future solutions now - the tonle sap initiative april 2003

1ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

he Asian Development Bank(ADB) is promoting manage-ment and conservation ofthe natural resources of

Cambodia’s Tonle Sap basin, asource of livelihood for more than1.2 million inhabitants, through aconcessional $10.9 million equivalentloan approved on 21 November 2002.

A biosphere reserve since 1997,the Tonle Sap is the largest freshwaterlake in Southeast Asia, supporting oneof the most productive fisheries in theworld and directly providinglivelihoods for about 11% of thecountry’s population. Those livingaround the lake carry out commercialand subsistence fishing, while landcommunities rely on low-yield riceproduction and supplement this withfirewood collection or illegal dryseason crop production. But the lakehas wider importance in the countryin food security, with fish from thearea accounting for up to 70% ofthe protein intake of Cambodia’spopulation of more than 13 million.

Yet, the natural resources of theTonle Sap are a source of conflictamong stakeholders. Inequality of

access rights, growing populationpressure, severe poverty, insufficientor nonexistent rights of tenure, andcultural and ethnic differences placethe lake’s ecosystem and thepopulation that depends on it at risk.The 25 years of strife brought about bythe Khmer Rouge have diminishedthe ability to tackle these issues at alllevels of Cambodian society. In recentyears, many have become increasinglyconcerned that development andunsustainable exploitation of theTonle Sap’s natural richness,especially the clearing of the floodedforest for cash cropping and illegalfishing, threaten the Tonle Sap. KingNorodom Sihanouk has warned thatCambodia faces environmentaldisaster if the fragile ecosystem of thelake is further degraded. Managementof the biosphere reserve is a greatchallenge (see article, p. 10).

Conservation Project toProtect Resources andLivelihoodsThe aims of the Tonle SapEnvironmental Management Projectare to

• strengthen natural resource

management coordination andplanning,

• organize communities for naturalresource management, and

• build management capacity forbiodiversity conservation.The Project will strengthen the

self-reliance of the area’s most poorand vulnerable groups, includingethnic minorities, by giving them avoice in community development andnatural resource management. ADB isalso providing a technical assistancegrant of $540,000, approved on21 November 2002, to improve theregulatory and management

T

FUTURE SOLUTIONS NOWFUTURE SOLUTIONS NOW

THE TONLE SAP INITIATIVETHE TONLE SAP INITIATIVETonle Sap EnvironmentalManagement Project

My poverty is having no land,buffalo, hoe, rake, plow,

transport, mosquito net, cookingpots, or even plates to eat from, andspoon and fork to pick up the food.This means I cannot possibly getenough food to eat because I lackthe things I need to keep me alivefor much longer.”

The “voice” is of a woman in her mid-60sliving in Kampong Thom, who in her lifetimehas known the comforts of prosperity andthe cruelty of war and, in the return to peace,is left with nothing.

Source: ADB, 2001. Participatory Poverty Assessment:Cambodia. Manila.

Eric

Sal

es

“

2 ADB MEKONG DEPARTMENT

framework for inland fisheries (seefocus article, p. 7). The inhabitants ofthe project area will be the directbeneficiaries, but the Project is alsoimportant to much of the rest of thecountry, which depends on the lake’sfish for protein, and to the world ingeneral, which will benefit fromconservation of globally significantbiodiversity.

The total cost of the Project isestimated at $19.4 million. Besides theADB loan and grant, the GlobalEnvironment Facility and the Capacity21 Program of the United NationsDevelopment Programme willprovide, respectively, $3.9 million and

External Assistance to the Environment and Natural Resource Sector

Project Duration Source Objective $ AreaMillion of Operation

Management of the Ongoing MRC, To study socioeconomics and community organization for 2.3 NationalFreshwater Capture Denmark improved managementFisheries ofCambodia

Assessment of Ongoing MRC To collect data on ecology and socioeconomics for planning — MekongMekong Fisheries water management projects and designing fisheries Region

management systems

Aquaculture of Ongoing MRC To develop aquaculture systems for exploring the feasibility — MekongIndigenous Mekong of breeding indigenous fish species RegionFish Species

