the tonle sap basin strategy

The Tonle SapBasin Strategy

APRIL 2005

© 2005 Asian Development Bank

This report was prepared by staff andconsultants of the Asian DevelopmentBank (ADB). The analyses andassessments contained herein do notnecessarily reflect the views of ADB, orits Board of Governors, or thegovernments its members represent.

ADB does not guarantee the accuracy ofthe data included in this publication andaccepts no responsibility for anyconsequence of their use.

The term “country,” as used in thecontext of ADB, refers to a memberof ADB and does not imply any view onthe part of ADB as to the member’ssovereignty or independent status.

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Asian Development Bank. 2005.The Tonle Sap Basin Strategy.

Publication Stock No. 050105

NOTE: In this report, “$” refers to US dollars.

This report was prepared by a team consisting ofOlivier Serrat (Team Leader), Tatiana Gallego-Lizon,and David Moffatt (Consultant).

Photos by Patrick Mercier

Contents

Executive Summary ii

Map iv

Introduction 1

The Poverty-EnvironmentChallenge of the Tonle Sap 4

Poverty and Vulnerability 5Resource Use Management 7Policy, Institutional, and Market Constraints 11

ADB’s Response 14

Country Strategy and Program 15The Tonle Sap Basin Strategy 15Goal and Development Objectives 16Strategic Principles 17

Delivering the Strategy 20

Operating Principles 21Activities and Operating Outputs 24The Strategy Matrix 24Coordination 25ADB’s Strengths and Competencies 27

Operational Program 28

Core Areas of Intervention 29Crosscutting Themes 32

Financing the Operational Program 33

Abbreviations and Glossary 34

Appendixes 36

1. The Value of Wetlands 372. The Tonle Sap at a Glance 383. Causes of Wetland Loss 394. Poverty on the Tonle Sap 405. The Needs of the Poor Ranked in Order of Frequency Cited 416. Characteristics and Resources of the Tonle Sap Basin Provinces 427. Tonle Sap Catchment Storage Potential 428. Operating Framework 439. Cross-Impact Strategy Matrix 44

The Tonle Sap forms a naturalfloodplain reservoir in the depressionof the Cambodian plain. It is fed bythree main perennial and numerous

erratic tributaries and is drained by the TonleSap River into the Mekong River near PhnomPenh. When the level of the Mekong River ishigh, the flow of the Tonle Sap River reverses:water is pushed into the lake, raising its levelby up to 10 meters and increasing its areafrom 2,500–3,000 square kilometers in thedry season to 10,000–16,000 square kilome-ters in the rainy season. This unique hydro-logical cycle and the vast areas of seasonallyflooded low forest and shrubs that it creates ina tropical climate result in a very highbiodiversity of fish, reptiles, birds, andmammals, and engender exceptionallyproductive fisheries. The lake’s fisheriesdirectly support more than 1 million peopleand provide the single largest source ofprotein for Cambodia’s young and increasingpopulation. The flooded areas offer seasonalbreeding and nursery grounds and forage areasfor fish that subsequently migrate to theMekong River, thereby providing a regionallyvital resource. The lake was nominated as abiosphere reserve in October 1997 under theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific, andCultural Organization Man and the BiosphereProgram. Its catchments include large areasthat have also been designated as globallyimportant in terms of biodiversity, as well asoffering potential for the storage of water forirrigation, domestic consumption, andhydropower.

The Tonle Sap basin is under severepressure, and consumptive use of its resourcesis intense. Never has the Tonle Sap beencalled upon to supply so much to so many, yetthere are many threats to the lake’s ecosys-tem, including overexploitation of fisheriesand wildlife resources, dry-season encroach-ment, and land clearance of the flooded forest.Degradation of the watersheds’ naturalvegetation destroys natural habitats and alsoresults in deterioration of water and soil

quality and increased siltation. Despite thelake’s inherent richness, most poverty indica-tors in the basin are even more negative thanthose that characterize the national popula-tion as a whole, and other rural areas ofCambodia. Between 40% and 60% of house-holds in the provinces adjoining the lake arebelow the official poverty line, with a peak of80% in some areas. Many households areentirely dependent on fishing and foraging,with access to common property areas oftenunder dispute. Because of the large number ofmale fatalities during the 1970s and 1980s,there is a disproportionately high level offemale-headed households, which are particu-larly disadvantaged. The lake-dwellingcommunities also include a significantpopulation of ethnic minorities who, oftenbeing excluded from decision making, haveless ability to improve their livelihoods. Thedestruction of the basin’s natural resources is

Executive Summary

ii TONLE SAP BASIN STRATEGY | APRIL 2005

an issue not only of national importance butalso has serious transboundary environmentalimplications. The challenge is to achieve theright balance between production andpreservation.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB)’sTonle Sap Basin Strategy has been formulatedin support of the Country Strategy andProgram (2005–2007), and forms the basis forsetting priorities and planning assistance inthe Tonle Sap basin over the next 5–10 years.In the Tonle Sap basin, the developmentobjectives are to foster, promote, and facilitate(i) pro-poor, sustainable economic growth,(ii) access to assets, and (iii) management ofnatural resources and the environment. Thestrategy is based on three underpinningprinciples: (i) sustainable livelihoods,(ii) social justice, and (iii) a basin-wideapproach. Operations will be based on(i) a long-term perspective, (ii) selectivity

and concentration, (iii) partnerships,(iv) country ownership and delegation,(v) informing and listening, and (vi) judicioususe of modalities. The strategy focuses on twocore areas. In respect of rural developmentand the environment, it expands the knowl-edge base upon which the sustainable utiliza-tion and preservation of the basin depend,addresses how the livelihoods of the commu-nities can be enhanced, improves catchmentmanagement, and strengthens the regulatoryand management framework and institutionalstructures at the local and national levels thatare needed to support development. In thefield of human development, it providestargeted support in health and education.Crosscutting themes ensure that attention ispaid to vulnerable groups, governance,resource cooperation, and the private sector.Implementation of the strategy will afford asignificant and positive contribution to moreeffective basin management; offer possibili-ties for cooperation with local, provincial,and national stakeholders to balance ever-increasing demands on the lake’s resources;and encourage continuity, give confidence tostakeholders, and present opportunities toresolve current and future challenges. Thisconcentration of resources can also catalyzeother bilateral and multilateral endeavors.

The Tonle Sap Basin Strategy marks theintroduction of basin-level strategic planningin Cambodia. The strategic planning processis iterative and provides regular opportunitiesfor inputs in support of the Country Strategyand Program (2005–2007) and its annualupdates; the Poverty Reduction PartnershipAgreement entered into by the Governmentand ADB; the Rectangular Strategy of theGovernment; the goals of the United NationsMillennium Declaration of September 2000;and Cambodia’s international obligations vis-à-vis the Tonle Sap. The details of ADB’sthematic and sector support programs will belaid out in the annual updates of the CountryStrategy and Program.

INTRO | APRIL 2005 iii

iv TONLE SAP BASIN STRATEGY | APRIL 2005

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MAP | APRIL 2005 v

TONLE SAP BASIN STRATEGY | APRIL 2005

1. Cambodia is one of the Asian DevelopmentBank (ADB)’s poorest developing membercountries. In the Human DevelopmentReport (2004), it ranked 130 out of 177countries. About 36% of Cambodia’s popula-tion lives below the poverty line.1

2. Recent economic growth has favoredthe capital, Phnom Penh, and its environs.2

The incidence of poverty in rural areas is fourtimes higher than that reported in PhnomPenh. Notably, rural people have an averageincome that is less than one third of urbanincomes. About 31% of them have completedless than 1 year of formal schooling; 96% cookwith firewood at unsustainable extractionrates; and less than 1% have electricity forlighting. Fishing and foraging on commonproperty are important constituents of thefood supply. However, life is getting harder—access to lakes and forests is becoming moredifficult, and high population growth isincreasing the number of people to feed.3 As aresult of this, there has been pressure on, anddegradation of, Cambodia’s natural resourcesfor many years.

3. Cambodia’s total area is 181,035square kilometers (sq km), a large part ofwhich consists of flat lowlands and flood-plains. Its main feature, the Tonle Sap basin,extends over 44% of Cambodia’s total area,including the Tonle Sap, and is home to 32%of Cambodia’s total population. The water-shed boundaries are formed by the Cardamomand Elephant Mountains to the south andwest, the Dangrek Mountains along the

northern border with Thailand, and thenarrow belt of Mekong River right bankdrainage to the east. Except in the mountains,most of the watershed is less than 200 meters(m) above mean sea level (amsl).

4. The watershed feeds the Tonle Sap,the Great Lake that defines Cambodian lifeand conditions its prospects (Appendix 1). Itis the largest freshwater lake in SoutheastAsia, covering an area of 250,000–300,000hectares (ha) during the dry season (Appendix2). Owing to a unique hydrological phenom-enon, the Tonle Sap River draining the lakereverses its flow during the wet season whenthe waters of the Mekong River flow into thelake to inundate 1.0–1.6 million ha for severalmonths each year.4 The extensive wetlandsborn of this cycle are home to a largebiodiversity of fish, reptile, bird, mammal,and plant species.5 This biological richness isreflected in the Tonle Sap’s enormous produc-tivity as a fishing area: the lake supports oneof the most productive capture fisheries in theworld,6 and provides much of the proteinintake of the Cambodian population.7,8

The fisheries, together with the flooded forestand agricultural lands of the inundated area,have underpinned human activity sinceancient times. Indeed, the Tonle Sap and theassociated cultural heritage of Angkor havedefined Cambodia’s national identity.9 Today,the land, water, and biotic resources of theTonle Sap directly benefit at least 10% of thepopulation and, indirectly, many more interms of food security. The lake also benefits

1 The poverty line is the per capita expenditure needed to secure an intake of 2,100 calories per day.2 In the 1990s, economic growth was strong, within the range of 4–7%.3 At its current growth rate (2.4% in 2003), Cambodia’s population is expected to reach 14 million in 2005.4 Consequently, the lake’s water level varies from 1–2 m amsl during the dry season to 8–11 m amsl during the wet season. During the rainy

season, the Mekong River is estimated to supply two thirds of the lake’s total volume, the balance being supplied by other rivers that flow intothe lake from its 67,600 sq km watershed.

5 Many fish species, including the all-important trey riel, migrate between the Mekong River and the Tonle Sap, using the river for spawningand the flooded forest for growth and maturation.

6 The Tonle Sap yields about 230,000 tons (t) of fish each year, valued at $150–200 million (based on landing data), of which about 25% isexported, primarily to Thailand. The monetary value of the catch increases through the marketing chain to $250–500 million. Cambodia’sfreshwater capture fisheries production of over 400,000 t per year is the fourth largest in the world after the People’s Republic of China,India, and Bangladesh. Some believe this to be an underestimate: in 2000, the National Institute of Statistics estimated production at442,000 t. Freshwater capture fisheries contribute 10–20% of Cambodia’s gross domestic product.

7 Nationwide fish consumption is 40–70 kilograms (kg) per person per year.8 Smaller fish are of lesser commercial value but provide dietary calcium as their bones are chewed and eaten.9 It is on the northwestern shore of the Tonle Sap that Khmer kings built their capital from the 9th to the 13th century.

Introduction

INTRODUCTION 1

the Mekong basin as a breeding, nursery, andforage area for migratory fish. It is of globalsignificance for biodiversity conservation.

