1ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

he Tonle Sap is the mostimportant inland wetland inSoutheast Asia. It supports ahuge population through its

enormous fisheries productivity andwater supply, and provides the lastrefuge for some of Asia’s most globallysignificant biodiversity. Humanpopulation and developmentpressures, however, are increasing.

In response, the Government ofCambodia established the Tonle SapBiosphere Reserve (TSBR) in February2001 as a focal point of environmentalmanagement. Not surprisingly,establishment of the TSBR has shedlight on the numerous threats to theTonle Sap: each has multiple rootcauses, the severity of which affect thespeed and manner in which they canbe addressed.

The Asian Development Bank(ADB) recognizes that sustainablemanagement and conservation ofnatural resources and biodiversityshould be considered from theperspective of the basin feeding theTonle Sap. In keeping with thisoutlook, the Tonle Sap EnvironmentalManagement Project (2002) aims toenhance systems and develop thecapacity for natural resourcemanagement coordination andplanning, community-based natural

resource management, andbiodiversity conservation in the TSBR.Without such investments, the TonleSap region would becomeprogressively less productive.

The Project also initiates aframework wherein subsequentprojects could address genericmanagement and conservationconcerns, institutionalize community-based natural resource management,promote sustainable livelihoods,pioneer stewardship of core areas by

communities, upgrade basin-wideresearch and database development,and encourage extension services inplace of regulation. Infrastructure forwaste management, water supply andsanitation, multipurpose landing sites,ecotourism, and expanded rural creditand microfinance might also beappropriate. ADB’s country strategiesand programs for Cambodia reflectADB’s sector-wide approach to theTonle Sap, which ADB expects topursue over the next 10 years.

The Tonle Sap

Area · 250,000–300,000 ha in the dry season· 1.0–1.6 million ha in the wet season

Hydrology · 1–2 m above mean sea level in the dry season· 8–11 m above mean sea level in the wet season· 20% of the Mekong River’s floodwaters are absorbed by the Tonle Sap· 62% of the Tonle Sap’s water originates from the Mekong River· 38% of the Tonle Sap’s water originates from the Tonle Sap watershed· The Tonle Sap is connected to the Mekong River by the 100-kilometer

long Tonle Sap River, which reverses its flow seasonally

Biology · The flooded forest contains about 200 plant species· The flooded forest covered more than 1 million ha originally, 614,000 ha

in the 1960s, and 362,000 ha in 1991· The Tonle Sap contains at least 200 species of fish, 42 species of reptiles,

225 species of birds, and 46 species of mammals

Socioeconomy · 1.2 million people live in the area bordered by Highways No. 5 and No. 6.· The Tonle Sap yields about 230,000 tons of fish per annum (more than

50% of Cambodia’s total)· Rice production in the Tonle Sap floodplain makes up about 12% of

Cambodia’s total production.

FUTURE SOLUTIONS NOWFUTURE SOLUTIONS NOW

THE TONLE SAP INITIATIVETHE TONLE SAP INITIATIVE

T

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2 ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

The Tonle Sap in ADB’sCountry Strategies andProgramsProtection and Management of CriticalWetlands in the Lower Mekong Basin (1998)

roposals for improvedenvironmental management ofthe Tonle Sap were studiedunder regional technical

assistance (TA) for Protection andManagement of Critical Wetlands inthe Lower Mekong Basin, whichcovered two wetlands of regional

• infrastructure development, and• alternative livelihood

development and improvement.Following discussions in

November–December 2001, it wasagreed that a first project shouldconcentrate on institutionalstrengthening and legislative reform,and that provision should be made forsubsequent projects (includinginvestments in infrastructure) oncemanagement systems and capacityhave been built.

Tonle Sap Environmental Management(2002)The objective of the Tonle SapEnvironmental Management Project isto enhance systems and to developthe capacity for natural resource management coordination andplanning, community-based naturalresource management, andbiodiversity conservation in the TSBR.To accomplish the project’s objective,three closely interrelated componentswill• strengthen natural resource

management coordination andplanning for the TSBR,

• organize communities fornatural resource management inthe TSBR, and

• build management capacity forbiodiversity conservation in theTSBR.The project area encompasses the

