritus, Aviation and PsychologyInstitute of AviationUniversity of IllinoisSenior ScientistAlionscienceSavoy, Illinois

Glenn WilsonEmeritus Principal Research PsychologistAir Force Research LaboratoryWright-Patteron Air Force Base, OhioChief ScientistPhysiometrexKeizer, Oregon

Michael S. WogalterProfessorDepartment of PsychologyNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleigh, North Carolina

Barbara WoolfordManager, Space Human Factors and Habitability

ResearchNASA Johnson Space CenterHouston, Texas

Anping XieResearch Assistant and Doctoral StudentIndustrial & Systems EngineeringCenter for Quality and Productivity ImprovementUniversity of Wisconsin—MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Ji Soo YiAssistant ProfessorSchool of Industrial EngineeringPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

Peter YoungProfessorDepartment of Electrical and Computer

EngineeringColorado State UniversityFort Collins, Colorado

Panayiotis ZaphirisAssociate ProfessorDepartment of Multimedia and Graphic ArtsCyprus University of TechnologyLimassol, Cyprus

Jan ZeraLab Manager, Laboratory of Hearing ProtectionResearcher, Department of Vibroacoustic HazardsCentral Institute for Labour Protection—National


PREFACE

This handbook is concerned with the role of humans in complex systems, the design of equipmentand facilities for human use, and the development of environments for comfort and safety. The first,second, and third editions of the handbook were a major success and profoundly influenced the humanfactors profession. It was translated and published in Japanese and Russian and won the Institute ofIndustrial Engineers Joint Publishers Book of the Year Award. It has received strong endorsement fromtop management; the late Eliot Ester, retired president of General Motors Corporation, who wrote theforward to the first edition of the handbook, indicated that “regardless of what phase of the economy aperson is involved in, this handbook is a very useful tool. Every area of human factors from environmentalconditions and motivation to the use of new communication systems . . . is well covered in the handbookby experts in every field.”

In a literal sense, human factors and ergonomics is as old as the machine and environmental design,for it was aimed at designing them for human use. However, it was not until World War II that humanfactors emerged as a separate discipline. The field of human factors and ergonomics has developed andbroadened considerably since its inception 70 years ago and has generated a body of knowledge in thefollowing areas of specializations:

• Human factors profession

• Human factors fundamentals

• Design of tasks and jobs

• Equipment, workplace, and environmental design

• Design for health, safety, and comfort

• Performance modeling

• Evaluation

• Human–computer interaction

• Design for individual differences

• Selected applications

The foregoing list shows how broad the field has become. As such, this handbook should be of valueto all human factors and ergonomics specialists, engineers, industrial hygienists, safety engineers, andhuman–computer interaction specialists. The 61 chapters constituting the fourth edition of the handbookwere written by 131 experts. In creating this handbook, the authors gathered information from over 7500references and presented over 500 figures and 200 tables to provide theoretically based and practicallyoriented material for use by both practitioners and researchers. In the fourth edition of the Handbook ofHuman Factors and Ergonomics , the chapters have been completely, newly written. This fourth edition

xv

xvi PREFACE

of the handbook covers totally new areas that were not included in the third edition. These include thefollowing subjects:

• Managing low-back disorder risk in the workplace

• Neuroergonomics

• Social networking

• User requirements

• Human factors in ambient intelligent environments

• Online interactivity

• Office ergonomics

• Human factors and ergonomics in motor vehicle transportation

• Human factors and ergonomics in aviation

The main purpose of this handbook is to serve the needs of the human factors and ergonomicsresearchers, practitioners, and graduate students. Each chapter has a strong theory and science base andis heavily tilted toward application orientation. As such, a significant number of case studies, examples,figures, and tables are utilized to facilitate usability of the presented material.