Strengthening 2001–2004 MRC To establish databases for (a) national Mekong Basin capture — Tonle SapInland Fisheries and culture fisheries and (b) regional capture and cultureManagement fisheries; and strengthen national capacity for dataSystems collection storage, processing, analysis, interpretation, and

dissemination

Cambodia Climate Ongoing UNDP, GEF To build knowledge and capacity related to climate change 0.3 NationalChange Assistance by focusing on issues clearly perceived by the Government

as environmental and developmental priorities

Participatory Natural 1995–1998 FAO, To conduct research and data collection on the flora and — Siem ReapResource Management 1998–2001 Belgium fauna of the flooded forest ecosystem and the socioeconomyin the Tonle Sap Region 2001–2003 of fisheries and border zone agricultural communities; and

develop natural resource management by local communities

Biodiversity and 2000–2003 WB, GEF To develop an effective national protected areas system 4.9 Ratanakiri andProtected Areas based on a consistent and well-articulated set of Stung TrengManagement management, financial, and institutional procedures within a

well-functioning legal and regulatory framework

Natural Resource 2001–2006 Danida To sustain environmental resource management based on — Nationaland Environment environment-friendly, technologically, and socioeconomicallyProgram sound use of natural resources by the communities,

private sector, and government; mitigate the detrimentaleffects of urban and industrial development; and supportenvironmental education, particularly for the youngergeneration

Poverty is the denial of choices and opportunities for living a tolerable life.Human Development Report 1997, United Nations

Poverty encompasses not only material deprivation but also lowachievements in education and health, vulnerability and exposure to risk,lack of participation, and powerlessness.World Development Report 2001, World Bank

http://www.adb.org/Projects/Tonle_Sap/

$623,000 in grants. The Governmentwill finance the balance of$3.9 million. Financing about 56%of the total project cost, ADB’s loancomes from its concessional AsianDevelopment Fund, with a 32-yearterm, including a grace period of

8 years. Interest is 1% per yearduring the grace period and1.5% per annum subsequently.The executing agency for the Project,which will be carried out over 5 years,is the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry,and Fisheries. �

Source: ADB. 2001. Participatory Poverty Assessment: Cambodia. Manila.


External Assistance to the Environment and Natural Resources Sector (continued)

Project Duration Source Objective $ AreaMillion of Operation

Mekong River Ongoing to UNDP, GEF, To establish a multisectoral planning process operational at 31.5 MekongBasin Wetland 2008 the national and regional levels, strengthen the policy RegionConservation and Netherlands framework and macroeconomic environment to supportSustainable Use wetland biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, andProgramme strengthen the information base to improve management

of wetlands, including community-based natural resourcemanagement

Agricultural 1999–2003 WB To strengthen agronomy, animal health, fisheries, and 3.4 North andProductivity agricultural hydraulics, all of which have capacity-building Northeast, includingImprovement responsibilities Kompong Thom

and Siem Reap

Community-Based 2001–2005 IFAD To sustain increased food production and farm incomes 22.8 Kompong ThomRural Development from intensified and diversified crop and livestock and Kampot

production; and increase the capacity of the poor to useservices available from the Government and other sourcesfor their social and economic development

Northeast Village 2002 WB To promote rural development through direct productive 6.0 Kompong Cham,Development activities; training in agriculture, fisheries, and vegetable Kompong Thom,

cultivation; microenterprise development; small-scale and Stung Trengrural infrastructure; and harbor improvement

Cambodia Land 2002–2007 WB To improve land tenure security and promote the 33.4 NationalManagement and development of efficient land marketsAdministration

Support Program 1995–1998 EU To increase the income of the farming communities and to 39.0 Kompong Speu,for the Agricultural 1999–2003 nourish a prosperous life in the rural villages Takeo, KompongSector in Cambodia Cham, Kompong

Chhnang, PreyVeng, and Svay Rieng

Stung Chinit Irrigation 2001–2006 ADB, AFD To increase income and improve quality of life by providing 23.8 Kampong Thomand Rural sustainable irrigation, agricultural extension, and ruralInfrastructure infrastructure, such as roads and markets