TSBR and parts of the five provincesthat adjoin it: Battambang, KompongChhnang, Kompong Thom, Pursat,and Siem Reap. This comprises thecore areas, the buffer zone, and thetransition area that extends to and isultimately bounded by Highways No.5 and No. 6. The total project cost isestimated at $19.3 million equivalent.ADB plans to provide a loan of$10.9 million equivalent from itsSpecial Funds resources to financeabout 56% of the project cost. AGlobal Environment Facility (GEF)grant in the amount of about$3.2 million was formulated with theproposed loan. In addition, theUnited Nations DevelopmentProgramme’s Capacity 21 programplans to provide a grant of about$623,000. The Government would

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importance: the Tonle Sap inCambodia and Siphandon in the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic. InCambodia, the objective of the TA wasto prepare proposals for investment todevelop and support community-based integrated management systemsfor fisheries, forestry, and agriculture.As presented in July 2001, the TAconsultants had formulated aproposal for an investment projectthat consisted of• community-based natural

resource management,

P

The Tonle Sap yields about 230,000tons of fish annually; the area ishome to 1.2 million people

The Tonle Sap yields about 230,000tons of fish annually; the area ishome to 1.2 million people

3ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

finance about $3.9 million equivalentin local currency.

Chong Kneas Environmental Improvement(2004)Chong Kneas, a fishing community atthe northern end of the Tonle Sap inSiem Reap Province, is the majorlanding point for passengers, fish,cargo, and fuel destined for SiemReap. It consists of seven villages of amixed ethnic composition, and has atotal population of about 5,000 insome 700 households. Port facilitiesdo not exist, in the traditional senseof the term, due in large part to theseasonal water level variation andcorresponding movement of theshoreline by some 5–8 kilometers.

As with other fishing communitiesliving in the flooded area of the lake,the Chong Kneas community hasadopted a way of life tightlyintegrated with the seasonal rise andfall of water in the Tonle Sap. Theinhabitants of six of the seven villageslive in houseboats that are movedaccording to the level of flooding.The remaining village sits on the sideof a road embankment which extendssouth from Phnom Kraom, an isolated

rocky outcrop rising about 140 metersabove the otherwise flat terrain of theseasonally flooded land bordering theTonle Sap.

Improving environmentalconditions for the community atChong Kneas and reducing its povertyare interrelated and strongly linkedwith improving the living conditionsof the dependent communitymembers. Their life on the water is

one of extreme hardship andvulnerability. The community hasrequested that upgrading of the portfacilities be accompanied by theprovision of a permanent living areafor the commune of Chong Kneas.The objective of a project preparatoryTA, scheduled in 2002, is to preparean investment project to improve thesocial and natural environment atChong Kneas. The TA will produce a

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Ian

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Learning new skills can helppeople build new livesLearning new skills can helppeople build new lives

Life on the water is one of hardshipand vulnerabilityLife on the water is one of hardshipand vulnerability

4 ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

feasibility study of investmentinterventions (see focus article, p.7).

Tonle Sap Sustainable Livelihoods Sector (2005)Poverty is almost four times asprevalent in rural Cambodia as in thecapital of Phnom Penh, where one in10 people live in poverty. Life in thecountryside is characterized by lack ofaccess to electricity and health services.Most rural homes do not have a toiletand almost a third of rural inhabitantshave completed less than one year offormal schooling.

Cambodia experienced higheconomic growth before 1997, butagricultural productivity failed to keeppace with population growth, leavingmany people to fish and forage oncommon property. As the situationworsens, there remains a lack ofunderstanding of what could be doneto help the rural poor.

The objective of a projectpreparatory TA, scheduled in 2003, isto prepare an investment project tosustain and improve livelihoods in theflooded area of the Tonle Sap. The TAwill cover parts of five provinces thatadjoin the Tonle Sap (see focus article,p.8).

Elements ofStrategic PlanningEnlisting Partners

f assistance is to help Cambodiareduce poverty, there needs to bea real improvement in the way thatassistance is delivered. This means

reducing support for stand-aloneprojects and increasing support forsector-wide reforms. The Tonle SapInitiative builds on successful andtested approaches pioneered bynongovernment organizations andlong-standing partners, such as theFood and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations, InternationalLabour Organisation, United NationsDevelopment Programme, and UnitedNations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization, to promotecomplementarity and sharing ofexperience.

Japan Fund for Poverty ReductionADB will augment its support for

sustainable management andconservation by leveraging resourcessuch as the Japan Fund for PovertyReduction (JFPR) to enableimprovements in the livelihoods of thepoorest, for example through betteraccess to basic and facilitatinginfrastructure as well as improvedaccess to information, technologies,and training.