The many contributing authors came through magnificently. I thank them all most sincerely for agreeingso willingly to create this handbook with me. I had the privilege of working with Robert L. Argentieri,our Wiley executive editor, who significantly facilitated my editorial work with his assistant Dan Magers.I was truly fortunate to have during the preparation of this handbook the most able contribution of MyrnaKasdorf, editorial coordinator of the handbook, who has done a truly outstanding job.

GAVRIEL SALVENDY

January 2011

PART 1HUMAN FACTORS FUNCTION

CHAPTER 1THE DISCIPLINE OF HUMAN FACTORSAND ERGONOMICS

Waldemar KarwowskiUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

1 INTRODUCTION 3

2 HUMAN–SYSTEM INTERACTIONS 5

3 HFE AND ECOLOGICAL COMPATIBILITY 13

4 DISTINGUISHING FEATURESOF CONTEMPORARY HFE DISCIPLINEAND PROFESSION 14

5 PARADIGMS FOR ERGONOMICSDISCIPLINE 14

6 ERGONOMICS COMPETENCYAND LITERACY 16

7 ERGONOMICS DESIGN 19

7.1 Axiomatic Design: Design Axioms 19

7.2 Theory of Axiomatic Design in Ergonomics 21

7.3 Axiomatic Design Approachin Ergonomics: Applications 22

8 THEORETICAL ERGONOMICS:SYMVATOLOGY 23

9 CONGRUENCE BETWEENMANAGEMENT AND ERGONOMICS 24

10 HUMAN-CENTERED DESIGN OFSERVICE SYSTEMS 27

11 HUMAN–SYSTEMS INTEGRATION 28

12 COMMITTEE ON HUMAN–SYSTEMSINTEGRATION OF THE NATIONALRESEARCH COUNCIL 29

13 THE INTERNATIONAL ERGONOMICSASSOCIATION (WW.IEA.CC) 31

14 FUTURE HFE CHALLENGES 32

REFERENCES 33

The purpose of science is mastery over nature.

F. Bacon (Novum Organum, 1620)

1 INTRODUCTION

Over the last 60 years human factors, a term that is usedhere synonymously with ergonomics [and denoted ashuman factors ergonomics (HFE)], has been evolvingas a unique and independent discipline that focuseson the nature of human–artifact interactions, viewedfrom the unified perspective of the science, engineer-ing, design, technology, and management of human-compatible systems, including a variety of natural andartificial products, processes, and living environments(Karwowski, 2005). The various dimensions of suchdefined ergonomics discipline are shown in Figure 1.The International Ergonomics Association (IEA, 2003)defines ergonomics (or human factors) as the scientificdiscipline concerned with the understanding of theinteractions among humans and other elements of asystem and the profession that applies theory, princi-ples, data, and methods to design in order to optimizehuman well-being and overall system performance.Human factors professionals contribute to the design

and evaluation of tasks, jobs, products, environments,and systems in order to make them compatible with theneeds, abilities, and limitations of people. Ergonomicsdiscipline promotes a holistic, human-centered approachto work systems design that considers the physical,cognitive, social, organizational, environmental, andother relevant factors (Grandjean, 1986; Wilsonand Corlett, 1995; Sanders and McCormick, 1993;Chapanis, 1995, 1999; Salvendy, 1997; Karwowski,2001; Vicente, 2004; Stanton et al., 2004).

Historically, ergonomics (ergon + nomos), or “thestudy of work,” was originally and proposed and definedby the Polish scientist B. W. Jastrzebowski (1857a-d)as the scientific discipline with a very broad scope andwide subject of interests and applications, encompassingall aspects of human activity, including labor, enter-tainment, reasoning, and dedication (Karwowski (1991,2001). In his paper published in the journal Nature andIndustry (1857), Jastrzebowski divided work into twomain categories: the useful work , which brings improve-ment for the common good, and the harmful work that

3

4 HUMAN FACTORS FUNCTION

Philosophy(socialneeds)

Practiceand

education

Theory

Management

Ergonomicsdiscipline

Design

Technology/environment

Figure 1 General dimensions of ergonomics discipline (after Karwowski, 2005).

brings deterioration (discreditable work). Useful work,which aims to improve things and people, is classi-fied into physical, aesthetic, rational, and moral work.According to Jastrzebowski, such work requires utiliza-tion of the motor forces, sensory forces, forces of reason(thinking and reasoning), and the spiritual force. Thefour main benefits of the useful work are exemplifiedthrough the property, ability, perfection, and felicity.