Northwestern Rural 2002–2007 ADB To reduce poverty through accelerated rural development 35.3 Battambang,Development Oddar Meanchey,

Banteay Meanchey,and Siem Reap

Tonle Sap 2002–2007 ADB, GEF, To enhance systems and develop the capacity for natural 19.4 Tonle SapEnvironmental UNDP resource management coordination and planning,Management community-based natural resource management, and

biodiversity conservation in the Tonle Sap biosphere reserve

Improving the 2003–2004 ADB To improve the regulatory and management framework for 0.5 Tonle SapRegulatory and inland fisheries, with special attention to the subdecree onManagement community fisheriesFramework forInland Fisheries

Chong Kneas 2003–2004 ADB, Finland To prepare an investment project to improve the social 0.9 Siem ReapEnvironmental and natural environment at Chong KneasImprovement

Capacity Building of 2003–2004 ADB To develop the Inland Fisheries Research and Development 0.9 Tonle Sapthe Inland Fisheries Institute as an efficient, effective, and relevant researchResearch and and development instituteDevelopment Institute

ADB = Asian Development Bank, AFD = Agence Française de Développement, Danida = Danish International Development Assistance, EU = European Union, FAO = Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations, GEF = Global Environment Facility, IFAD = International Fund for Agricultural Development, MRC = Mekong River Commission, UNDP = United NationsDevelopment Programme, WB = World Bank.


Open Freshwater Peat SwampLakes Estuaries Coasts Floodplains Marshes Lands Forests

Direct Human ActionsDrainage for Agriculture, Forestry, and

Mosquito ControlDredging and Stream Channelization for

Navigation and Flood ProtectionFilling for Solid Waste Disposal, Roads,

and Commercial, Residential, andIndustrial Development

Conversion for Aquaculture/MaricultureConstruction of Dikes, Dams, Levees,

and Seawalls for Flood Control, WaterSupply, Irrigation, and Storm Protection

Discharges of Pesticides, Herbicides,Nutrients from Domestic Sewage, andAgricultural Run-Off and Sediment

Mining of Wetland Soils for Peat, Coal,Gravel, Phosphate, and Other Materials

Groundwater AbstractionIndirect Human ActionsSediment Diversion by Dams, Deep

Channels, and Other StructuresHydrological Alterations by Canals, Roads,

and Other StructuresSubsidence Due to Extraction of

Groundwater, Oil, Gas, and Other MineralsNatural CausesSubsidenceSea-Level RiseDroughtHurricanes and Other StormsErosionBiotic Effects

Key: Absent or exceptional; Present, but not a major cause of loss; Common and important cause of wetland degradation and loss.Source: Dugan, P.J. (Ed.) (1990). Wetland Conservation: A Review of Current Issues and Required Action. Gland, Switzerland: World Conservation Union (IUCN).

Causes of Wetland Loss: The Tonle Sap as Lake and Floodplain

Eric

Sal

es

Fish from the Tonle Sap basin account for upto 70% of the protein intake of Cambodia’spopulation of more than 13 million


Literature onCambodia’s inlandfisheries makesfrequent reference to

the abundance of fish in theTonle Sap ecosystem and theexpertise of the fishers whoexploit this bounty.1 Withouta doubt, inland fisheries areindispensable to the foodsecurity, income, andemployment of theCambodian population.2

Yet, attention is increasinglybeing drawn to the impactsof overfishing and destructivepractices.

It is urgent to sustain theproductivity of fisheries andto rationalize their use.Yet, basic data concerningfish populations, theirenvironment, and theirexploitation are often patchy,mostly old, and in generalcannot support decisionmaking. Original research isstill scarce and reportshabitually quote early works.For instance, information onthe bioecology of key fish species isplainly inadequate. But it is alsonecessary to model flood-fishrelationships in the Tonle Sap;investigate improvements inmarketing, distribution, and use ofkey fish products; and circumscribebetter the value of the fisheries (usingmarket-based methods, methods basedon surrogate market values, and thosebased on potential expenditure orwillingness to pay). This calls for asubstantial increase in the body ofbioecological and socioeconomicknowledge. To leverage thecontribution of research to sustainable

management and conservation ofnatural resources and biodiversity, theDepartment of Fisheries in theMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry, andFisheries began, in April 1994, tocollect primary data; conduct studiesto evaluate and modify fisheriesmanagement for optimal resource use,in terms of production andsustainability; and clarify themacroeconomic importance offisheries. It also laid plans forestablishing a research anddevelopment institute for inlandfisheries to strengthen the capabilityto produce, adapt, and use

knowledge, building capacity forinland fisheries research anddevelopment.