5. Because of its biodiversity, economic,and cultural values, the Tonle Sap is a sourceof conflict, at times violent. Growing popula-tion pressure, inequality of and confusion overaccess rights, severe poverty, and ethnicdifferences place the lake’s ecosystem and thepeople that depend upon it at risk. Unfortu-nately, 25 years of war and civil strife underthe Khmer Rouge have diminished—at alllevels of Cambodian society—the ability totackle these issues. In recent years, concernover the Tonle Sap has grown and promptednone other than King Norodom Sihanouk towarn that Cambodia faces environmentaldisaster if the lake’s fragile ecosystem isdegraded further.

6. In recognition of the lake’s importance,a Royal Decree designated the Tonle Sap as aMultiple-Use Protected Area in November1993. Furthermore, the lake was nominatedas a Biosphere Reserve in October 1997 underthe United Nations Educational, Scientific,and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)’s Manand the Biosphere Program. But managementof the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve (TSBR) isa great challenge for the Government.10

7. While many of the priority conserva-tion and biodiversity issues center on theTSBR, the Tonle Sap’s watershed alsoincludes areas of critical conservation impor-tance. There are at least 45 types of habitat,many of which are home to endangered andthreatened species. The World Wide Fund forNature has identified “Global 200Ecoregions” representing the world’s mostunique biodiversity with the highest priorityfor conservation across all of the earth’s majortypes of habitat. Five of these Global 200Ecoregions are found in Indochina, and partsof the Tonle Sap’s watershed are included intwo of them. They are the Central IndochinaDry Forests and the Cardamom Mountains

Moist Forests. Of 26 terrestrial prioritylandscapes with high global or regionalbiological importance identified in the LowerMekong Ecoregion Complex, three are foundwholly or partly in the Tonle Sap’s watershed.

8. The natural resources of the Tonle Sapbasin are under pressure (Appendix 3). Today,different groups within society find them-selves having to compete for resources thatwere once abundant. The sustainability oftheir livelihoods is at stake. The reasons forthis are not immediately clear since severalprocesses of change are taking place at thesame time. Economic and political develop-ments, including regional cooperation, arechanging the way development decisions aremade. Populations grow, move around, andmake demands on local resources. The privatesector is increasingly involved in resourceextraction. Dams, which are constructed forpower and irrigation, reduce the seasonalfloods that sustain fish spawning and nurserygrounds, and they also reduce the load offertile silt that sustains farming in the TonleSap floodplain. New markets for resource-based products are opening up in the regionand globally. In the interest of social justice,stakeholders11 must negotiate a complicatednexus of agents of change, developmentpatterns, and competing interests exacer-bated by rapid population growth.12

9. ADB has reassessed the major chal-lenges facing Cambodia and the changingneeds of its growing population. It hasconcluded that poverty reduction should beconsidered from the perspective of the TonleSap basin, founded on a basin-wide strategy.ADB’s strategic review of its priorities ben-efited from extensive discussions withgovernment agencies, representatives ofnongovernment organizations (NGOs) andcivil society, multilateral and bilateraldevelopment partners, and ADB staff at alllevels; the experience of ADB-funded loanand technical assistance projects;13 and a

10 The TSBR aims to fulfill three complementary functions. They are (i) conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, and species diversity;(ii) culturally, socially, and ecologically sustainable development; and (iii) research, monitoring, and education. Management of the TSBRshould be based on zoning into core areas, a buffer zone, and a transition area.

11 “Stakeholders” are people, groups, or institutions that may be affected by, can significantly influence, or are important to the achievement ofthe stated purpose of a development initiative.

12 About 43% of the population is below the age of 15. Population growth rates over the next decade are likely to be high because young adultswill start their own families.

13 ADB. 1998. Technical Assistance for Protection and Management of Critical Wetlands in the Lower Mekong Basin. Manila; and ADB. 2002.Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors on a Proposed Loan to Cambodia for the Tonle Sap EnvironmentalManagement Project. Manila.

2 TONLE SAP BASIN STRATEGY | APRIL 2005

review of ADB’s strengths and core competen-cies. The principal documents referred toincluded Cambodia’s Rectangular Strategy(2004–2008); National EnvironmentalAction Plan (1998–2003);14 GovernanceAction Plan (2001); Second SocioeconomicDevelopment Plan (2001–2005);15 NationalBiodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2002);National Poverty Reduction Strategy (2003–2005); and ADB documents on strategy,environment, and poverty.16 The strategy is

Core Natural Resource Management Issues

Resource AreaResource AreaResource AreaResource AreaResource Area

Forestry

Fisheries

Water Resources

Biodiversity

I s sueI s sueI s sueI s sueI s sue

Forests are Cambodia’s most valuable resource. However, over the last 40 years, forest coverhas declined from about 75% to about 55% of total area. The Government has attempted toregulate forest exploitation, but with limited success. Conversely, economic liberalization mayexacerbate exploitation.

Inland fisheries provide over 80% of the protein intake of the Cambodian population. However,unsustainable fishing is taking place, notably on the Tonle Sap. Total catch may not be falling butthe catch per fisher is. Also, the share of large- and medium-sized, higher-value fish has declined.Although Cambodia’s coastal areas are less degraded than those of neighboring countries,mangrove forests are being cut for charcoal extraction, aquaculture, and salt farming. There isan increase in illegal fishing.

Water resources provide for agriculture, fish production, biodiversity, water supply and sanita-tion, transport, and hydropower. However, water is in short supply in many areas, even fordomestic purposes. Competition for water resources will intensify due to irrigation developmentand a growing population.

Cambodia is a biodiversity hotspot. It retains one of the highest proportions of land as naturalhabitat in the world and one of the least disturbed coastlines in continental Asia. Over 45 typesof habitat have been characterized and mapped for the country, many of which are home tospecies of global significance. Cambodia’s biological heritage is of primary importance to thesubsistence of a predominantly rural population and to the future development of the nation.But it is under threat from overexploitation of fisheries and wildlife resources; dry seasonencroachment and land clearance of the flooded forest; and degradation of natural vegetation inwatersheds, with associated changes in water and soil quality and siltation rates.

Source: ADB.

aligned with the Poverty Reduction Partner-ship Agreement entered into by the Govern-ment and ADB in July 2002 and will give itpractical expression. It is anticipated that itwill accelerate achievement of the goals ofthe United Nations Millennium Declaration(2000). It will also help Cambodia to meetthe obligations that are embodied in morethan 10 treaties and conventions, and worktoward the goals of UNESCO’s SevilleStrategy for Biosphere Reserves (1995).17,18

INTRODUCTION 3

14 The Tonle Sap is flagged as a priority in the National Environmental Action Plan (1998–2002).15 The National Assembly passed the Second Socioeconomic Development Plan (2001–2005) on 17 June 2002. The Senate approved it on 8 July 2002.16 ADB. 2000. Cambodia: Enabling a Socioeconomic Renaissance. Manila; ADB. 2001. Participatory Poverty Assessment in Cambodia. Manila; ADB. 2001. Environments in

Transition: Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Manila; ADB. 2002. Cambodia Poverty Review (internal document). Manila; and ADB. 2004. Cambodia: CountryEnvironmental Analysis. Manila.

17 Cambodia’s obligations vis-à-vis the Tonle Sap are embodied in more than 10 treaties and conventions, including the Convention on Wetlands of International Importanceespecially as Waterfowl Habitat (the Ramsar Convention) (1971); the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (1979); andthe Convention on Biological Diversity (1992). One of the core areas of the TSBR, Boeng Tonle Chhmar, was designated as one of the country’s three Ramsar sites in 1999.

18 The goals of the Seville Strategy for Biosphere Reserves are to (i) use biosphere reserves to conserve natural and cultural diversity; (ii) use biosphere reserves as models of landmanagement and of approaches to sustainable development; (iii) use biosphere reserves for research, monitoring, education, and training; and (iv) implement the biospherereserve concept.

The Poverty-EnvironmentChallenge of the Tonle Sap19

19 See also 2000. Wayne Gum. Inland Aquatic Resources and Livelihoods in Cambodia: A Guide to the Literature, Legislation, Institutional Framework and Recommendations.Oxfam; 2001. Feast or Famine? Solutions to Cambodia’s Fisheries Conflicts. A Report by the Fisheries Action Coalition Team in Collaboration with the Environmental JusticeFoundation; and 2002. Deforestation Without Limits. Global Witness.


Poverty andVulnerability10. Despite the richness of its naturalresources, the Tonle Sap provides an inad-equate living for most of the inhabitantsof the provinces that adjoin it.20 The driversof poverty are complex (Appendix 4). Theindicators of poverty are more negative thanthose for the population as a whole, or indeedother rural areas, and the needs of the poor areacute (Appendix 5). Half of the villages have40–60% of households below the poverty line,with a peak of 80% in some areas. Manyhouseholds have no landholdings and areentirely dependent on fishing and foraging,with access to fishing areas often underdispute.

11. As elsewhere in Cambodia, healthshocks and chronic illness are major causes ofimpoverishment. The cycle of poverty, illhealth, and high health care expenditure byhouseholds (11% of household income)cripples families. About 45% of people borrowto cover the cost of health emergencies and,all too often, another response to healthshocks is to remove children from schools,starting with girls. Since people frequentlyrely on pond water for drinking, children sufferfrom repeated attacks of diarrhea.21 Malaria,dengue fever, acute respiratory infections,and tuberculosis are endemic and the rate ofHIV/AIDS infection is the highest in theregion.22,23 Half of the children under the ageof 5 are malnourished and, for every 1,000 livebirths, 115 children die before they reach thatage.24

12. Adult literacy averages 63%. Thisfigure is inflated, as it includes the partiallyliterate and hides wide provincial and gender

differences. Disturb-ingly, about 70% ofchildren do notcomplete primaryschool, comparedwith the nationalaverage of 60%.Twice as manywomen as men over15 years of age havenever attendedschool. Lack ofeducation limits theability to recognizeand take opportuni-ties and, interest-ingly, there is a highdemand for technicaland vocationaleducation andtraining. Low literacylevels, lack of accessto environmentaleducation materials,and a dearth of basicinformation (such ascopies of laws,subdecrees, procla-mations, and direc-tives or circulars) are not propitious todecision making for natural resourcemanagement.

13. Women are particularly vulnerable.They have even more limited access thanmen to land ownership and other propertyrights, credit, paid employment, education,and health services.25 They also have fewopportunities for self-development or partici-pating in community decision making sinceKhmer tradition ascribes a passive role towomen. Nevertheless, the gender division oflabor is changing overall: women and men

20 They are Battambang, Kompong Chhnang, Kompong Thom, Pursat, and Siem Reap. The population living there numbers about 2.9 million(1998).

21 Safe drinking water and sanitation are available to only 36% and 14% of the rural population, respectively.22 Cambodia is ranked as a high-burden country for tuberculosis. Two thirds of the population are infected with it.23 The Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is the late stage of the infection caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

In Cambodia, 2.8% of the adult population are infected with it.24 The major causes of child morbidity and mortality are acute respiratory infection, near-natal tetanus, hemorrhagic dengue fever, and diarrhea

exacerbated by malnutrition.25 Reproductive health services are particularly deficient.

“My poverty is having no land,

buffalo, hoe, rake, plow, trans-

port, mosquito net, cooking

pots or even plates to eat

from, and a spoon and fork to

pick up the food. This means

I cannot possibly get enough

food to eat because I lack the

things I need to keep me alive

for much longer.”

The “voice” is of a woman in

her mid-60s living in Kampong

Thom, who in her lifetime has

known the comforts of pros-

perity and the cruelty of war

and, in the return to peace, is

left with nothing.

Source: ADB. 2001. Participatory PovertyAssessment: Cambodia. Manila.