The contemporary ergonomics discipline, indepen-dently introduced by Murrell in 1949 (Edholm andMurrell, 1973), was viewed at that time as an appliedscience, the technology, and sometimes both. TheBritish scientists had founded the Ergonomics ResearchSociety in 1949. The development of ergonomics inter-nationally can be linked to a project initiated by theEuropean Productivity Agency (EPA), a branch of theOrganization for European Economic Cooperation ,which first established a Human Factors Section in1955 (Kuorinka, 2000). Under the EPA project, in 1956specialists from European countries visited the UnitedStates to observe human factors research. In 1957 theEPA organized a technical seminar on “Fitting the Jobto the Worker” at the University of Leiden, The Nether-lands, during which a set of proposals was presented toform an international association of work scientists. Asteering committee consisting of H.S. Belding, G.C.E.Burger, S. Forssman, E. Grandjean, G. Lehman, B.Metz, K.U. Smith, and R.G. Stansfield, was chargedto develop specific proposal for such association. Thecommittee decided to adopt the name InternationalErgonomics Association. At the meeting in Paris in1958 it was decided to proceed with forming the newassociation. The steering committee designated itself

as the Committee for the International Association ofErgonomic Scientists and elected G.C.E. Burger as itsfirst president, K.U. Smith as treasurer, and E. Grand-jean as secretary. The Committee for the InternationalAssociation of Ergonomic Scientists met in Zurich in1959 during a conference organized by the EPA anddecided to retain the name International ErgonomicsAssociation. On April 6, 1959, at the meeting in Oxford,England, E. Grandjean declared the founding of theIEA. The committee met again in Oxford, England,later in 1959 and agreed upon the set of bylaws orstatutes of the IEA. These were formally approved bythe IEA General Assembly at the first InternationalCongress of Ergonomics held in Stockholm in 1961.

Traditionally, the most often cited domains of spe-cialization within HFE are the physical, cognitive,and organizational ergonomics. Physical ergonomics ismainly concerned with human anatomical, anthropomet-ric, physiological, and biomechanical characteristics asthey relate to physical activity [Chaffin et al., 2006,Pheasant, 1986; Kroemer et al., 1994; Karwowski andMarras, 1999; National Research Council (NRC), 2001;Marras, 2008]. Cognitive ergonomics focuses on mentalprocesses such as perception, memory, information pro-cessing, reasoning, and motor response as they affectinteractions among humans and other elements of asystem (Vicente, 1999; Hollnagel, 2003; Diaper andStanton, 2004). Organizational ergonomics (also knownas macroergonomics) is concerned with the optimiza-tion of sociotechnical systems, including their organiza-tional structures, policies, and processes (Reason, 1997;Hendrick and Kleiner, 2002a,b; Hollman et al., 2003;Nemeth, 2004). Examples of the relevant topics include

THE DISCIPLINE OF HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS 5

Table 1 Exemplary Domains of Disciplines of Medicine, Psychology, and Human Factors

Medicine Psychology Human factors

Cardiology Applied psychology Physical ergonomicsDermatology Child psychology Cognitive ergonomicsGastroenterology Clinical psychology MacroergonomicsNeurology Cognitive psychology Knowledge ergonomicsRadiology Community psychology Rehabilitation ergonomicsEndocrinology Counseling psychology Participatory ergonomicsPulmonology Developmental psychology Human–computer interactionGerontology Experimental psychology NeuroergonomicsNeuroscience Educational psychology Affective ergonomicsNephrology Environmental psychology Ecological ergonomicsOncology Forensic psychology Forensic ergonomicsOphthalmology Health psychology Consumer ergonomicsUrology Positive psychology Human–systems integrationPsychiatry Organizational psychology Ergonomics of agingInternal medicine Social psychology Information ergonomicsCommunity medicine Quantitative psychology Community ergonomicsPhysical medicine Social psychology Nanoergonomics