The Inland Fisheries Researchand Development Institute wasconstituted in late 2002 as a physical,legal, and organizational entityreporting to the Department ofFisheries. Its mission is to promotesustainable development and useof living aquatic resources based onenvironmentally soundmanagement. It consists of a sectionfor biological research and resourceassessment, and a section forsocioeconomic research. The

FOCUS

Building Capacity for Inland FisheriesResearch and Development


1At 110–175 kilograms per hectare per annum, the productivity of Cambodia’s inland fisheries is among the highest in the world. High temperatures and periodical flooding explain this. However, therole of the flooded forest is also acknowledged: it facilitates development of microorganisms, weeds, and zooplankton; provides shelter to juveniles and specific adult species; and offers reproduction zonesfor other species.2Fish provide 40–70% of the protein intake of Cambodia’s population, and the annual catch from the Tonle Sap represents about 75% of the national inland fish catch.

Eric

Sal

es

The Inland Fisheries Research andDevelopment Institute’s mission is topromote sustainable developmentand use of living aquatic resourcesbased on environmentally soundmanagement


Institute also oversees two fieldstations for lake and bagnet fisheries.Its research program, to be deliveredby about 30 research staff nowassigned to the Project forManagement of the FreshwaterCapture Fisheries, has been outlined.At this early stage, the opportunityexists to establish a well functioningresearch system with high standardsfor analytic rigor and effectivescientific reporting andcommunication. From a small base,it is important to build that capacityto plan and undertake research, andto extend and disseminate findings.

Fisheries research can work tomake fish more affordable, furtherdiversify fisheries, generateemployment and income for fishers,create alternative livelihoods,conserve and rebuild fish stocks,provide policy advice on managementarrangements for common aquaticresources based on insights into theexternal factors that impinge on theiruse, and strengthen community efforts


to manage aquatic resources andprotect biodiversity. Research to theseends can reduce poverty and issupported by ADB’s policy onfisheries, which is guided in turn byADB’s policy on agriculture andnatural resource research. Within thatframework, ADB seeks to enhance thecapability of national research systemsin the priority areas of addressingsocioeconomic issues relating to openaccess and overfishing; fisheryresource studies to provideinformation on their present status;ecologic-economic studies tocharacterize and quantify interactionsbetween the fisheries sector and othersectors, the results of which areimportant inputs to policy analysis;studies on nonmarket valuation andnatural resource and environmentalaccounting to extend theconventional cost-benefit analysis,which will ensure meeting thesustainability criterion in fisheriesprojects; and sustainable aquaculturestudies. Building the capacity of the

Inland Fisheries Research andDevelopment Institute offersopportunities in each of thesepriority areas. Continued supportfor public sector research is neededbecause the private sector haslimited interest in and no mandatefor supporting a research agenda ininland fisheries.

On 11 December 2002, ADBapproved a technical assistance grantin the amount of $900,000 for capacitybuilding of the Inland FisheriesResearch and Development Institute.The goal of the technical assistance issustainable management andconservation of natural resources andbiodiversity in the Tonle Sap basin. Itspurpose is to build the capacity of theInland Fisheries Research andDevelopment Institute as an efficient,effective, and relevant research anddevelopment institute. Its outputs willfocus on institute management,research and development,technology transfer, and policydevelopment and dialogue. �

Eric

Sal

es

ADB aims to build the capacity of theInland Fisheries Research and DevelopmentInstitute as an efficient, effective, andrelevant research and development institute


The Government of Cambodiatook a bold step forward when,in October 2000, it released alarge part of the Tonle Sap’s

fishing lots for communitymanagement. This decision gaveimpetus to the reform of theregulatory framework for inlandfisheries. Work toward a new law onfishery conservation, management,and development began in August1999 (with assistance from the WorldBank) and a draft was made availablein August 2001. But in light of the far-reaching implications of that law andthe sensitive nature of any changeaffecting community fisheries, manyobservers have felt that stakeholdersshould critically review the draft.Much additional harmonizedlegislation also needs to beformulated, and the Departmentof Fisheries in the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries isstruggling to keep up with the menuof regulatory reforms in a transparentand consultative way, especially in theabsence of a management plan for theTonle Sap.