THE POVERTY-ENVIRONMENT CHALLENGE OF THE TONLE SAP 5

play progressively interchangeable rolesbecause women are increasingly called uponto meet household needs.26 There are alsomany displaced or disabled persons, whosuffer from poverty and other forms of socialdeprivation to an even greater extent than therest of the population.

14. The ethnic minorities living in theTonle Sap basin are the Vietnamese andMuslim Cham. Even though most of theVietnamese were born in Cambodia, they donot have Khmer nationality and are classifiedas immigrants. This status and the historicalanimosity between them and the Khmerslimit the Vietnamese contribution incommunity-based natural resource manage-ment,27 despite the fact that they are amongthe most innovative of fishers. The Cham,who are also fishers, do not experience segre-gation despite their conspicuous identity. Butit is a fact that all ethnic minorities aredisadvantaged due to inadequate representa-

26 Households headed by females are even more vulnerable. They account for about 25% of the total because of the genocide caused by theKhmer Rouge.

27 The Vietnamese number about 100,000 nationwide. The Cham, who have lived in Cambodia since the 15th century, number 300,000–400,000 in total.

28 Together, they make up 25% of the 1.2 million people living in the area bounded by Highways No. 5 and No. 6. It is not possible todistinguish between fishers and farmers. Most people are engaged in both activities.

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tion at management and legislative levels.The Vietnamese are further deprived by lackof property rights and language barriers.

15. The communities living on the TonleSap and in its lowland areas are prey tonatural hazards.28 In the rainy season, the lakeis prone to heavy swells and high waves thatare liable to topple their floating structures.The inhabitants pay to have their houseboatstowed to new anchorage sites to accommo-date the changing water levels and move intosheltered locations. These and other costsrelated to repairing damage to their housesaccount for as much as a third of annualexpenditure. Because rural life is intrinsicallylinked to the cycle of flooding, the communi-ties have developed coping mechanisms tolive with flooded conditions, often for up to6 months a year. But, when floods are deeperthan normal, unexpectedly fast in onset, orunusually prolonged, they can tax communityself-reliance and capacity to cope.

Population 577,772 793,129 417,693 569,060 68,279 119,261 360,445 696,164 Average household size 5.1 5.3 5.0 5.3 5.3 5.5 5.2 5.4 Population density 87 68 76 41 11 9 28 68 (per sq km) Educational attainment:

Primary not 69.9 63.4 69.9 70.7 73.8 76.2 68.3 73.2 completed (%)Literacy rate (%) 66.9 70.8 63.9 60.4 46.5 56.3 70.0 52.7Males (%) 79.4 82.1 76.5 71.3 62.2 67.9 82.5 63.9Females (%) 55.6 60.7 53.7 51.3 30.7 45.2 59.5 43.1

Main source of drinking water

Dug well (%) 26.2 37.8 52.9 77.5 23.1 31.6 53.3 69.7Spring, river, stream (%) 44.0 39.1 24.3 16.2 73.7 34.4 29.0 10.9

Labor participation rate (%) 55.2 50.7 59.1 51.9 56.2 61.9 55.6 58.2 Unemployment rate (%) 8.0 8.0 3.1 8.2 4.5 2.6 3.5 4.6 Migration (%) 33.4 39.4 46.6 17.9 38.7 20.5 41.0 27.1 Kerosene as main source 84.6 83.2 89.9 89.4 96.2 45.8 88.1 88.8 of light (%) Firewood as main source 90.6 92.4 95.8 95.6 97.4 98.4 94.9 96.1 of cooking fuel (%)

Source: National Institute of Statistics. 1998. General Population Census of Cambodia.

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29 Social cohesion between groups is still low. Intrinsically, Khmer society lacks organized groups or structures above the family group. Thetraditionally hierarchical nature of working arrangements, ethnic differences, collective trauma from the Khmer Rouge regime, migrationassociated with seasonal flooding, as well as income disparities demand special efforts at community organization.

30 The total size of the Tonle Sap basin is 85,000 sq km, including a small area in Thailand.

16. Poverty is also related to extendedinstability and conflict, and the resultantharm to the population. Most of Cambodiaexperienced more peace and economic growthafter 1993, but only since 1998 have areasnorthwest of the Tonle Sap enjoyed their firstreal respite from war. Many internally dis-placed persons, repatriated refugees, internalmigrants, and demobilized soldiers arereestablishing their livelihoods in whatremains a fractured society.29

Resource UseManagementTonle Sap Basin

17. In northwestern Cambodia, the Tonle Sapbasin extends over an area of 80,000 sq km.30

It comprises three main physiographicregions: (i) the lake, extending to a maximumarea of 1.6 million ha in the wet season, nowdeclared a biosphere reserve, and effectivelybounded by Highways No. 5 and No. 6;(ii) the low-lying watershed, mainly at analtitude of less than 200 m amsl, originallycovered with dry, open woodlands interspersedwith oases of wetter grasslands and evergreenforest, but much of which has been depletedby logging and conversion to upland agricul-ture; and (iii) the rainforest of the CardamomMountains, rising to a height of up to 1,500 mamsl, large areas of which are still relativelyundisturbed. The basin is of unique impor-tance to Cambodia as a source of primary foodproduction, timber, and firewood; as a poten-tial source of water and hydropower; and as areservoir of biodiversity (Appendix 6).

18. Agriculture dominates the Cambo-dian economy employing 75% of the popula-tion. Its contribution to the gross domesticproduct, however, has declined from about45% in 1993 to 34% in 2002 (in constant2000 prices), due to relatively stagnantagricultural production, while production in

other sectors—especially textiles andgarments—has grown. Rice is Cambodia’smost important crop: it occupies 2.3 millionha of a total cultivated area of 2.8 million haand is the staple of the Cambodian diet.Rainfed lowland rice accounts for by far themajority of production, but at less than 2.0 tper ha, rice yields are very low mainly due tolimited use of inputs, poor water control, andweak technical support and extension ser-vices. Nearly 500,000 ha receive someirrigation and, in these areas, yields may riseto more than 3.0 t per ha, but are still wellbelow yields in neighboring countries. On theTonle Sap, they grow floating rice at the lake’sedge and as a recession crop on the fallingflood. While nationally, Cambodia is consid-


ered to be self-sufficient in rice, for manyhouseholds production of rice is sufficient tomeet their needs for only half the year. In1998, for instance, the World Food Programmesupported 1.7 million people (15% of thepopulation) for an average 45 days.

19. After rice, freshwater fish is the mostimportant component of the Cambodian dietand up to half of this is supplied directly bythe Tonle Sap, which is the most concen-trated source of freshwater fish in SoutheastAsia. Important types of fish caught includeperch, carp, lungfish, and smelt. Informationon yields is unreliable, but best estimatessuggest a yearly catch of about 230,000 t offish. While figures for the overall catch mayappear to indicate that yields are not declin-ing, there is strong evidence that the catchincludes an ever-increasing proportion ofsmall and low-value fish as the numbers oflarger fish decline.

20. Agriculture and fisheries are not alonein making demands on the basin’s naturalresources: of the energy consumed in Cambo-dia, 82% is obtained from wood. For 92% ofCambodia’s households, wood is also themajor fuel for cooking. Although a renewableresource, it is consumed at a greater rate thanit is replanted, and extraction of firewood hasbeen an important factor in deforestation ofthe flooded forest and the lowland dry andevergreen forest of the watershed. Withpopulation growth, firewood demand isexpected to increase, calling for the develop-ment of alternative sources of energy andenergy conservation and efficiency.

21. Despite their depletion, forests in theTonle Sap basin remain habitats of enormousimportance. The flooded forest of the TonleSap is still by far the greatest continuous areaof savannah swamp forest and inundatedforest in the entire Asian region, hence itsincorporation in UNESCO’s World Network ofBiosphere Reserves. In the current complex ofvegetation communities that make up the

Tonle Sap, more than 200 plant species havebeen recorded. The Tonle Sap is known to behome to at least 200 species of fish in thelake alone, 42 species of reptiles, 225 speciesof birds, and 46 species of mammals. Withinthe basin’s catchments are significant tractsof undisturbed forest, particularly the centrallowland complex and the rainforest of theCardamom Mountains—home to 2,300described plants, of which 40% have tradi-tional uses; more than 500 species of birds;and more than 130 species of mammals, someof which have only been discovered in the lastdecade. Together, these forest areas constitutefor Cambodia an enormously importantreservoir of plants and animals, many of whichmay be of considerable future economicsignificance.

22. In equal fashion, the productivity ofthe fisheries of the Tonle Sap depends onnatural habitats. However, the flooded forestthat once occupied most of the seasonallyflooded area was, by 1997, estimated to beabout 350,000 ha, of which roughly 30% isinto the degraded forest categories of mosaicand regrowth. It is essential to preserve the

“Natural resource protection is

an obligation for all.”

Source: Department of Fisheries National FishDay, 1 July 2003.


ecosystem of the seasonally flooded areas asthe basis for sustainable fish capture while, atthe same time, recognizing that continuingcultivation and the collection of firewood are,at present, the only available source oflivelihood for the communities living on andaround the lake. Further, built structures,such as dams, roads, and flood-control works,can significantly affect fisheries by blockingmigration and spawning areas, altering waterquality and quantity, changing the temporaland spatial relationship and nature of theflood cycle, and degrading or fragmentingaquatic habitats. Loss of such habitats couldalso have dramatic impacts on the productiv-ity of fisheries.

23. The resolution of the conflictsbetween production and preservation assumesparticular importance in the natural habitatsof the Tonle Sap basin given the country’sdependence on the availability of rice andfish—for which there is no elasticity providedby other foods—and firewood. Increasedagricultural productivity is essential to thecountry’s food security and overall economy,and this can only be achieved through a

combination of intensification andextensification. Yet, intensification of fishingeffort can only take place if the habitat of theflooded forest is maintained or expanded, andlevels of fish stocks are enhanced by imposingand enforcing controls and expanding breed-ing support programs. Then again, intensifica-tion of rice production would require greateruse of agricultural chemicals and increasedirrigation facilities. However, fertilizers andpesticides could threaten the lower reaches ofthe basin, particularly the lake. Harnessingthe waters of the upper catchments wouldpose a threat to their natural habitats andintroduce potentially conflicting uses of waterfor hydropower, domestic consumption, andirrigation. What is more, encroachment intothe forested catchment areas, whether forharnessing water resources, logging timberand firewood, or clearing forests for food andindustrial crops, would destroy theecosystem’s viability and lead also to erosion,loss of soil fertility, downstream siltation,flooding, and turbidity of water bodies.Finally, any disruption to the lake’s hydrologycould have detrimental effects on fisheries, asit is known that water levels at peak flood andfish catch in the Tonle Sap are stronglycorrelated. All this means that the develop-ment planning of the Tonle Sap must be donethrough an integrated, basin-wide approach.

24. The Tonle Sap basin is home toabout 3.6 million people (1998), most ofwhom derive their livelihoods directly fromits natural resources. Around half of thosepeople depend on the lake and its associatedwetlands, which is also the predominantsource of protein for the whole of Cambodia.Competition for scarce resources is intense.An increasing proportion of the population ofthe Tonle Sap basin is landless. This particu-larly applies to female-headed households,which are more vulnerable to shocks andresort to selling land to meet short-termhealth and other crises, and to the ethnicminorities who can make less claim to landrights. Access to common property is impor-tant to the livelihoods of large numbers ofpeople, not just the landless, who depend onfishing and foraging for a living. Thesecommon property resources are, however,inadequately managed and may be hugely


overexploited or become the preserve of afavored few. The dismantling of the fishinglot system in the Tonle Sap in 2000 wassupposed to reduce commercial exploitationand increase the fishing area available to localcommunities.31 However, commercial enter-prises still account for a high proportion of thetotal fish catch. In the catchment, commer-cial logging, mostly illegal, has eroded theevergreen forest by about 15% in 10 years.Sustainability of common property resourceshinges on equitable access, which is bestadvanced by community management.