Service ergonomics

communication, crew resource management, design ofworking times, teamwork, participatory work design,community ergonomics, computer-supported coopera-tive work, new work paradigms, virtual organizations,telework, and quality management. The above tradi-tional domains as well as new domains are listedin Table 1. According to the above discussion, theparamount objective of HFE is to understand the interac-tions between people and everything that surrounds usand based on such knowledge to optimize the humanwell-being and overall system performance. Table 2provides a summary of the specific HFE objectives asdiscussed by Chapanis (1995). As recently pointed outby the National Academy of Engineering (NAE, 2004),in the future, ongoing developments in engineering willexpand toward tighter connections between technologyand the human experience, including new products cus-tomized to the physical dimensions and capabilities ofthe user, and ergonomic design of engineered products .

2 HUMAN–SYSTEM INTERACTIONS

While in the past ergonomics has been driven bytechnology (reactive design approach), in the futureergonomics should drive technology (proactive designapproach). While technology is a product and a processinvolving both science and engineering, science aims tounderstand the “why” and “how” of nature through aprocess of scientific inquiry that generates knowledgeabout the natural world (Mitchem, 1994; NRC 2001).Engineering is the “design under constraints” of cost,reliability, safety, environmental impact, ease of use,available human and material resources, manufactura-bility, government regulations, laws, and politics (Wulf,1998). Engineering, as a body of knowledge of designand creation of human-made products and a process for

Table 2 Objectives of HFE Discipline

Basic Operational ObjectivesReduce errorsIncrease safetyImprove system performance

Objectives Bearing on Reliability, Maintainability, andAvailability (RMA) and Integrated Logistic Support (ILS)Increase reliabilityImprove maintainabilityReduce personnel requirementsReduce training requirements

Objectives Affecting Users and OperatorsImprove the working environmentReduce fatigue and physical stressIncrease ease of useIncrease user acceptanceIncrease aesthetic appearance

Other ObjectivesReduce losses of time and equipmentIncrease economy of production

Source: Chapanis (1995).

solving problems, seeks to shape the natural world tomeet human needs and wants.

Contemporary HFE discovers and applies informa-tion about human behavior, abilities, limitations, andother characteristics to the design of tools, machines,systems, tasks, jobs, and environments for productive,safe, comfortable, and effective human use (Sandersand Mccormick, 1993; Helander, 1997). In this context,HFE deals with a broad scope of problems relevant tothe design and evaluation of work systems, consumer


products, and working environments, in whichhuman–machine interactions affect human performanceand product usability (Carayon, 2006; Dekker, (2007;Karwowski, 2006; Bedny and Karwowski, 2007;Weick and Sutcliffe, 2007; Sears and Jacko, 2009;Wogalter, 2006; Reason, 2008; Bisantz and Burns,2009; Karwowski et al., 2010). The wide scope ofissues addressed by the contemporary HFE discipline ispresented in Table 3. Figure 2 illustrates the evolutionof the scope of HFE with respect to the nature ofhuman–system interactions and applications of human–system integration in a large variety of domains(Vicente, 2004; Karwowski, 2007; Lehto and Buck,2007; Marras and Karwowski 2006a,b; Rouse, 2007;Guerin et al., 2007; Dekker, 2007; Schmorrow andStanney, 2008; Pew and Mavor, 2008.; Cook and Durso,2008; Zacharias et al., 2008; Salas et al., 2008; Marras,2008, Chebbykin et al., 2008; Salvendy and Karwowski,2010; Kaber and Boy, 2010; Marek et al., 2010).