The fishing lot system wasintroduced in colonial times and hastended to dominate inland fisheries.While a potentially powerful andeffective fisheries and naturalresource management tool, thefishing lot system has becomeincreasingly inequitable, divisive,and destructive. On 24 October 2000,in the face of a long-running conflictbetween local communities andfishing lot operators, a primeministerial decree released 56% ofthe total fishing lot area from privateholdings and turned them over tocommunities for management. In thelong term, this change should benefitthe population living near inlandwater bodies, improve fish habitats,

Improving the Regulatory andManagement Framework for InlandFisheries


FOCUS

and lead to sustainable managementof fisheries and other naturalresources. But the reform process wasdriven by prime ministerial decree; itwas not the result of policy

development. Identifying anddelineating areas of fishing lots forcommunity-based management havebeen difficult. Additionally,communities have neither been

D.

Lam

bert

s

Fishing and agriculture are the two mainsources of livelihood for the 3 millionpeople (25% of Cambodia’s population)who live around the Tonle Sap

Fishing and agriculture are the two mainsources of livelihood for the 3 millionpeople (25% of Cambodia’s population)who live around the Tonle Sap


sufficiently involved in this processnor properly informed of changes,and there are reports of irregularities.In certain areas, local authorities andarmed forces interfere with legitimateresource users from communitiesattempting to fish in these lots, evento the extent of arresting them andtaking them to court. As the process ofredefinition evolves, rapid changesare also occurring in practices thatimpact fisheries and other naturalresources. The reform process is alsoplacing a considerable burden on theDepartment of Fisheries, which suffersfrom low levels of capacity. Aside fromits stated objective for fisheriesmanagement, it has little vision,focusing understandably onmaintaining existing procedures andmethods. Also, the absence of afisheries management plan for theTonle Sap hampers the work on thedraft Fisheries Law and the subdecrees,proclamations, and directives orcirculars associated with it.

An urgent need exists to provide asound legal basis for fisheries,especially inland. Several subdecreeshave already been prepared and somemay be implemented before theadoption of the Fisheries Law.However, hasty enactment should beavoided. Some existing drafts havebeen criticized and need to bereviewed for relevance, efficiency,effectiveness, and equity to achievesustainable management andconservation of natural resources andbiodiversity. Among these aresubdecrees that have special relevanceto the Tonle Sap, such as those oncommunity fisheries and managementof fishing lots. Their preparationshould be organic and grow out ofexperience, local practice,potentialities, and needs.

In general, a positive approach toensuring compliance with the law ispreferable to a negative approachthat requires policing action.Experience demonstrates thatnegative approaches encouragebribery and extortion, notcompliance. The need to consultstakeholders should also berecognized early in the drafting andreview process: consultation at both

national and local levels should bestandard operating procedure.

A 5-year Tonle Sap fisheriesmanagement plan is essential tosustainable management andconservation of natural resources andbiodiversity: most management issuestranscend local responsibilities orcompetencies, with repercussions onthe ecosystem. A fisheries managementplan will provide a policy andtechnical framework and incorporateprinciples for ecosystem management,as fishing takes place in different zones(i.e., community fisheries, fishing lots,protected areas, and open waters). Itwill also feed into the common policyobjectives for the Tonle Sap biospherereserve that are to be formulatedunder ADB’s Tonle Sap Environmental

Management Project, by the Tonle SapBiosphere Reserve Secretariat in theCambodia National MekongCommittee. At the local level, the planwill provide the framework fordeveloping commercial andcommunity fisheries managementplans. The preparation and regularupdating of fisheries managementplans are a legal requirement in manycountries: such plans complement andinfluence the regulatory framework ina dynamic and adaptive manner.