25. Notwithstanding, the Tonle Sapbasin offers significant opportunities forsupporting productivity by providing the

irrigation water needed to expand irrigatedrice areas and raise yields to levels nearer tothose of Cambodia’s neighbors. It has poten-tial for provision of energy from hydropower,which could reduce some of the pressures onthe forested areas (Appendix 7). And itsnatural resource base ought also to favor theemergence of small and medium enterprises.

Mekong River Basin

26. The importance of the Tonle Sap, how-ever, extends far beyond the boundaries ofCambodia. In the face of the loss of wetlandhabitat throughout Asia, the Tonle Sapfloodplain’s size, habitat diversity, andrelative preservation are of exceptional globaland regional importance. (Other wetlands inCambodia and Southern Viet Nam are widelydisturbed.) The ecosystem is essential to thesurvival of many globally significant speciesof birds, mammals, and reptiles found aroundthe lake. When the Tonle Sap and other partsof the Mekong system flood into fields andforests, fish take advantage of the hugeincrease in food availability. Some fish spawnin the main river channels, and eggs andlarvae drift into the flooded areas. Otherspecies spawn in the flooded areas. As thefloodwaters recede, fish retreat to main riverchannels. Fish migration from the Tonle Saphelps restock fisheries as far upstream as thePeople’s Republic of China and in manytributaries along the way. The lake also helpsto control salinity intrusion and conservemangrove forests in the Mekong delta byacting as a natural reservoir from which waterdrains during the dry season.32

27. Just as the productivity andbiodiversity of large areas of the Mekong Riverbasin derive in part from the Tonle Sap, so thepreservation of the lake’s unique ecosystem isdependent upon inflows of water that origi-nate far from Cambodia, with 62% of thelake’s water having come from the MekongRiver. In Cambodia, there is a strong correla-tion between water levels at peak flood andfish catch in the Tonle Sap. Not surprisingly,

31 In October 2000, a Prime Ministerial decree released 56% (or 500,000 ha) of the former fishing lot area to communities for management.There are now more than 160 designated community fisheries (or 300 management units) in the fishing lot area released from commercialfisheries. In conjunction with local authorities, they are to manage, conserve, and use the fisheries sustainably.

32 The Tonle Sap basin contributes 6.4% of the average annual flow of the Mekong River.


there is concern that dam construction on theMekong River and its tributaries would affectthe level of flooding in the Tonle Sap and thefisheries and farmlands that depend on it.There is also unease over plans to clear rapidsand widen a shipping lane in the MekongRiver to enable cargo boats to navigatebetween the PRC and Thailand in the dryseason.

28. The countries of the Greater MekongSubregion (GMS) share the forest, water, andbiodiversity resources that endow the regionwith one of the world’s richest natural envi-ronments: there is an interdependence amongall elements of that environment, whichcrosses national boundaries. The countriesmust share responsibility for meeting thetransboundary environmental challengesposed by international rivers and watersheds,trade in forest products, and expansion ofregional infrastructure. Better transboundaryenvironmental governance is importantbecause the complex mosaic of nationalinterests creates a situation in which compe-tition for regional resources will increase withfurther economic growth. Concurrently,poverty in communities has led tooverexploitation of natural resources, withenvironmental implications that extendbeyond localities. Large-scale developmentactivities and illegal exploitation of naturalresources also threaten local and regionalenvironments. What is good for one country orregion might have devastating consequencesfor another: governments in the GMS willface increasingly difficult problems as theytry to balance the competing interests of floodcontrol, hydroelectric power, shipping, fishing,agriculture, and environmental protection.This warrants continuous internationalsupport to the Mekong River Commission(MRC)’s basin development plan and waterutilization program and operating within thestrategic environmental framework for theGreater Mekong region prepared by ADB.33,34

Policy,Institutional,and MarketConstraints29. Despite impressive efforts to establish apolicy framework that supports development,environmental quality and standards of livingin Cambodia continue to decline. One reasonfor this is that existing legislation is notenforced, either because Government agen-cies lack technical and managerial capacity,or because of corruption. In the Tonle Sapbasin, policy failure has revealed itself mostobviously through the absence of effectiveproperty rights in fisheries, forestry, and land.Environmental degradation has also resultedfrom subsidies on resource use and from thefailure of resource pricing to fully reflectenvironmental costs.

30. In some instances, existing legisla-tion may conflict or provide insufficientguidance because of the continued

33 MRC was set up in 1995 to promote and coordinate the sustainable development and equitable management of the water and relatedresources of the Mekong basin for the mutual benefit of the countries and peoples involved.

34 ADB. 1998. Strategic Environmental Framework for the Greater Mekong Region. Manila. This regional technical assistance prepared astrategic environmental framework that promotes the integration of environmental considerations in economic development planning andimplementation. It recommended that strategic interventions for ADB and its partners should (i) support informed decision making throughimproved planning and assessment, (ii) foster public involvement, (iii) build effective institutions and enhance governance, and (iv) provideinnovative and persistent financing for ecosystem protection and social development.


dominance of sectoral approaches to policymaking and lack of public participationduring formulation. Preparation of legislationshould be organic and grow out of experience,local practice, potentialities, and needs. Inaddition, a positive approach to ensuringcompliance with legislation is preferable to anegative approach that requires policingaction: experience demonstrates that nega-tive approaches encourage bribery andextortion, not compliance.

31. Government agencies at the centrallevel that have traditionally exercised directresponsibility for development are still besetwith problems of overstaffing, a command-and-control mind-set among senior staff, andlimited management capacity. Despite theirchanged mandate to perform through decen-tralization, they still have not fully realignedtheir systems or capabilities: they are stillproject- and incentive-dependent, with apreference for large structures and schemes in

the face of low budgets for operation andmaintenance. They should build communitydevelopment expertise and field qualifiedstaff at the provincial and district levels.

32. Implementation of policy requiresappropriate institutional structures based onthe rights and responsibilities of the people.These can only be effectively recognized in adecentralized system, wherein each level ofgovernment has a clearly defined role thatmaximizes the participation of the peoplewhile providing for an overall harmonizationof activities. In 2001, the Governmentembarked on a process of devolution ofauthority and responsibility to local govern-ments through decentralization to communelevel and an associated deconcentration ofmanagement functions to the provincial levelto effect a new era of grassroots democratiza-tion. This has led to a three-tier structure ofcentral, provincial, and communal institu-tions each with its defined role. The manage-

12


ment of natural resources, however, must beeffected at lower institutional levels if it is toachieve long-term and equitablesustainability and environmental protection.This will require strengthening the lowerlevels of the institutional structure, includingVillage Development Committees, VillageAdministrative Groups, and demand-basedorganizations, such as water user groups orparent-teacher councils, which also have majorroles to play. At the same time, it is recognizedthat the basin is an ecological entity, theoverall management of which calls for basin-level coordination at a multisectoral level.

33. Poverty reduction requires that thepoor access interlocking markets and servicesfor (i) agricultural and fisheries products andinputs, (ii) production support and credit,(iii) information, (iv) assets, (v) labor, and(vi) food and other consumer goods. However,the terms under which the poor enter and

participate in these markets and services areall too often inequitable. Many of them aremerely passive participants, often obliged tosell low (immediately after harvest) and buyhigh, with little choice of where they conducttheir transactions, with whom, and at whatprice. With the liberalization of domesticmarkets and the globalization of interna-tional markets, these markets have becomemore open, with more choices. But they arealso more complex and uncertain.

34. Enhancing access to markets is apressing challenge, and it is vital to under-stand better how they operate. In the TonleSap provinces, for instance, fishers cannotrealize the true value of fish because of lackof information: the dynamics and volume oftrade, the market structure, and power oftraders are not understood. There is also littleknowledge of trade-related populationmovements to the lake.35

35 Huge population movements to the Tonle Sap and its tributaries take place each year when people trade rice for trey riel and other small fishspecies to make prahoc (fish paste).


ADB’s Response


Country Strategyand Program35. ADB’s Country Strategy and Program(2005–2007) targets broad-based economicgrowth, inclusive social development, andgood governance. It also focuses on the TonleSap basin.36

The Tonle SapBasin Strategy36. Population and development pressures aretaking their toll, and consumptive use of theTonle Sap’s resources is intense. The threatsto the lake’s ecosystem are manifold. Theyinclude overexploitation of fisheries andwildlife resources, dry-season encroachmentand land clearance of the flooded forest, anddegradation of natural vegetation in water-sheds, with associated changes in water andsoil quality and siltation rates. Each threat tothe Tonle Sap has multiple root causes, theseverity of which conditions the speed andmanner in which they can be addressed.Never has the Tonle Sap been called upon tosupply so much to so many. Even greaterchallenges lie ahead: conversations withstakeholders confirm the overwhelmingnumber and diversity of issues. Solutions areelusive. Even so, the following strategicprinciples must underpin progress: (i) sus-tainable livelihoods, (ii) social justice, and(iii) a basin-wide approach.

36 The geographical focus responds to a central recommendation ofADB. 2002. Cambodia Poverty Review (internal document).Manila.

ADB’S RESPONSE 15

37. The Tonle Sap Basin Strategy formsthe basis for setting priorities and planninginvestment and development assistance overthe next 5–10 years. It meets the key ele-ments of ADB’s poverty reduction strategywithin the unique context of the Tonle Sapbasin. It marks the introduction of basin-level

Meeting ADB’s Country Strategy and Program (2005–2007)

strategic planning. It favors projects thatpromise the biggest return in terms of povertyreduction. The strategic planning process willbe iterative and provide regular opportunitiesfor inputs in support of the Country Strategyand Program (2005–2007) and its annualupdates. It will concentrate attention andencourage discussion and further work toguide operational directions. While primarilyproviding the desired ADB focus on the TonleSap basin, it will also catalyze other bilateraland multilateral endeavors.

Goal andDevelopmentObjectives38. Based on ADB’s overarching goal, thestrategy aims to reduce poverty. Toward thisgoal, its development objectives are to foster,promote, and facilitate (i) pro-poor, sustain-able economic growth, (ii) access to assets,and (iii) management of natural resources andthe environment.


StrategicPrinciplesSustainable Livelihoods37

39. There is still inadequate understanding ofwhat can be done to help the rural poor.38 Thechallenge is to focus on the multiple aspectsof their livelihood assets.39 Livelihoods drawon the resources accessed and the activitiesundertaken in order to live. However, inCambodia, human capital was seriouslyaffected by the extermination of a generationof leaders, levels of health and education arelow, and women shoulder heavy responsibili-ties as a consequence of male deaths duringthe protracted civil war and genocide.40 Socialcapital has been severely diminished, anddemocratic processes have only recently beenintroduced. Natural capital—especiallyforests and fish—is under increasing humanexploitation. Physical capital—particularlyroads and water supply—is inadequate, andthere is poor coverage of schools and healthposts. Access to financial capital is restricted.The structures and processes that underpinthe five categories of assets are institutions,policies, legislation, culture, and powerrelations. They determine access, terms ofexchange, and returns; shape the livelihoodstrategies of the poor; and govern theiroutcomes.41,42

40. Tackling poverty in Cambodia meansworking with the rural poor, initially wherelivelihood assets are being affected by unfa-vorable trends, e.g., overfishing, drought, pestoutbreaks, floods, or deterioration of infra-structure. Such trends are obvious in the

Tonle Sap basin. The livelihoods approach isa way of thinking about the objectives, scope,and priorities for development. It seeks todevelop an understanding of the factors thatlie behind the people’s choice of livelihoodstrategy and then to reinforce the positive

37 The Department for International Development of the United Kingdom has established a learning platform for creating sustainablelivelihoods at Livelihoods Connect (www.livelihoods.org).