Originally, HFE focused on the local human–machine interactions, while today the main focus is onthe broadly defined human–technology interactions. In

Table 3 Classification Scheme for HumanFactors/Ergonomics

1. General

Human Characteristics

2. Psychological aspects3. Physiological and anatomical aspects4. Group factors5. Individual differences6. Psychophysiological state variables7. Task-related factors

Information Presentation and Communication

8. Visual communication9. Auditory and other communication modalities

10. Choice of communication media11. Person–machine dialogue mode12. System feedback13. Error prevention and recovery14. Design of documents and procedures15. User control features16. Language design17. Database organization and data retrieval18. Programming, debugging, editing, and

programming aids19. Software performance and evaluation20. Software design, maintenance, and reliability

Display and Control Design

21. Input devices and controls22. Visual displays23. Auditory displays24. Other modality displays25. Display and control characteristics

Table 3 (continued)

Workplace and Equipment Design

26. General workplace design and buildings27. Workstation design28. Equipment design

Environment

29. Illumination30. Noise31. Vibration32. Whole-body movement33. Climate34. Altitude, depth, and space35. Other environmental issues

System Characteristics

36. General system features

Work Design and Organization

37. Total system design and evaluation38. Hours of work39. Job attitudes and job satisfaction40. Job design41. Payment systems42. Selection and screening43. Training44. Supervision45. Use of support46. Technological and ergonomic change

Health and Safety

47. General health and safety48. Etiology49. Injuries and illnesses50. Prevention

Social and Economic Iimpact of the System

51. Trade unions52. Employment, job security, and job sharing53. Productivity54. Women and work55. Organizational design56. Education57. Law58. Privacy59. Family and home life60. Quality of working life61. Political comment and ethical considerations

Methods and Techniques

62. Approaches and methods63. Techniques64. Measures

Source: Ergonomics Abstracts (2004).

THE DISCIPLINE OF HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS 7

Human–technology relationships

Technology–system relationships

Human–system relationships

Human–machine relationships

Figure 2 Expanded view of the human–technologyrelationships (modified after Meister, 1999).

this view, the HFE can also be called the disciplineof technological ecology . Tables 4 and 5 present tax-onomy of the human-related and technology-relatedcomponents, respectively, which are of great importanceto HFE discipline. According to Meister (1987), thetraditional concept of the human–machine system is anorganization of people and the machines they operateand maintain in order to perform assigned jobs thatimplement the purpose for which the system wasdeveloped (Meister, 1987). In this context, a system

is a construct whose characteristics are manifested inphysical and behavioral phenomena Meister (1991). Thesystem is critical to HFE theorizing because it describesthe substance of the human–technology relationship.General system variables of interest to HFE disciplineare shown in Table 6.

The human functioning in human–machine systemscan be described in terms of perception, informationprocessing, decision making, memory, attention, feed-back, and human response processes. Furthermore, thehuman work taxonomy can be used to describe fivedistinct levels of human functioning, ranging from pri-marily physical tasks to cognitive tasks (Karwowski,1992a). These basic but universal human activities are(1) tasks that produce force (primarily muscular work),

Table 5 Taxonomy of HFE Elements: Technology

Technology ElementsComponentsToolsEquipmentsSystems

Effects of Technology on theHumanChanges in human roleChanges in human behavior

Degree of AutomationMechanizationComputerizationArtificial intelligence

Organization–TechnologyRelationshipsDefinition of organizationOrganizational variables

System CharacteristicsDimensionsAttributesVariables

Source: Meister (1999).