On 21 November 2002, ADBapproved a technical assistance grantof $540,000 to Cambodia to improvethe regulatory and managementframework for inland fisheries, withspecial attention to the subdecree oncommunity fisheries. �


Eric

Sal

es

Women and men in Cambodiaplay interchangeable roles becausewomen are increasingly called uponto meet household needs

Women and men in Cambodiaplay interchangeable roles becausewomen are increasingly called uponto meet household needs


The inhabitants of the Tonle Sapregion receive little schooling.Statistics report an adultliteracy rate of about 46%,

compared with the national average of63%. The school attendance ofchildren aged 5–14 years is 63%,compared with the national averageof 67%.

Women constitute about 51% ofthe population in the Tonle Sapregion. Significantly, they also headabout 15–30% of households. Femaleheads of households must both earnincome and look after young families.They have few opportunities forparticipating in community decisionmaking since Khmer tradition ascribesa passive role to women.

Nevertheless, the genderdivision of labor is changing overall:women and men playinterchangeable roles becausewomen are increasingly called uponto meet household needs. In thefloating villages, they constructfishing gear and process and sell fish.In land-based villages, they areactively involved in rice andvegetable production, trading, andforest-based activities (includingfirewood collection), and also in fishprocessing and selling. In the land-based villages, there is a growingtrend toward landlessness forhouseholds with female headsbecause of lack of capital and suddenshocks, including health problems.Nonparticipation in communitydecision making, scarceopportunities for self-development,and inadequate access to financialservices keep the women poor. �

Poverty on the Tonle SapThe Needs of the Poor Ranked in Order of Frequency Cited

NortheasternMekong Tonle Sap Coastal Mountain

Need Plain Region Region Region

Food SecurityDraft Animals 1 1 1 1Food-for-Work 2 2 1 2Resettlement 3 3 3 4Farm Implements 4 4 2 3Cheap Rice Credit 5 6 4 5Mine Clearance 7 5 – –Safety Net 6 – – 5Rice Rations – – – 5

Social InfrastructureHealth Care 1 2 1 1Wells 2 1 2 2Education 3 3 3 3Latrines 4 3 4 4Mosquito Nets 5 4 5 3School Textbooks – 5 – 4

Physical InfrastructureIrrigation 1 2 2 1Farm-to-Market Roads 2 1 1 2Land Reclamation 3 3 3 3Ponds 4 4 — 5Electricity 5 – – 4

Livelihood IssuesTechnical and Vocational 1 1 1 1 Education and TrainingJob Creation 3 3 2 4Market Support 4 2 3 2Lower Fuel Prices 2 4 3 4Investment Promotion 5 4 – 3

Agricultural NeedsCheap Agricultural Inputs 1 2 2 2New Technologies 2 1 1 1High-Yielding Rice Varieties 3 4 – 3Pumps 5 3 – 4Pesticides 4 5 – 5Tractors 6 6 3 5Animal Health 6 7 – –Rice Mills 7 – – 6Agroforestry – – – 6Threshing Machines 7 – – –

Good GovernanceDemarcation of Fishing Grounds 1 1 2 1Teacher Transparency 2 – 1 –Lower Fishing Taxes 3 – – –Fewer Arrests 3 – – –

Source: ADB. 2001. Participatory Poverty Assessment: Cambodia. Manila.

KompongBattambang Chhnang Kompong Thom Pursat Siem Reap

Population 793,129 417,693 569,060 360,445 696,164Average household size 5.3 5.0 5.3 5.2 5.4Population density (per square kilometer) 68 76 41 28 68Educational attainment: primary not completed (%) 63.4 69.9 70.7 68.3 73.2Source of drinking water, dug well (%) 37.8 52.9 77.5 53.3 69.7Source of drinking water, spring, river, stream (%) 39.1 24.3 16.2 29.0 10.9Labor force participation rate (%) 50.7 59.1 51.9 55.6 58.2Unemployment rate (%) 8.0 3.1 8.2 3.5 4.6Kerosene as main source of light (%) 83.2 89.9 89.4 88.1 88.8Firewood as main source of cooking fuel (%) 92.4 95.8 95.6 94.9 96.1