38 Lack of understanding is best expressed in financial terms: according to the World Bank, the central lowland provinces, although home tomore than two thirds of the rural poor, have received only 20% of aid.

39 Livelihood assets can be divided into five core categories, or types, of capital: (i) human capital, e.g., skills, knowledge, and ability to labor;(ii) social capital, e.g., networks and connectedness, formalized groups, and relationships of trust; (iii) natural capital, e.g., natural resourcestocks from which resource flows and services useful for livelihoods are derived; (iv) physical capital, e.g., transport, shelter and building, watersupply and sanitation, energy, and access to information (communications); and (v) financial capital, e.g., available stocks and inflows ofmoney.

40 While women constitute more than half (about 52%) of the population, they account for about 66% of the economically active population.41 Structures exist at various levels. They are most obvious as public sector organizations, e.g., political (legislative) bodies, executing agencies,

judicial bodies, and parastatals, which operate in cascading levels with varying degrees of autonomy and scope of authority. Private sectororganizations, e.g., commercial enterprises, civil society agencies, and NGOs also operate at different levels from the multinational to the verylocal.

42 Processes determine the way in which structures (and individuals) operate and interact. They provide the incentives that stimulate people tomake choices, grant (or deny) access to assets, enable people to transform one kind of asset into another through markets, and influenceinterpersonal relations.

ADB’S RESPONSE 17

aspects and mitigate against the constraintsor negative influences. Its core principles arethat poverty-focused development activityshould be people-centered, responsive andparticipatory, multilevel, conducted inpartnership, sustainable, and dynamic. Thelivelihoods approach puts people at the centerof development, thereby increasing theeffectiveness of development assistance.

Social Justice

41. Social justice is the pursuit of a societythat offers equal opportunity to accessfreedoms and choices, and encourages thedevelopment of all the capacities of all itsmembers. It is a precondition to poverty

reduction. For that reason, Cambodia’sSecond Socioeconomic Development Plan(2001–2005) highlights social justice. Itidentifies the need for (i) economic growth toinclude sectors in which the poor derivelivelihoods, (ii) social and cultural develop-ment, and (iii) sustainable use of naturalresources and sound environmental manage-ment. However, extreme inequality of accessto assets, a highly skewed distribution ofwealth whereby the lowest 10% of householdsreceive just 3% of estimated total householdincome while the highest 10% receive nearly35%, insufficient or nonexistent rights oftenure, and cultural and ethnic divisionsstrain intragenerational responsibility andequity and threaten the environment. Women,for instance, make up a disproportionate shareof the poor and their condition is reflected inindicators, such as access to social servicesand illiteracy. What is more, the importanceof meeting the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future genera-tions to meet their needs adds force to thecase for intergenerational responsibility andequity.

42. Inclusion of the full spectrum ofstakeholders is crucial to achieving socialjustice. This calls for social development thatputs people first and empowers the weakergroups in society to gain access to assets.Social support programs must respond to theneeds of the poor, women, the aged, and theotherwise disadvantaged; ensure equity indevelopment; and maintain the socialcohesion necessary for continued growth.


Law and policy reform also has a vital role toplay, especially when it relates to fair treat-ment regarding the development of environ-mental laws, regulations, and policies.43

Basin-Wide Approach

43. There is a worldwide trend towardplanning and managing water resources basedon basin or catchment units.44 Over thecoming years, the Tonle Sap’s naturalresources would be best managed through themechanism of long-term natural resourcemanagement plans developed collaborativelyby local, provincial, and national stakehold-ers. A basin-wide approach will allow stake-holders to focus on issues that transcendboundaries, and greatly increase understand-ing of the poverty-environment challenge.The rationale behind the basin-wide ap-proach stems from the fact that naturalresources do not recognize interjurisdictionalboundaries, and that planning and manage-ment decisions in one part of a basin can havesignificant impacts on natural resourceselsewhere. An early imperative is to developbetter institutional arrangements for basinmanagement.

44. Natural resource management plansdeveloped in partnership by communities andthe Government would outline a transparentand equitable process of resource manage-ment over 10 years. They would incorporatecommunity aspirations regarding naturalresources and contain the necessary rulesrelating to their management. They wouldneed to provide both a period of resourcesecurity to natural-resource users, such asfishers, and an ability to change plans overtime to adapt as new information becomesavailable. Individual plans might includewater management plans, regional vegetationmanagement plans, and fisheries manage-ment plans. There would be regular reportingbetween the Government and communitieson the extent to which the plans are being

effective in achieving their objectives. In thisway, there would be more accountability tocommunities to ensure that all efforts andinvestments are best placed to deliver onresults.

45. A Tonle Sap basin blueprint wouldincorporate and integrate individual naturalresource management plans. It would setpriorities for the basin as a whole, consistentwith national and provincial policies, and inline with the specific areas for action pro-moted by ADB’s water policy.45 It would bethe way by which communities and theGovernment can reconcile competing de-mands on natural resources and balance long-term environmental outcomes and social andeconomic aspirations. Ideally, responsibilityfor preparation of a basin blueprint is given toa basin management organization constitutedto take on this role or to play a major part init. Such organizations transcend administra-tive boundaries and are best placed to under-stand the implications of competing orconflicting use of a basin’s total resources.A basin management organization can also bethe coordinating mechanism for externallyfunded activities across the basin.

43 The recent approval of a subdecree on social concessions for subsistence land farming, for instance, augurs well. But the true test forimproving governance in resource management will lie in its implementation.

44 ADB. 2001. Water for All: The Water Policy of ADB. Manila.45 They include river basin planning and organization, water rights and allocation, watershed issues, and flood management.

Basin Blueprint Sets Priorities for theTonle Sap Basin

ADB’S RESPONSE 19

Delivering the Strategy


OperatingPrinciplesLong-Term Perspective

46. Improving policy, building capacity,creating and strengthening productivecapacity, infrastructure and services, andpromoting regional cooperation are long-termtasks. They depend on continuity of interven-tions: one-shot projects are of limited sustain-able value.

Selectivity and Concentration

47. ADB cannot be involved in every sectorand throughout the country. To achieve itsobjectives of influencing the policy frame-work, establishing tangible improvements incapacity, and ensuring that the projects thatit finances are linked to and support theseend results, it must be more selective withthe limited resources at its disposal. Concen-trating a portion of its resources in targetedsectors in the Tonle Sap basin will be moreconducive to development impact.

Partnerships

48. Partnerships are formally recognizedcollaborative, mutually beneficial activitiesbetween ADB and the Government, NGOs,regional and international organizations,research centers, and the private sector.Selection of partners will be guided by theprinciples that partnerships should (i) have ashared vision of needs and how they can beaddressed; (ii) be participatory, with jointsharing of responsibilities and accountability;(iii) have complementarity of skills betweenpartners; (iv) be within priority areas of ADBand those of partners, and meet the criteriaset by them; and (v) result in ADB’s skillsand knowledge benefiting the partners’activities and vice versa.

DELIVERING THE STRATEGY 21

CountryOwnershipandDelegation

49. Country owner-ship must be evidentin the politicalcommitment toreforms, programs,and projects. At thesame time, multilat-eral and bilateralagencies remainaccountable for

ensuring that loans proceed only where thereis an adequate policy framework and institu-tional capacity to achieve their objectives.Having effective field offices is one means ofstriking the right balance between nationalownership and the active involvement ofmultilateral and bilateral agencies. Qualityand excellence in delivery of interventionshinge on local knowledge and a local pres-ence. To the extent possible, ADB willdelegate operational responsibilities to itsCambodia Resident Mission. This willfacilitate the day-to-day conduct of business,ensure on-the-spot assessment of countryneeds, and tailor technical solutions to localrealities.

Informing and Listening

50. Disclosure of information has become acentral operational principle for all multilat-eral and bilateral agencies. During the last10 years, they have done much to improve theflow of information.46 They explain theiractivities better to investors, academics,researchers, journalists, and NGOs in alanguage that appeals to nonspecialists. On29 May 2003, ADB approved a new account-ability mechanism to address the concerns ofpersons affected by ADB-assisted projects.The ADB accountability mechanism consistsof two complementary functions—a consulta-tion phase and a compliance review phase—

which together will replace ADB’s InspectionFunction, approved in December 1995.

51. Under the Tonle Sap EnvironmentalManagement Project, channels of dialoguehave been opened and will continue to bedeveloped. So far, they include a biannualTonle Sap Initiative brochure with a widecirculation in the English and Khmer lan-guages and a website for the Tonle SapEnvironmental Management project offeringlinks to news releases, documents, andproject-related articles. In addition, ADB’sWater Awareness Program will explore oppor-tunities for grant funding to showcase TonleSap activities as they progress, includinginternational media visits, a film documen-tary, and a water education and awarenessprogram that stimulates critical thinking andlocal ownership of community problems.

52. But ADB should also receive morediverse information. This two-way exchangeof information must encompass the fullspectrum of factors and players that com-monly influence one another and the develop-ment agenda.(i) National development priorities.National development priorities.National development priorities.National development priorities.National development priorities.

National development priorities aremolded by national interests andstrategies that commonly focus on theachievement of economic growth.

(ii) Local livelihood needs.Local livelihood needs.Local livelihood needs.Local livelihood needs.Local livelihood needs. Liveli-hoods, particularly those of the poor, areshaped primarily by local circumstancesand vulnerability to changes.

In delivering the Tonle Sap

Basin Strategy, ADB’s Mekong

Department will be guided by

its vision to better serve

Cambodia by

being a reliable and respon-

sive partner, and

ensuring that ADB support is

provided in an integrated

manner.

46 ADB’s Policy on Confidentiality and Disclosure of Information wasapproved in August 1994.


Factors and Players in Development Decisions

(iii) Regional cooperation.Regional cooperation.Regional cooperation.Regional cooperation.Regional cooperation. Regionalcooperation is often driven by commonperceptions of economic advantages inthe global arena, but can also bepromoted through a willingness toreduce conflicts, imbalances, andvulnerabilities.

(iv) International markets.International markets.International markets.International markets.International markets. Interna-tional markets impact through vari-ances in consumer interests and de-mands.

(v) Overseas development assistance.Overseas development assistance.Overseas development assistance.Overseas development assistance.Overseas development assistance.Overseas development assistancepursues specific interests, agendas, andmandates. Poverty reduction is acommon concern among multilateraland bilateral actors, but also a morespecific focus on issues, such as healthor environmental sustainability.

(vi) NGOs.NGOs.NGOs.NGOs.NGOs. NGOs pursue specific interestsand agendas. Common interests includehuman rights, environmentalsustainability, health, and povertyreduction.

(vii) The private sectorThe private sectorThe private sectorThe private sectorThe private sector..... The privatesector has come to play an increasinglyimportant role through investment

flows, directed by consumer demand,production costs, and resource availabil-ity.

(viii) Academics, researchers, teachers,Academics, researchers, teachers,Academics, researchers, teachers,Academics, researchers, teachers,Academics, researchers, teachers,and specialists.and specialists.and specialists.and specialists.and specialists. Academics, research-ers, and specialists contribute theirideas and findings in various researchareas and topics. Primary and secondaryschool teachers, as well as curriculumdevelopers, can influence attitudes bymeans of national education programs,particularly through national environ-mental education and awarenesscampaigns.

