COMMUNITY SERVICE PROJECTS FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN RWANDA

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE

DEPARTMENT OF CROP PRODUCTION AND HORTICULTURE

Dr Daniel N. RUKAZAMBUGADr Venuste MURINDA

M. Goretti UMUHOZARIHO (Msc)Alphonsine KENYANGI (Msc)

Prof Peter Y. K. SallahBeatrice UMUKIZA

Dr Sudarsanam DORAVARI

October, 2009

Contents:

Part One: Introduction of new vegetable crops and promotion of utilization of existing and new crops – a case study of Moringa oleifera (Moringa), Abelmoschus esculentus (Okra), Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea), Lablab purpureus (Lab lab bean) andHibiscus sabdariffa (Roselle)

Parts Two: Community service project report on post-harvest processing of rice through home preparation of parboiled rice and its organoleptic evaluation. [Project executed in Duwane Village of Gisagara District]

Part Three: Strategies for the development of agro-entrepreneurship in rural areas of Rwanda. [Presented at the International Conference on Agripreneurship & Rural Development, Banaras Hindu University, December 2009, Varanasi - India]

Part Four: A study on poverty alleviation strategies in Rwanda. [Presented at the 6th NUR Conference 2009]

Part Five: Fruit and vegetable consumption patterns in Rwanda and strategies to improve nutritional status by introduction of exotic fruit and vegetable species from Africa and Asia. [Presented at the 5th NUR Conference 2008]

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Introduction of new vegetable crops and promotion of utilization of existing and new crops – a case study of Moringa oleifera (Moringa), Abelmoschus esculentus (Okra), Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea), Lablab purpureus

(Lab lab bean) and Hibiscus sabdariffa (Roselle)

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Part One

RESEARCH REPORT

Introduction of new vegetable crops and promotion of utilization of existing and new crops – a case study of

Moringa oleifera, Abelmoschus esculentus (Okra), Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea), Lablab purpureus (Lab lab

bean) and Hibiscus sabdariffa (Roselle)

COMMUNITY SERVICE COMMITTEE

DEPARTMENT OF CROP PRODUCTION AND HORTICULTURE

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE

Dr Daniel RUKAZAMBUGADr Venuste MURINDA

M. Goretti UMUHOZARIHO (MSc)Alphonsine KENYANGI (MSc)

Beatrice UMUKIZADr Sudarsanam DORAVARI

October, 2009

INTRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF NEW VEGETABLE AND PULSE CROPS

INTRODUCTION

Africa has traditionally low crop diversity in vegetable and legumes due to its isolation from other tropical continents till recently. As a result it has one of the lowest per capita consumption of vegetables. Areas of moderate to heavy rainfall have largely dependent upon tubers, bananas, beans and animal products for their nutrition. Semi-arid zones grow cereals and beans and they obtain meat and milk through pastoralism.

There is a rapid decline in forest sources of animal protein and land for pastoralism. These have resulted in dwindling supplies of meat and milk and are becoming expensive, and are already beyond the reach of common people.

Introduced European vegetables have become popular in many African countries and have provided nutrition and food security to some extent. In comparison to the indigenous tropical vegetables, European vegetables are low in protein, fat, vitamin and mineral nutrients. The consumption of vegetables is low in Africa, partly due to the lack of efforts to diversify vegetables and incorporate them into the local cuisine.

Sub Saharan African countries have large proportion of rural poor depending on subsistence agriculture under adverse climatic and edaphic conditions. They are directly affected by poor nutrition resulting in poor health, particularly among vulnerable sections like children below 5 years and women. Cost estimate to the health sector and loss of valuable labour due to sickness are astronomical, notwithstanding the agony and pain caused by sickness premature loss of life.

It is therefore necessary to actively promote indigenous vegetable crops of Africa and promote utilization of already introduced crops of high nutritive value such as Moringa oleifera.

The following new crops were identified to have promising potential for introduction as they are already in use in neighboring countries and in West Africa. In view of similar food habits of people across Africa, it should be easy to borrow both vegetable crops and recipes across Africa and from Asia in order to provide better nutrition and variety of foods in African cuisine.

Another dimension of diversification of vegetable base is to create employment opportunities to the rural and urban poor and lead to diversification of rural livelihoods and through Agro-entrepreneurship and Agro-industries.

VEGETABLES AND LEGUMES CROPS IDENTIFIED:

OKRA (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) Family: Malvaceae.

Okra is a vegetable crop and probably originated in East Africa. Another species grown in West Africa is A. Caillei (A. Cher) Stevels.

A. esculentus is the major species used for Okra production in tropics, and subtropics. It is rich in calcium (90mg/100g fresh weight). The seeds are also rich in edible oil (13 to 20%) and protein (20-24%).

About 5 to 6 million tones of fruits are grown worldwide. The young fruits are consumed by boiling, frying or cooking in water. 70% of this crop is produced in India and Nigeria also produces both fresh and dry okra and is one of the most common vegetable consumed. Okra requires a minimum temperature of 20oC and cannot withstand frost. 30-35oC is optimal for its growth it prefers full sunlight but annual types in Nigeria are also used. It is fast growing and India has produced yellow Mosaic resistant varieties and currently Arka Anamika variety is preferred for local and export markets.