In 2002, ADB plans to formulate aJFPR project targeting poor fisherfolk to• reduce income poverty in the

floating communities of the TonleSap that have more than 40–50%

of the households living in povertyand experiencing food insecurity;

• sustain livelihoods by providingaccess to clean drinking water,sanitation, and educationinfrastructure; and

• improve the capacity of the poor,particularly women and ethnicminorities, to participateeffectively in decision making,implementation and managementof livelihood improvementactivities, and selection andimplementation of activities forcommunity-based infrastructure.

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I The ancient Khmer kings built their capitalon the northwestern shore of the Tonle SapThe ancient Khmer kings built their capitalon the northwestern shore of the Tonle Sap

5ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

External Assistance to the Environment and Natural Resources Sector

Project Duration Source Objective $ Areamillion of Operation

Management of Ongoing MRC, To study socioeconomics and community organization $2.3 Nationalthe Freshwater Denmark for improved managementCapture Fisheriesof Cambodia

Assessment of Ongoing MRC To collect data on ecology and socioeconomics for use — Mekong regionMekong Fisheries in planning water management projects and in

designing fisheries management systems

Aquaculture of Ongoing MRC To develop aquaculture systems to explore the feasibility — Mekong regionIndigenous Mekong of breeding indigenous fish speciesFish Species

Strengthening 2001–2004 MRC To establish databases for national Mekong Basin — Tonle SapInland Fisheries capture and culture fisheries; and regional captureManagement and culture fisheries, and strengthening national capacitySystems for data collection, storage, processing, analysis,

interpretation and dissemination

Cambodia Climate Ongoing UNDP To build knowledge and capacity related to climate change $0.3 NationalChange Assistance GEF by focusing on issues clearly perceived by the Government

as environmental and developmental priorities

Participatory 1995–1998 FAO, To conduct research and data collection on the flora — Siem ReapNatural Resource 1998–2001 Belgium and fauna of the flooded forest ecosystem and theManagement in the 2001–2003 socioeconomy of fisheries and border zone agriculturalTonle Sap Region communities; and develop natural resource management

by local communities

Biodiversity and 2000–2003 WB, To develop an effective national protected areas system $4.9 Ratanakiri andProtected Areas GEF that is based on a consistent and well articulated set of Stung TrengManagement management, financial, and institutional procedures

within a well functioning legal and regulatory framework

Natural Resource 2001–2006 Danida To sustain environmental resource management based — Nationaland Environment on environment-friendly, technologically, andProgram socioeconomically sound use of natural resources

by the communities, the private sector, and government;mitigate against the detrimental effects of urban andindustrial development; and support environmentaleducation, particularly among the younger generation

Special FeaturesSector AnalysisBasin ApproachDonor CoordinationPartnershipsCofinancingSequencingPro-Poor InterventionsSustainable LivelihoodsSocial ParticipationEthnic Minorities

THE TONLE SAP INITIATIVE

(continued on p.6)

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6 ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

External Assistance to the Environment and Natural Resources Sector (Cont’d.)

Project Duration Source Objective $ Areamillion of Operation

Mekong River Basin Ongoing UNDP, To establish a multisectoral planning process operational $31.5 Mekong regionWetland Conservation to 2008 GEF, at national and regional levels; strengthen the policyand Sustainable Use Netherlands framework and macroeconomic environment to supportProgramme wetland biodiversity conservation and sustainable use;

and strengthen the information base to improve manage-ment of wetlands, including community-based naturalresource management

Agricultural 1999–2003 WB To strengthen agronomy, animal health, fisheries $3.4 North and north-Productivity and agricultural hydraulics, all of which have capacity east, includingImprovement building responsibilities Kompong Thom

and Siem Reap

Community-Based 2001–2005 IFAD To sustain increased food production and farm $22.8 Kompong ThomRural Development incomes from intensified and diversified crop and and Kampot

livestock production; and increase the capacity ofthe poor to use services available from the Gov-ernment and other sources for their social andeconomic development

North East Village 2002 WB To promote rural development through direct $6.0 Kompong Cham,Development productive activities, training in agriculture, fisheries Kompong Thom,

and vegetable cultivation, microenterprise development, and Stung Trengsmall-scale rural infrastructure, and harbor improvement

ADB=Asian Development Bank; AFD=Agence Française de Développement; Danida=Danish International Development Authority; EU=European Union; FAO=Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations; GEF=Global Environment Facility; IFAD=International Fund for Agricultural Development; MRC=Mekong River Commission; UNDP=United NationsDevelopment Programme; WB=World Bank.