(ix) The media.The media.The media.The media.The media. The media plays a role ascommunicator and magnifier of move-ments around the world.

53. In Cambodia, all of these factors andplayers are relevant. However, the nationaldevelopment priorities and local livelihoodneeds are more fundamental than the othersand, thus, should be put at the center ofanalysis. To achieve this, new channels ofdialogue will be promoted through ad hocconsultative meetings and forums with theGovernment and local communities.


Delivering the Strate

Judicious Use of Modalities

54. The strategy takes a holistic view of theTonle Sap basin and aims to use lending andtechnical assistance instruments to maximizedevelopment impact. When translated intoactual assistance, the strategy aims to entailthe use of(i) advisory technical assistance for sector

and institutional analyses and forcapacity building;

(ii) project preparatory technical assistanceand program loans where costly anddifficult sector policy reforms need tobe front-loaded to make investmentsviable;

(iii) project preparatory technical assistanceand sector development programs wherea synchronous mix of sector policyreforms and investments is desirable;

(iv) project preparatory technical assistanceand project loans where specific invest-ments that are relatively immune frompolicy distortions, if any, are warranted;where the latter can be successfully andsustainably addressed under the projectloan; or where pilot approaches are to betested; and

(v) project preparatory technical assistanceand sector loans where policy frame-works and institutional capacities aresubstantially in place.

Activities andOperatingOutputs55. Economic and sector work, thematicstudies, programming and processing of loanand technical assistance projects, projectadministration, and aid coordination will bethe regular activities expended in support ofthe strategy.

The operating outputs will be the loanand technical assistance projects approved,the portfolios managed, and the cofinancingmobilized (Appendix 8).

The StrategyMatrix56. The strategy matrix is an operating tool toenhance focus on the Tonle Sap basin (Appen-dix 9). As a logical framework for developingthe Country Strategy and Program, the matrixis designed to ensure that all operations in theregion, and their development objectives, areviewed holistically. The Country Strategy andProgram and its annual updates will identifyactivities in the core areas of intervention,and the crosscutting themes will be used tobroaden and deepen the impact of interven-tions in the core areas. The rows of thestrategy matrix are the development objec-tives and the columns are the core areas ofintervention and the crosscutting themesidentified as most relevant to constraints andopportunities in the Tonle Sap basin. Thestrategy matrix will help to (i) make deci-sions (trade-offs) about which activities ADB


egy

will undertake; (ii) identify linkages, namelyhow activities relate to each other and,thereby, identify clusters of activities; and(iii) assist with the differentiation, namelyidentify which clusters of activities are suitedto which clients and settings, and how a givencluster should be implemented.

Coordination57. Good coordination should lead to bettersharing of information among multilateraland bilateral agencies, improved decisionmaking about the use of external assistance,greater harmonization and convergence ofdonor practices and procedures, enhanceddevelopment results, and greater publicsupport for a country’s efforts.47 Achievinggood coordination is the responsibility of therecipient country. For this reason, it beginswith a government-owned country develop-ment strategy, based on internal analysis and

broad-based publicconsultation. Itentails a regularassessment of thecollective experienceof donors and theGovernment topermit the identifi-cation of bestpractices, e.g.,impact in reducingpoverty. It shouldresult in a commonunderstanding ofassistance needs anda sharper division ofmultilateral andbilateral agencyefforts reflecting

their comparative strengths and experience.58. On the Tonle Sap, the primary

interagency institution is the CambodiaNational Mekong Committee (CNMC), witha membership of 10 ministries and a linkagewith MRC.48 In response to the growing needfor interministerial natural resource manage-ment coordination and planning, a TSBRSecretariat was established in CNMC bysubdecree in September 2001.49 Establish-ment in CNMC affirms the TSBRSecretariat’s legitimacy as the coordinatingbody for the Tonle Sap and, thereby, itsinfluence in all sectors of the Government.The TSBR Secretariat’s structures andfacilities are being strengthened under theTonle Sap Environmental ManagementProject. For these reasons, it is expected thatthe Secretariat will play an increasinglyprominent coordinating function. The closeinvolvement of the Council for Agricultural andRural Development should also be sought.

59. For their part, multilateral andbilateral agencies must clarify their respec-tive strengths and competencies. They shouldmake a more determined effort to base theirassistance strategies on coordinated, if notjoint, economic and sector work and thematicstudies. For this, various forums exist, such asthe Consultative Group for Cambodia and thein-country donor Working Group on NaturalResource Management. Better coordinationbetween multilateral and bilateral agenciesoffers considerable opportunities for synergiesand eliminates overlap.

60. In ADB, coordination among theproject divisions responsible for the activitiesand operating outputs is essential to accom-plish the strategy. Therefore, in advance ofCountry Strategy and Program updates, and inconsultation with ADB’s Cambodia ResidentMission, ADB’s projects divisions will liaise toprepare a viable program. The program will

47 The main multilateral stakeholders are the United Nations agencies, ADB, the World Bank, and theEuropean Union. Japan is the largest donor. Australia, the United States, and France are the otherprincipal bilateral donors.

48 CNMC’s role is to advise the Government on all matters related to the formulation of water policy,strategy, management, preservation, investigation, planning, and restoration, and the development of thewater and other natural resources of the Mekong River basin within Cambodia.

49 The Subdecree on the Establishment, Role, and Functions of the Secretariat of the TSBR of September2001 structured the TSBR Secretariat into three divisions for policy, strategy, and networking; research,monitoring, and data management; and administration and training.


(i) cover the base year and threeforward years for loan and technicalassistance projects, economic andsector work, and thematic studies;(ii) prioritize sector studies;(iii) adjust the loan pipeline overtime to conform with priorities; (iv)reduce over-programming to theextent possible to enable the budgetprocess to be more responsive to theprogram; (v) indicate how lessonslearned have influenced the loan,technical assistance, economic andsector work, and thematic studyprogram; (vi) indicate how the loan,technical assistance, economic andsector work, and thematic studyprogram meet the needs in the TonleSap basin and the priorities estab-lished in the country strategy; and(vii) incorporate aid coordination andcofinancing. The strategy will also beimplemented in harmony with ADB’sGMS Program, which promotescooperation in the subregion.


ADB’s Strengthsand Competencies61. As a multilateral institution, ADB hasglobal perspectives, experience, and resources.Yet, being anchored in Asia and the Pacific, itcan reflect and respond to the region’s devel-opment issues. The Tonle Sap is more than anational resource: it has regional and globaldimensions. ADB is in a unique position tocommunicate the basin’s special require-ments on the global stage, mobilizing interna-tional resources for poverty reduction. ADBhas a strong Asian character and is perceivedto be sensitive to the region’s diverse socialand cultural environment. As the leadinginternational development finance institu-tion in Cambodia, it has also gatheredvaluable cross-sectoral experience.

62. During the initial years of its opera-tions, ADB translated its mandate into therole of a project financing institution. Overthe last 20 years, it has also assumed adevelopment niche that may be characterizedas follows:(i) a sector-focused development institu-

tion that provides an integrated pack-age of policy support, capacity building,and investment services to key sectorsin its developing member countries;

(ii) a regional development institution witha mandate to promote regional coopera-tion, translate global concerns intoregional initiatives, and representregional concerns at global forums;50 and

(iii) a catalyst development institution thatuses its project investments to leveragepolicy change, capacity development,and greater private sector investment.



Operational Program

63. To meet the poverty-environment chal-lenge of the Tonle Sap in accordance with thestrategic and operating principles specifiedabove, two core areas of intervention and fourcrosscutting themes have been identified.Within each of the core areas of intervention,the Government and ADB, together withother partners, will develop an integratedpackage of loan and technical assistanceprojects designed to meet the three develop-ment objectives of (i) pro-poor, sustainableeconomic growth; (ii) access to assets; and(iii) management of natural resources and theenvironment.

Core Areas ofInterventionRural Developmentand the Environment

64. While much has been done in recent yearsto develop an improved understanding of themultiple dimensions of poverty inCambodia’s rural areas, the livelihoods of thecommunities in the Tonle Sap basin—andparticularly those that are most directlydependent on the lake and its immediatesurrounds—present an exceptional level ofcomplexity. The relationships between riceproduction and fishing, the massive seasonalmovement of people between the lake and itslower catchment areas, issues of access tocommon property resources, and the patternsof trade in aquatic resources must all be muchbetter understood so that the interventionsproposed are both relevant and appropriate.Much also needs to be learned about thebreeding, sustainable extraction rates, andmigratory patterns of fish taken from the lake.The livelihoods of the Tonle Sap basincommunities are entirely dependent on aunique hydrological regime that is underthreat from a wide range of structures alreadybuilt or planned both within and outsideCambodia. If livelihoods are to be preserved,much more needs to be known about theinfluence of such structures. ADB will,therefore, commit to supporting the expan-

sion of the knowledge base on which must befounded the basin’s overall process ofdevelopment.

65. The majority of the population of theTonle Sap basin lives on the lake and in theseasonally flooded areas and lower-lyingcatchments. Much needs to be done toimprove and ensure the sustainability of thelivelihoods of the communities there if theyare to be lifted from poverty. Recognizingtheir current assets and taking a positiveapproach to building on them are necessary.Under the strategy, specific interventions mayinclude (i) public investment in irrigationand research and extension, (ii) enhancingfish stocks in the lake and rice fields,(iii) improving rural and primary road networkto connect villages to markets, (iv) providingaffordable rural electric supplies,(v) developing alternative livelihoods,(vi) promoting small and medium enterprises,(vii) strengthening the legal environment,including land titles and equitable access tocommon property resources, (viii) promotingthe status of women in the agriculture sector,(ix) increasing the efficiency of both inputand output markets for farmers and providingcredit facilities, and (x) reducing the vulner-ability of communities to natural disasters.

66. None of the measures that might beintroduced to improve the livelihoods of thecommunities living in the Tonle Sap basincan be effective or sustainable withoutaddressing the overall environmental manage-ment of the basin. Protection of the water-shed, and particularly the forested uppercatchments, is essential to livelihoodsustainability. Under the strategy, specificinterventions will, therefore, be attributed tomeasures to improve catchment managementthat may include (i) applying the ForestryLaw to provide a permanent framework forsustainable forestry management,(ii) rationalizing the forest concession systemand delineation of permanent forest estates,(iii) enhancing forest productivity,(iv) developing community forestry and landuse planning, with long-term tenure rights tolocal communities and indigenous peoples,(v) developing alternative livelihood systemsfor communities whose current activities areincompatible with the preservation of the

OPERATIONAL PROGRAM 29

environment, and (vi) providing alternativeenergy sources and more efficient use ofexisting sources. Support will also be given tothe amelioration of threats to the environ-ment arising from increased use of persistentorganic pollutants and from human habita-tions that contribute to the pollution of thelake.

67. The strategy recognizes that inter-ventions in rural development and theenvironment require an appropriate legal andinstitutional framework. In particular, it hasbeen proposed that the Tonle Sap basin mustbe managed as an entity, but that manage-ment must be genuinely representative of allstakeholder interests and include effectivemechanisms for the exchange of informationand views. It is acknowledged that resourcemanagement is multilayered and mustembrace the lowest strata of governance—such as Village Development Committees,Village Administrative Groups, and demand-

also continue to be given to the ongoingimprovement of the regulatory and manage-ment framework for inland fisheries, withparticular attention to community fisheries.

Human Development

68. The strategy’s interventions in the corearea of rural development and the environ-ment, which are based on enhancing thenatural and physical assets of the peopleliving in the Tonle Sap basin, can only beeffective if they are underpinned by thedevelopment of their human assets particu-larly through improvements in health andeducation.