Social Indicators of the Tonle Sap


Biosphere reserves are areas ofterrestrial and coastal or marineecosystems—or a combinationof the two—that are recognized

internationally within the frameworkof the Man and the BiosphereProgramme of the United NationsEducational, Scientific, and CulturalOrganization (UNESCO). They arenominated by national governmentsand remain under their jurisdiction.The reserves must meet a minimal setof criteria and adhere to a minimal setof conditions before being admittedto UNESCO’s World Network ofBiosphere Reserves. Each reserve isintended to fulfill threecomplementary functions: aconservation function (preservelandscapes, ecosystems, species, andgenetic variation), a developmentfunction (foster sustainable economic

Biosphere Reservesand human development), and alogistic function (supportdemonstration projects, environmentaleducation and training, and researchand monitoring related to local,national, and global issues of

Buffer Zone. A zone that usuallysurrounds or adjoins core areas, and isused for cooperative activities compatiblewith sound ecological practices, includingenvironmental education, recreation,ecotourism, and applied and basicresearch. In the Tonle Sap biospherereserve, the buffer zone—an area of about540,000 hectares (ha)—surrounds thecore areas up to the outer limit of theflooded forest.

Core Areas. Securely protected sites forconserving biodiversity, monitoringminimally disturbed ecosystems, andundertaking nondestructive research andother low-impact uses such as education.In the Tonle Sap biosphere reserve, thecore areas are located in Prek Toal(21,342 ha), Battambang; Boeng TonleChhmar (Moat Kla) (14,560 ha), KompongThom; and Stung Sen (6,355 ha). Thecore areas are characterized by apreserved flooded forest, rich riversystems, and biodiversity. Nearly100 water bird species are found there, adozen of which are of internationalsignificance. In addition to fish stocks, theareas are known for species such as

GLOSSARY

conservation and sustainabledevelopment). Biosphere reservescontain one or more core areas, whichare securely protected sites; a clearlyidentified buffer zone; and a flexibletransition area. �

crocodiles, turtles, macaques, cappedlangurs, otters, and water snakes.

Transition Area. An area where existingstakeholders work together in a variety ofeconomic and other activities to manage

and develop sustainably a biospherereserve’s natural resources. In the TonleSap biosphere reserve, the transition areaof about 900,000 ha lies between the outerboundary of the buffer zone and HighwaysNo. 5 and No. 6. �

Source: UNESCO Man and the Biosphere web site. Reprinted with permission.


Biodiversity of the Tonle Sap

The Tonle Sap, the largestfreshwater lake in SoutheastAsia, covers an area of 250,000–300,000 hectares (ha) in the dry

season and around four times thisarea in the wet season. The Tonle Sapfloodplain’s size, habitat diversity, andrelative preservation are ofexceptional importance. Theecosystem is essential to the survivalof many globally significant species ofbirds, mammals, and reptiles foundaround the lake during migration.

Flora. The flooded forest of the TonleSap is the largest remaining exampleof this type of habitat in SoutheastAsia. It is a diverse unity of habitats,including shrub lands, stunted swampforests, gallery forests, and submergedand floating aquatic vegetation. About200 plant species have been recordedand the flora as a whole is distinctfrom that of other wetlands associatedwith the Mekong River, especiallywith regard to woody species. Somerestricted-range tree species areendemic to the Tonle Sap and thesouthern coastal zone of Cambodiaand have suffered from exploitationfor charcoal production.

Fish. The fisheries of the Tonle Sapand the Tonle Sap River account for15–20% of freshwater capture fisheriesin the lower Mekong Basin andrepresent 50–70% of the catch forCambodia. The fisheries productivityof the lake is known to be one of thehighest in the world. This

productivity is generally attributed tothe flooded forest. A total of 107 fishspecies has been recorded for the lakeonly; the number of fish species livingin the Tonle Sap River is probablyhigher, and new species are regularlydiscovered and described.

Invertebrates. Invertebrates are animportant component of the TonleSap’s ecosystem. The availabletaxonomic information is incompletebut studies so far have identified46 species of zooplankton. The richbiodiversity of mollusks in the TonleSap has been described as striking and57 species of benthic invertebrateshave been identified.