The Value of Wetlands: The Tonle Sap as Lake and Floodplain

EstuariesLakes (without Mangroves Open Freshwater Swamp

mangroves) Coasts Floodplains Marshes Peatlands Forests

FunctionsGroundwater RechargeGroundwater DischargeFlood ControlShoreline Stabilization Erosion ControlSediment/Toxicant RetentionNutrient RetentionBiomass ExportStorm Protection/WindbreakMicroclimate StabilizationWater TransportRecreation/TourismProductsForest ResourcesWildlife ResourcesFisheriesForage ResourcesAgricultural ResourcesWater SupplyAttributesBiological DiversityUniqueness to Culture or Heritage

Key: Absent or exceptional; Present; Common and important value of that wetland type.Source: Dugan, P.J. (Ed.) (1990). Wetland Conservation: A Review of Current Issues and Required Action. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.

7ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

ort facilities do not exist in thetraditional sense of the term atChong Kneas due in large partto the seasonal water level

variation and correspondingmovement of the shoreline by some5–8 km. The present facilities forunloading passengers, fish, and cargocomprise an earthen roadembankment extending south fromPhnom Kraom for about 3.8 km and anavigation channel of about 6 km thatruns alongside the road and connectsto the small inlet on the lake’sperimeter. When the lake is at itshighest level, Phnom Kraom isaccessible by passenger, fishing, andcargo boats, even though the road ismostly submerged.

In the dry season, the channel isunnavigable for almost its completelength. At such times, a woodenlanding site is constructed at thepoint where the road ends. This andother similar installations along theroad are removed as the water rises.The channel is often heavilycongested with regular traffic sharingthe narrow passage with floatinghouses, fish cages being towed fromone location to another, and touristboats in an apparently chaoticsituation. Passengers and cargo reachthe boats by planks on temporarysupports. The site is hazardous forpassengers, unhygienic for fish

handling, and susceptible to oil andfuel spills. The air is fetid with rottingorganic debris. Nonbiodegradablesolid wastes litter the shoreline andshallow waters. Liquid and solidwastes of all nature are disposed of inthe water alongside the road andbecome trapped within the channel.

Although the visual evidence ofpollution diminishes when the waterlevel is high, the environmental andhealth hazards remain. This situationposes an increasingly severe healthrisk for the villages of Chong Kneas,limits opportunities for value-addedfish-based activities, and is notconducive to tourism development.

While fishing is the mainoccupation, small businesses andemployment as porters, boat drivers,and fish handlers provide somesupplementary income. Theinhabitants of the floating villages payto have their houseboats towed tonew anchorage sites along thechannel to accommodate thechanging water levels and move intosheltered locations. These and othercosts related to repairing damage totheir houses account for a large partof the annual expenditure of thepredominantly poor residents.Indebtedness is high and returns forlabor are low as most poor fisherfolkare locked into a system of borrowingand selling to middlemen. The

absence of clean water and sanitationleads to frequent morbidity and lowlevels of life expectancy.

One floating school is in poorcondition and provides extremelylimited facilities. Seasonal peaks inlabor demand result in low schoolattendance, especially for boys. Themost vulnerable section of thecommunity, however, consists of thefemale-headed households, for whichlack of access to male labor andcapital severely limits livelihoodoptions. Another particularlyvulnerable group is the ethnicVietnamese minority. �

THE CHALLENGES AT CHONG KNEAS

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7ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

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Chong Kneas: dry season (above),wet season (below)Chong Kneas: dry season (above),wet season (below)

FOCUS

8 ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

SEARCHING FORSUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS

Cambodia is ranked 130th on theHuman Development Index(2002), out of 173 countries:around 40% of the population

live below the poverty line; 40% ofpeople do not have enough to eat;half of the children under five aremalnourished; for every 1,000 livebirths, 115 children die before theyreach that age; and the rate of HIV/AIDS infection is the highest in the

8 ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

region. Regardless, at its currentgrowth rate (2.5% in 2001),Cambodia’s population will rise from11.5 million to 14 million by 2005.

The incidence of poverty inrural areas (43%) is four timeshigher than that reported inPhnom Penh (11%): access to healthservices covers barely half the ruralpopulation; 82% of rural householdshave no toilet; 31% of rural

inhabitants have completed less than ayear of formal schooling; 96% cookwith firewood; and less than 1% haveelectricity for lighting. Despite higheconomic growth before 1997,agricultural productivity did not keepup with population growth. Fishingand foraging on common propertysuch as lakes and forests make up thedifference of food supply. However,access to all natural resources is

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Education is a priorityin Cambodia, where athird of rural peoplehave completed lessthan a year of formalschooling

FOCUS

9ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

becoming more difficult and manyclaim that the condition of the ruralpoor is in fact deteriorating.Disturbingly, there is still a real lack ofunderstanding of what could be doneto help the rural poor.