69. Poor education and high rates of adultilliteracy in rural areas constrain humandevelopment. This situation has been shownto be particularly severe in the Tonle Sapbasin, where investment in education remainslow.51 Education is fundamental to povertyreduction. People without literacy ornumeracy skills have little opportunity toimprove their economic status or even toparticipate fully in society. In the Tonle Sapbasin, emphasis is being given to community-based natural resource management, and it isimportant that all members of society be onan equal footing. This applies in particular towomen who, despite heading a high propor-tion of households, have literacy levels thatare significantly below those of men. TheGovernment aims to improve the quality ofeducation. The ADB-assisted EducationSector Support Program (2001–2005) iscommitted to (i) increasing access to educa-tional services of improved quality andinternal efficiency, particularly for the poorand vulnerable; (ii) expanding enrollment inbasic education to all children through theprovision of additional classrooms, teachingmaterials, and teachers;52 (iii) reducinginequality in education through the provisionof targeted scholarships for vulnerable groups,including ethnic minorities and girls inprimary school; and (iv) promoting non-formal education and technical vocationaleducation and training. ADB will address

51 2003. World Food Programme. Poverty and Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping in Cambodia.52 Improved water supply and sanitation could also lift enrollments.


based organizations—as well as provide for anintegrated basin planning approach. ADB willsupport the Government’s efforts to decen-tralize with particular emphasis on buildingcommunity-based natural resource manage-ment systems, and will assist in examiningappropriate organizational structures forintegrated basin management. Support will

these broad objectives in the Tonle Sap basin,providing both targeted and multisectoralsupport in view of the basin’s special circum-stances. It will tackle gender-based inequal-ity in education and will also take intoaccount the Tonle Sap basin’s cultural andgeographical diversity and the problemsassociated with large seasonal movements ofpeople. Given the history of successfulcooperation with NGOs, they shall beconsidered as key partners.

70. Ill health keeps the poor in poverty,reduces their ability to produce food or earnmoney, and leads them into indebtedness.Major health shocks often result in the sale ofland and other assets, and reduce further theability to cope. Women are generally mostprone to ill health given the stress of child-bearing and the raising of children. In theTonle Sap basin, waterborne and water-related diseases associated with lack ofsanitation and safe drinking water, e.g.,cholera, diarrhea, and malaria, are endemicand cause morbidity, particularly amongchildren. Interventions to improve health inthe Tonle Sap basin will support the objec-tives of Cambodia’s Health Sector StrategicPlan (2003–2007), which aims to (i) increasehealth financing, (ii) widen coverage throughimprovements in the public health system

and public-private partnerships, (iii) developthe institutional framework, (iv) improve thequality of sector services, (v) expand activi-ties to prevent HIV/AIDS, and (vi) buildhealth care skills. This is expected to step upachievement of the United Nations Millen-nium Declaration (2000), with its key focuson health. In the Tonle Sap basin, particularattention will be given to ensuring access toclean water and sanitation for the floating andmobile communities on and around the lake,as well as to meeting their special needs forhealth services. Throughout, ADB will againbuild on past successes in cooperation withNGOs: history shows that the quality andcoverage of health services is better, by almostany measure, when NGOs are contracted todeliver them.

OPERATIONAL PROGRAM 31

“And I have ordered in what-

ever forest people are collect-

ing resin, don’t cut it…Move

quickly to give people owner-

ship rights in this concession

area, so that concessionaires

don’t violate people’s rights.

One part must be saved for

people, and made as reserve

forest, or reserve land, and we

will create a community

forest.”

Source: The Prime Minister’s inaugural speechfor the Tumring Hun Sen School, 29 August2001.

CrosscuttingThemesVulnerable Groups

71. Vulnerable groups include widows andfemale heads of households, the physicallyand mentally handicapped, the orphaned,landless, and the aged with no young tosupport them. Many demobilized soldiers alsoseek to reintegrate into the communities.The burden of poverty has fallen dispropor-tionately on women, particularly when theyhead households or have no male labor. Sincethey play a vital role in agriculture and aneven greater role in fisheries, poverty cannotbe reduced unless policies and programsaddress the situation of women. Therefore,the strategy intends in particular to reducegender-based disparities and improve genderequity in credit, health, education, access tonatural resources, socioeconomic and politicalempowerment, and legal protection. TheTonle Sap also has a sensitive ethnic dimen-sion, and interventions will also seek toensure that the stake of the Vietnamese andCham minorities is considered.

Governance

72. Poor governance constrains, retards, anddistorts development and has a disproportion-ate impact on the weaker sections of society.The most vulnerable victims of inefficientand inadequate social sector spending and ill-designed social sector programs are the poor.Inaccessible, unpredictable, and inefficientlegal systems also discriminate against them.Similarly, corruption often affects the weakestgroups in society the most. To improvegovernance, it is necessary to empowercommunities, individuals, and groups so thatthey can participate in decisions that affecttheir lives and interests. In Cambodia, thetrend toward greater devolution of govern-ment services and participation by stakehold-ers offers the promise of more inclusive

development. Therefore, the strategy willsupport Cambodia’s Governance Action Plan2001 through deconcentration and decentrali-zation initiatives and incorporation of keylegislation governing security of public accessto natural resources.

Resource Cooperation

73. Regional cooperation around naturalresource issues in the Mekong River basin hasbeen tempered by the mixed motivations ofindividual countries. Ultimately, however, itis knowledge and appreciation of the MekongRiver basin’s natural wealth that will driveregional governance efforts to sustain itshealth for the good of all people. Many seeissues, such as shared waters, as the firstvehicle for cooperation that can be extendedinto other areas. The strategy takes a basin-wide approach and will encourage emergenceof a Mekong basin vision. To this intent, itwill disseminate knowledge as widely aspossible and contribute to greater recognitionof the importance of water and related naturalresources and the need to develop them inways that are sustainable. Whenever possible,interventions will build on MRC’s efforts toensure harmonious cooperation among its foursignatory countries.

The Private Sectorin Development

74. The private sector can play a key role inreducing poverty by providing growth opportu-nities and creating employment. In the TonleSap basin, significant private sector growthhas taken place in the tourism sector over thepast few years and this trend is expected tocontinue. Additional opportunities may existin pro-poor, value-adding private sectoractivities to develop natural resources. Thestrategy supports creation of small andmedium enterprises (includingmicroenterprises). In parallel, it fosters thelegal environment, market informationsystems, and financial services required.


Financing theOperational Program

33

75. Lending operations will constitute, by far,the bulk of ADB assistance. However, withthe strategy focusing on effective institutionsand policies as well as on broad-based devel-opment and regional cooperation, sufficientgrant funding must also be ensured. ADB willneed to actively seek additional sources offinancing, in particular, through partnershipson its strategic agenda with regional institu-tions, bilateral agencies, and possibly privatefoundations. In addition to resources tofinance lending and technical assistanceoperations, demands on administrative

resources are likely to increase as, in spite ofselectivity and concentration, assistanceprograms will become more staff and skillsintensive. Finally, enhancing the quality ofADB assistance and fully utilizing its poten-tial by making it an informing and listeningorganization will also have a cost in terms ofstaff resources and time, as well as trainingprograms. But, the geographical focus on theTonle Sap basin will lead to better use,targeting, and management of financial andhuman resources.

Basin management.Basin management.Basin management.Basin management.Basin management. Planning and manag-ing natural resources on the basis of catch-ment or basin units. The advantages of thebasin management approach stem from thefact that natural resources, including surfacewater and groundwater, natural vegetation,soils, and biodiversity, do not recognizeinterjurisdictional boundaries: naturalresource management decisions in one part ofa catchment or basin can have significantimpacts elsewhere. Increasingly, overallresponsibility for resource management isgiven to a basin organization constituted totake on this role, or to play a major part in it.Such organizations are arms of the govern-ment but transcend administrative bound-aries and sometimes international borders.The Tonle Sap basin includes all or part of8 of Cambodia’s 24 provinces, and covers80,000 square kilometers (44% of Cambodia’stotal area), including the Tonle Sap. Theprovinces are Banteay Meanchey,Battambang, Kompong Chhnang, KompongThom, Oddar Meanchey, Preah Vihear, Pursat,and Siem Reap.

Biological diversityBiological diversityBiological diversityBiological diversityBiological diversity..... The Conventionon Biological Diversity (1992), definesbiological diversity as the variability amongliving organisms from all sources, includingamong others, terrestrial, marine, and otheraquatic ecosystems and the ecologicalcomplexes of which they are part; the termincludes diversity within species, betweenspecies, and of ecosystems.

Biosphere reserves.Biosphere reserves.Biosphere reserves.Biosphere reserves.Biosphere reserves. Areas of terrestrial,marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, ora combination thereof, that are recognizedinternationally within the framework of theMan and the Biosphere Programme of theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific, andCultural Organization (UNESCO). Biospherereserves are nominated by governments andremain under their jurisdiction. The reservesmust meet a minimal set of criteria and

Abbreviationsand GlossaryADBAsian Development Bank

CNMCCambodia National Mekong Committee

GMSGreater Mekong Subregion

MRCMekong River Commission

NGOnongovernment organization

TSBRTonle Sap Biosphere Reserve

UNESCOUnited Nations Educational, Scientific, andCultural Organization


adhere to a minimal set of condi-tions before being admitted toUNESCO’s World Network ofBiosphere Reserves. Each reserve isintended to fulfill three comple-mentary functions:(i) a conservation function (preservelandscapes, ecosystems, species, andgenetic variation); (ii) a develop-ment function (foster sustainableeconomic and human develop-ment); and (iii) a logistic function(support demonstration projects;environmental education and training; andresearch and monitoring related to local,national, and global issues of conservation andsustainable development). Biosphere reservescontain one or more core areas, which aresecurely protected sites; a clearly identifiedbuffer zone; and a flexible transition area.

Buffer zone.Buffer zone.Buffer zone.Buffer zone.Buffer zone. A zone that usuallysurrounds or adjoins core areas, and is used forcooperative activities compatible with soundecological practices, including environmentaleducation, recreation, ecotourism, andapplied and basic research. In the Tonle SapBiosphere Reserve (TSBR), the buffer zone—an area of about 540,000 hectares (ha)—surrounds the core areas up to the outer limitof the flooded forest.

Community management.Community management.Community management.Community management.Community management. Thecommunity-based management of localnatural resources, with support from relevantauthorities, institutions, and organizations.

Core areas.Core areas.Core areas.Core areas.Core areas. Securely protected sites forconserving biodiversity, monitoring minimallydisturbed ecosystems, and undertakingnondestructive research and other low-impactuses, such as education. In the TSBR, thecore areas—located in Prek Toal, Boeng TonleChhmar, and Stung Sen—are characterized bya preserved flooded forest, rich river systems,and biodiversity. Nearly 100 waterbirdspecies are found there, a dozen of which areof global significance. In addition to fishstocks, the areas are known for species, suchas crocodiles, turtles, macaques, cappedlangurs, otters, and water snakes.

FFFFFishing lots.ishing lots.ishing lots.ishing lots.ishing lots. Fishing lots are exclusivegeographic areas that are awarded through acompetitive public bidding system for aperiod of 2 consecutive years, with theauction fee payable for each of the two fishingseasons. (In 2000, there were 175 fishing lotsthroughout Cambodia, with size ranging from2,000 to 50,000 ha.) They may include lakeareas, river areas, and flooded forest. Thelargest are found on the Tonle Sap. Theoperator of each lot has the right to harvestfish according to the burden book for the lot.The burden book describes the open season,payment schedule, permissible fishing gear,boundaries, main geographic features, anddesignated public fishing areas. More thanhalf of the fishing lot area was withdrawnfrom the system recently and designated forcommunity-based management.