Boeng Tonle Chhmar and theStung Sen River and Sangke Riverestuaries are areas with highconcentrations of bivalves. Threespecies of bivalves, two species ofprawns, and one species of crab havebeen confirmed for the Tonle Sap.These freshwater invertebrates are animportant source of food for peopleand aquatic wildlife.

Mammals. Some 46 mammal speciesare likely to occur in the Tonle Sapregion. Some large species such as theAsiatic elephant and tiger used tomigrate from upland areas to theTonle Sap through natural corridors.An agricultural belt, cutting off thefloodplain from upland forest areas,now surrounds the floodplain. Thisisolation has resulted in a decrease inthe number of mammal species

occurring in the Tonle Sap. The statusof the mammal species that directlydepend on the Tonle Sap is poorlydocumented, but they number at least15 species.

Birds. The Tonle Sap (mainly at PrekToal, but also at Boeng TonleChhmar) sustains the largest coloniesof water birds in Indochina. Itsfloodplain is an important breedingarea for ducks, jacanas, bustards, rails,herons and egrets, cormorants,darters, ibises, pelicans, and storks.Some 225 species of birds have beenrecorded in the Tonle Sap regionsince the 1960s.

Reptiles and Amphibians. Theoccurrence and distribution ofamphibians and reptiles in Cambodiaare not known well andherpetologists still rely on historicalliterature. There are probably42 species of reptiles (including1 endemic water snake, 7 turtles ortortoises, and 1 crocodile).

Threatened Species. Rapid humanpopulation growth and associateddevelopment pressures, as well asdemand for natural resources, areaffecting biodiversity. Many speciesfound in Cambodian wetlands are onthe World Conservation Union (IUCN)Red List, and 12 species are listedunder the Convention onInternational Trade in EndangeredSpecies of Wild Fauna and Flora,1979. �

Prek Toal

Most important breeding and feeding areafor endangered large water bird species

Pristine wetland habitat with complexnetwork of permanent streams and waterbodies

Potential for ecotourism (proximity toSiem Reap and Angkor)

Important for fish, mammal, and reptileconservation

Minimal human occupation

Boeng Tonle Chhmar

Unique ecosystem with pristine habitats,including a complex network of deeppermanent streams, creeks, and waterbodies

Aesthetic landscapes

Important feeding and staging area forendangered large water bird species

Important for fish, mammal, and reptileconservation


Stung Sen

Unique species of ancient stands of treesrare to the Tonle Sap floodplain (elementsof lowland evergreen forest)

Regionally unique ecosystem, disturbed,but with many primary elements intact


Salient Characteristics of the Core Areas


For more information on the Tonle Sap Initiative,please contact

C.R. Rajendran, DirectorOlivier Serrat, Senior Project EconomistTatiana Gallego-Lizon, Young ProfessionalAgriculture, Environment, and Natural Resources DivisionMekong DepartmentAsian Development BankP.O. Box 789, 0980 Manila, PhilippinesTel: (632) 632-6175Fax: (632) 636-2187E-mail: [email protected] site: http://www.adb.org/Projects/Tonle_Sap/

Urooj Malik, Country DirectorPaulin Van Im, Project Implementation/Program Officer

Cambodia Resident Mission93/95 Preah Norodom Blvd.Sangkat Boeung RaingKhan Daun Penh, CambodiaP.O. Box 2436Tel: (855-23) 215 805, 215 806Fax: (855-23) 215 807E-mail: [email protected] site: http://www.adb.org/CARM

Eric Sales

© Asian Development Bank 2003The views expressed in this publication are those of theauthors and do not necessarily reflect the views andpolicies of the Asian Development Bank, or its Board ofGovernors or the governments it represents. The AsianDevelopment Bank does not guarantee the accuracy ofthe data included in this publication and accepts noresponsibility for any consequences for their use.

April 2003In this publication, “$” refers to US dollars.

future solutions now - the tonle sap initiative april 2003

Documents

naturalresource management

adb isalso

severe poverty

inhabitants ofthe proje

biosphere reserve

getenough food

countryin food security

productive fisheries