The challenge is to examine andaddress the multiple aspects of theirlivelihoods. A livelihood is acombination of the resources usedand the activities undertaken to live.It is sustainable when it can cope withand recover from stress, and maintainor enhance its capabilities and assetswithout undermining the naturalresource base.

However, in Cambodia, the statusof financial capital reveals that fewoptions are available: the majority ofloans are taken from relatives orneighbors. Physical capital, such asroads and water supplies, has beendestroyed, and there is poor coverageof schools and health posts. Naturalcapital, including forests, fisheries,and a range of agroecological zones,is exposed to human pressure. Socialcapital suggests that social patternsand networks have been severelydisrupted by protracted civil war andgenocide: participation is seen asnew. Human capital was seriouslyaffected by the extermination of ageneration of leaders, levels of healthand education are low, and womenshoulder a large burden ofagricultural work due to male deathsin the wars. Structures and processesunderpin this asset pentagon,comprising the institutions, policies,legislation, culture, and powerrelations that determine access, termsof exchange, and returns; shape thelivelihood strategies of the poor; andgovern their outcomes.

Tackling poverty in Cambodiameans working with the rural poor,initially where the availability oflivelihood assets is beingfundamentally affected by criticaltrends, such as overfishingand shocks—drought, pest outbreaks,or floods. This is the case in theTonle Sap region. For the last20 years, the Tonle Sap’s naturalresources, especially its fisheries, havebeen characterized by inequity ofdistribution, fraudulent transactions,

widespread corruption,environmental degradation fromunsustainable patterns of exploitation,and escalating conflict. Despite thevast natural wealth of the Tonle Sap,poverty is widespread: 38% of thepopulation living in the five provincessurrounding it fall under the officialpoverty line, the highest proportionin the country. Around 50% of villageshave 40–60% of households livingbelow the poverty line, with a peak of80% in some rural areas of Siem ReapProvince and Kompong ChhnangProvince. Poverty is related toextended instability and conflict, andthe resultant harm to the population.

Most of Cambodia experiencedpeace and economic growth after1993, but only since 1998 have areasnorthwest of the Tonle Sap enjoyedtheir first real respite from war. Manyinternally displaced persons, repatriatedrefugees, internal migrants, anddemobilized soldiers are busyreestablishing their livelihoods in whatremains a fractured society. The abilityto tackle these issues has beendiminished at all levels of Cambodian

society by 25 years of strife broughtabout by the Khmer Rouge. In recentyears, many have become increasinglyconcerned that development andunsustainable exploitation of naturalrichness, especially clearing of theflooded forest for cash cropping andillegal fishing, threaten the Tonle Sap.King Norodom Sihanouk has warnedthat Cambodia faces environmentaldisaster if the fragile ecosystem of thelake is further degraded.

The livelihoods approach is a wayof thinking about the objectives, scope,and priorities for development. It seeksto develop an understanding of thefactors that lie behind people’s choiceof livelihood strategy and then toreinforce the positive aspects andmitigate against the constraints ornegative influences. Its core principlesare that poverty-focused developmentactivities should be people-centered,responsive and participatory, multilevel,conducted in partnership, sustainable,and dynamic. It is a way of puttingpeople at the center of development,thereby increasing the effectiveness ofdevelopment assistance.

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The livelihoods approach has thecore principles that poverty-focused development activitiesshould be people-centered,responsive and participatory,sustainable, and dynamic

The livelihoods approach has thecore principles that poverty-focused development activitiesshould be people-centered,responsive and participatory,sustainable, and dynamic

10 ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

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12 ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

For more information on the Tonle Sap Initiative,please contact

Urooj Malik, Country DirectorPaulin Van Im, Project Implementation/Program Officer

Cambodia Resident Mission93/95 Preah Norodom Blvd.Sangkat Boeung RaingKhan Daun Penh, CambodiaP.O. Box 2436Tel: (855-23) 215 805, 215 806Fax: (855-23) 215 807E-mail: adbcarm@adb.orgWeb site: http://www.adb.org/CARM

Eric Sales

In this publication, “$” refers to US dollars.

© Asian Development Bank 2002October 2002