Flooded forest.Flooded forest.Flooded forest.Flooded forest.Flooded forest. A descriptive term forthe particular natural vegetation that origi-nally covered most of the Tonle Sap flood-plain. It is now characterized by seasonallyflooded low forest and shrubs that stillaccount for the productivity of the Tonle Sap.

TTTTTransition area.ransition area.ransition area.ransition area.ransition area. An area in whichexisting stakeholders work together in avariety of economic and other activities tomanage and develop sustainably a biospherereserve’s natural resources. In the TSBR, thetransition area of about 900,000 ha liesbetween the outer boundary of the buffer zoneand Highways No. 5 and No. 6.

ABBREVIATIONS AND GLOSSARY 35

Source: UNESCO. 2004. The MAB Programme (www.unesco.org).

Appendixes

Appendix 1

Funct ionsFunct ionsFunct ionsFunct ionsFunct ionsGroundwater RechargeGroundwater DischargeFlood ControlShoreline Stabilization Erosion ControlSediment/Toxicant RetentionNutrient RetentionBiomass ExportStorm Protection/WindbreakMicroclimate StabilizationWater TransportRecreation/Tourism

ProductsProductsProductsProductsProductsForest ResourcesWildlife ResourcesFisheriesForage ResourcesAgricultural ResourcesWater Supply

Attr ibutesAttr ibutesAttr ibutesAttr ibutesAttr ibutesBiological DiversityUniqueness to Culture or Heritage

Swam

p

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p

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sts

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sts

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sts

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sts

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The Value of Wetlands

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Key: ( ) Absent or exceptional; ( ) present; ( ) common and important value of that wetland type.Source: Dugan, P.J. (Ed.). 1990. Wetland Conservation: A Review of Current Issues and Required Action. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.

Va lueVa lueVa lueVa lueVa lue

TONLE SAP BASIN STRATEGY | APRIL 2005 37

Appendix 2

I temItemItemItemItem

Area

Hydrology

Biology

Socio-economy

Character ist icCharacter ist icCharacter ist icCharacter ist icCharacter ist ic

250,000–300,000 ha in the dry season1.0–1.6 million ha in the wet season

1–2 m amsl in the dry season8–11 m amsl in the wet season20% of the Mekong River’s floodwaters are absorbed by the Tonle Sap62% of the Tonle Sap’s water originates from the Mekong River38% of the Tonle Sap’s water originates from the Tonle Sap basinThe Tonle Sap is connected to the Mekong River by the 100-kilometer longTonle Sap River, which reverses its flow seasonally

The flooded forest contains about 200 plant speciesThe flooded forest extended over more than 1 million ha originally,614,000 ha in the 1960s, and 362,000 ha in 1991The Tonle Sap contains at least 200 species of fish, 42 species of reptiles,225 species of birds, and 46 species of mammals

1.2 million people live in the area bordered by Highways No. 5 and No. 6The Tonle Sap yields about 230,000 tons of fish per annum (about 50% ofCambodia’s total freshwater capture fisheries production)Rice production in the Tonle Sap floodplain makes up about 12% ofCambodia’s total

The Tonle Sap at a Glance

ha = hectares, m amsl = meters above mean sea levelSource: ADB.


Appendix 3

Direct Human ActionsDirect Human ActionsDirect Human ActionsDirect Human ActionsDirect Human ActionsDrainage for Agriculture, Forestry, and Mosquito ControlDredging and Stream Channelization for Navigation and Flood ProtectionFilling for Solid Waste Disposal, Roads, and Commercial, Residential, and Industrial DevelopmentConversion for Aquaculture/MaricultureConstruction of Dykes, Dams, Levees, and Seawalls for Flood Control, Water Supply, Irrigation, and Storm ProtectionDischarges of Pesticides, Herbicides, Nutrients from Domestic Sewage, and Agricultural Runoff and SedimentMining of Wetland Soils for Peat, Coal, Gravel, Phosphate, and Other MaterialsGroundwater Abstraction

Indirect Human ActionsIndirect Human ActionsIndirect Human ActionsIndirect Human ActionsIndirect Human ActionsSediment Diversion by Dams, Deep Channels, and Other StructuresHydrological Alterations by Canals, Roads, and Other StructuresSubsidence Due to Extraction of Groundwater, Oil, Gas, and Other Minerals

Natural CausesNatural CausesNatural CausesNatural CausesNatural CausesSubsidenceSea-Level RiseDroughtHurricanes and Other StormsErosionBiotic Effects

Causes of Wetland Loss

Key: ( ) Absent or exceptional; ( ) present, but not a major cause of loss; ( ) common and important cause of wetland degradation and loss.Source: Dugan, P.J. (Ed.). 1990. Wetland Conservation: A Review of Current Issues and Required Action. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.

Swam

p

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Swam

pSw

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land

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CauseCauseCauseCauseCause

APPENDIXES 39

Appendix 4

Po

vert

y o

n t

he

Ton

le S

ap


Appendix 5

Food SecurityFood SecurityFood SecurityFood SecurityFood SecurityDraft AnimalsFood-for-WorkResettlementFarm ImplementsCheap Rice CreditMine ClearanceSafety NetRice Rations

Social InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureHealth CareWellsEducationLatrinesMosquito NetsSchool Texts

Physical InfrastructurePhysical InfrastructurePhysical InfrastructurePhysical InfrastructurePhysical InfrastructureIrrigationFarm-to-Market RoadsReclaimed LandPondsElectricity

Livelihood IssuesLivelihood IssuesLivelihood IssuesLivelihood IssuesLivelihood IssuesTechnical and Vocational Education and TrainingJob CreationMarket SupportLower Fuel PricesInvestment Promotion

Agricultural NeedsAgricultural NeedsAgricultural NeedsAgricultural NeedsAgricultural NeedsCheap Agricultural InputsNew TechnologiesHigh-Yielding Varieties of RicePumpsPesticidesTractorsAnimal HealthRice MillsAgroforestryThreshing Machines

Good GovernanceGood GovernanceGood GovernanceGood GovernanceGood GovernanceDemarcation of Fishing GroundsTeacher TransparencyLower Fishing TaxesFewer Arrests

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12354667–7

1233

NeedNeedNeedNeedNeedMekongMekongMekongMekongMekong

P la inP la inP la inP la inP la in

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2134–

13244

2143567–––

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TTTTTonle Saponle Saponle Saponle Saponle SapRegionRegionRegionRegionRegion

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Coasta lCoasta lCoasta lCoasta lCoasta lReg ionRegionRegionRegionRegion

12435–55

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NortheasternNortheasternNortheasternNortheasternNortheasternMounta inMounta inMounta inMounta inMounta in

Reg ionRegionRegionRegionRegion

The Needs of the Poor Ranked in Order of Frequency Cited

Source: ADB. 2001. Participatory Poverty Assessment: Cambodia. Manila

APPENDIXES 41

Appendix 7

Appendix 6

ProvinceProvinceProvinceProvinceProvince

Banteay MeancheyBattambang

Kompong Chhnang

Kompong Thom

Oddar MeancheyPreah VihearPursat

Siem Reap

Characteristic and ResourceCharacteristic and ResourceCharacteristic and ResourceCharacteristic and ResourceCharacteristic and Resource

Lowlands suitable for agricultureLowlands suitable for agriculture with irrigation potential; Pailin gem miningarea on border with Thailand; wildlife sanctuary; core biodiversity area;Multiple-Use Protected Areaa

Tonle Sap River transportation route; wide floodplain agricultural area; wildlifesanctuary; Multiple-Use Protected AreaAgriculture and irrigation; wildlife sanctuary; core biodiversity areas; Multiple-Use Protected AreaSparsely populated; protected landscapeSparsely populated; historic and cultural attractions; wildlife sanctuaryMountainous with hydropower potential; productive forests; wildlife sanctuar-ies; Multiple-Use Protected AreaAngkor Wat and other historical and cultural attractions; Chong Kneas harborfor water transport to and from Phnom Penh; wildlife sanctuary; national park;Multiple-Use Protected Area

Characteristics and Resources of the Tonle Sap Basin Provinces

a In recognition of the Tonle Sap’s importance, a Royal Decree designated it as a Multiple-Use Protected Area in November 1993.Source: ADB.

42

Storage Potential Storage Potential Storage Potential Storage Potential Storage Potential(mcm)(mcm)(mcm)(mcm)(mcm)

Catchment NameCatchment NameCatchment NameCatchment NameCatchment Name ProvinceProvinceProvinceProvinceProvince GrossGrossGrossGrossGross NetNetNetNetNet

Stung Baribo Kompong Chhnang, Pursat – –Stung Pursat Pursat 1,685 580Stung Dauntri Pursat, Battambang – –Stung Sangker Battambang – –Stung Battambang Battambang 1,290 1,150Stung Mongkol Borey Battambang, Banteay Meanchey, (Thailand) 140 115Stung Sreng Siem Reap, Banteay Meanchey, Oddar Meanchey 660 610Stung Siem Reap Siem Reap – –Stung Chikreng Siem Reap 170 160Stung Staung Kompong Thom, Preah Vihear 590 550Stung Sen Kompong Thom, Preah Vihear 3,700 2,900Stung Chinit Kompong Thom, Kompong Chhnang 500 390

Tonle Sap Catchment Storage Potential

mcm = millions of cubic meters.Source: United Nations Development Programme.


Appendix 8

Operating Framework

APPENDIXES 43

Appendix 9

Core Area of Intervention Crosscutting Theme

StrategicAgenda

RuralDevelopment

and theEnvironment

HumanDevelopment

VulnerableGroups Governance

ResourceCooperation

The PrivateSector in

Development

Pro-Poor,SustainableEconomicGrowth

Access toAssets

Managementof NaturalResources andthe Environment

Dev

elop

men

t O

bjec

tive

Cross-Impact Strategy Matrix


For more information on the Tonle Sap Initiative,please contact

Urooj Malik, DirectorOlivier Serrat, Senior Project EconomistAgriculture, Environment, and Natural Resources DivisionMekong DepartmentAsian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, PhilippinesTel +63 2 632 6175Fax +63 2 636 [email protected]/projects/tonle_sap/

Shyam Bajpai, Country DirectorPaulin Van Im, Project Implementation/Program Officer

Cambodia Resident Mission93/95 Preah Norodom Blvd.Sangkat Boeung RaingKhan Daun Penh, CambodiaP.O. Box 2436Tel +855 23 215805, 215806Fax +855 23 [email protected]/carm

About ADB

The Asian Development Bank’s work is aimed at improvingthe welfare of the people of the Asia and Pacific region,particularly for the 1.2 billion who live on less than $2 a day.Despite the success stories, Asia and the Pacific remains hometo two thirds of the world’s poor.

The Asian Development Bank is a multilateral developmentfinance institution owned by 63 members, 45 from the regionand 18 from other parts of the globe. ADB’s vision is a regionfree of poverty. Its mission is to help its developing membercountries reduce poverty and improve their quality of life.

ADB’s main instruments in providing help to its developingmember countries are policy dialogues, loans, technicalassistance, grants, guarantees, and equity investments.ADB’s annual lending volume is typically about $6 billion,with technical assistance provided usually totaling about$180 million a year.

ADB’s headquarters is in Manila. It has 26 offices aroundthe world. The organization has more than 2,000 employeesfrom over 50 countries.

Printed in the Philippines

Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, PhilippinesTel +63 2 632 4444Fax +63 2 636 2444www.adb.orgPublication Stock No. 050105

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