Table 4 Taxonomy of HFE Elements: The Human Factor

Human ElementsPhysical/sensoryCognitiveMotivational/emotional

Effects of the Human on TechnologyImprovement in technology effectivenessAbsence of effectReduction in technological effectiveness

Human ConceptualizationStimulus–response orientation (limited)Stimulus–conceptual–response orientation (major)Stimulus–conceptual–motivational–responseorientation (major)

Human Technological RelationshipsController relationshipPartnership relationshipClient relationship

Effects of Technology on the HumanPerformance effects

Goal accomplishmentGoal nonaccomplishmentError/time discrepanciesFeeling effectTechnology acceptanceTechnology indifferenceTechnology rejectionDemand effectsResource mobilizationStress/trauma

Human Operations in TechnologyEquipment operationEquipment maintenanceSystem managementType/degree of human involvement

Direct (operation)Indirect (recipient)ExtensiveMinimalNone



Table 6 General System Variables

1. Requirement constraints imposed on the system2. Resources required by the system3. Nature of its internal components and processes4. Functions and missions performed by the system5. Nature, number, and specificity of goals6. Structural and organizational characteristics of the

system (e.g., its size, number of subsystems andunits, communication channels, hierarchical levels,and amount of feedback)

7. Degree of automation8. Nature of the environment in which the system

functions9. System attributes (e.g., complexity, sensitivity,

flexibility, vulnerability, reliability, and determinacy)10. Number and type of interdependencies

(human–machine interactions) within the systemand type of interaction (degree of dependency)

11. Nature of the system’s terminal output(s) or missioneffects


(2) tasks of continuously coordinating sensorimoni-tor functions (e.g., assembling or tracking tasks), (3)tasks of converting information into motor actions (e.g.,

inspection tasks), (4) tasks of converting informationinto output information (e.g., required control tasks),and (5) tasks of producing information (primarily cre-ative work) (Grandjean, 1986; Luczak et al., 1999). Anytask in a human–machine system requires processingof information that is gathered based on perceived andinterpreted relationships between system elements. Theprocessed information may need to be stored by eithera human or a machine for later use.

The scope of HFE factors that need to be considered inthe design, testing, and evaluation of any human–systeminteractions is shown in Table 7 in the form of theexemplary ergonomics checklist. It should be notedthat such checklists also reflect practical application ofthe discipline. According to the Board of Certificationin Professional Ergonomics (BCPE), a practitioner ofergonomics is a person who (1) has a mastery of abody of ergonomics knowledge, (2) has a command ofthe methodologies used by ergonomists in applying thatknowledge to the design of a product, system, job, orenvironment, and (3) has applied his or her knowledge tothe analysis, design testing, and evaluation of products,systems, and environments. The areas of current practicein the field can be best described by examining thefocus of Technical Groups of the Human Factors andErgonomics Society, as illustrated in Table 8.

Table 7 Examples of Factors to Be Used in Ergonomics Checklists

I. Anthropometric, Biomechanical, and Physiological Factors

1. Are the differences in human body size accounted for by the design?2. Have the right anthropometric tables been used for specific populations?3. Are the body joints close to neutral positions?4. Is the manual work performed close to the body?5. Are there any forward-bending or twisted trunk postures involved?6. Are sudden movements and force exertion present?7. Is there a variation in worker postures and movements?8. Is the duration of any continuous muscular effort limited?9. Are the breaks of sufficient length and spread over the duration of the task?

10. Is the energy consumption for each manual task limited?

II. Factors Related to Posture (Sitting and Standing)

1. Is sitting/standing alternated with standing/sitting and walking?2. Is the work height dependent on the task?3. Is the height of the work table adjustable?4. Are the height of the seat and backrest of the chair adjustable?5. Is the number of chair adjustment possibilities limited?6. Have good seating instructions been provided?7. Is a footrest used where the work height is fixed?8. Has the work above the shoulder or with hands behind the body been avoided?9. Are excessive reaches avoided?

10. Is there enough room for the legs and feet?11. Is there a sloping work surface for reading tasks?12. Have the combined sit–stand workplaces been introduced?13. Are handles of tools bent to allow for working with the straight wrists?

handbook of human factors and ergonomics · human factors and ergonomics in automation design 1615...

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