Some African varieties producing very long fruits are also grown to a limited extent in West Africa. Clemson spineless is another variety used in warm season in temperate countries. Mucilage content varies with varieties and in West Africa high mucilage content is preferred.

The optimum pH range is 6.2 to 6.5. For good yields a complete fertilizer is applied prior to planting and two Nitrogen fertilizer applications are side dressed after 3-4 and 4-6 weeks after planting.

PIGEON PEA (Cajanus cajan)

It is a tough and nutritious crop and can grow in a variety of soils and tolerates dry weather conditions by growing on residual moisture. It is nutritious due to its high protein content and the leaves can be used as fodder and plants can be used as shade plants for other crops such as coffee. Some cultivars are perennial and grow up to 5 years and become woody and can be used as fuel wood.It is also good for improving fertility of soil since it is a legume and adds a lot of biomass through leaf litter and there by enriches the organic matter of the soil.

In view of the low fertility of high terrain in Rwanda it can be a useful plant for both soil improvement and human nutrition.

There are also vegetable pigeon pea varieties, whose green peas are consumed much the same way as green peas and are more nutritious than green peas.

The split peas without the seed cover are over boiled to get a soup, which can be added to cooked vegetables and seasoned to taste.

These sauces can be used with rice, thick porridge of cereals or tubers and banana. Several varieties of pigeon pea with different maturation periods have been developed in India and are usually intercropped with sorghum. The best vegetable pigeon pea cultivars have long pods with as many as 9 seeds. Consumers prefer pigeon peas with green pods.

Nutritional composition (on a dry weight basis)

Green Seeds Mature SeedsProtein % 21.0 18.0Protein digestibility 66.8 58.5Trypsin inhibitor unit/mg 2.8 9.9Starch % 44.8 53.0Amylase inhibitor unit/mg 17.3 26.9Soluble sugars% 5.1 3.1Flatulence factor g/100g soluble sugars 10.3 53.5Crude fibre % 8.2 6.6Fat % 2.3 1.9

Others minerals, traces elements and vitamins.

Lablab purpureus (syn. Dolichos lab lab)

Origin:

It occurs wild in tropical Africa (Madagascar) and India. It might have been first domesticated in Africa as wild and domesticated plants coexist in Africa. It is locally cultivated in most tropical areas of South and Central America, South and South East Asia and Australia.

Uses:

The most popular use of lab lab in tropical Africa like West Africa, Ethiopia, and Malawi is as a vegetable. Young green pods and immature seeds are boiled and eaten.

In Northern Nigeria and Kenya the dry seeds are used as a pulse, although they require prolonged cooking and several changes of water. In East Africa dry seeds are appreciated by the Indian Community, because it is popular as a pulse in India. In India separate varieties are used for vegetable and seed production. Seeds can be also split and the split beans are used as a pulse like that of pigeon pea or lentils. When the pods are mature but green, the seeds are also used like green peas and also cooked after removing the seed coat by hand. The cotyledons have a unique flavour and highly relished.

Whole plant is used as fodder but cattle tend to eat only leaves as stems are hard. As an annual or perennial fodder crop it is grown in Australia and also by some large scale farmers of Kenya and Zimbabwe. The dry seeds can be used as fodder.

The plant can also be used as a cover for soil improvement and soil and water conservation programs. It makes a good cover crop in perennial crops such as coffee.

Nutritional composition

Immature pods Immature seeds Dry seedsEdible portion 100g 100g 100gWater 87g 87.9g 9.4g

Protein 2.9 2.1 23.9gFat 0.45 0.2 1.7gCarbohydrate 2.9 9.2 60.8

Others are minerals and vitamins.

In tropical Africa Lab lab is widespread but less popular than some other leguminous vegetables and pulses such as cow pea and beans.

ROSELLE (Hibiscus sabdariffa)

Most members of Hibiscus genus are ornamental. Most important member of this family is cotton followed by Okra and Roselle.Roselle has several varieties and kenaf type is used for producing baste fibers, and leaves are used as a leafy vegetable, and has a sour taste due to the presence of citric and ascorbic acids. Bright red calyces of Roselle plant is used for making gellies, jams and food colours.

Red sorrel is a popular fruit drink in West Africa and is called “zobo”. It is also popular in West Indies particularly during Christmas.

The flower calyces are rich in Anthocyanins which impart the red color. Anthocyanins are very efficient in “mopping up” free radicals in body tissues and are therefore useful in fighting diseases like cancer.

In addition to its use in local beverages including soft drink infusions (teas) and alcoholic drinks, dried red Hibiscus flowers are in strong demand in wine and food industries. Export of this product to South Africa seems to have good potential.

The calyces contain pectin and makes good firm jelly. They are also rich in riboflavin, ascorbic acid, niacin, carotene, calcium and iron that are nutritionally important.

The leaves are cooked along with leaves like Amaranthus in order to reduce its sour taste. Leaves and calyces have mild laxative properties and is a diuretic because of the presence of glycolic and Ascorbic acid, Citric acid present acts as a cooling agent.

It tolerates a warm and a humid tropical and subtropical climate and is damaged by frost. It grows best under full sunlight and can be used as a border plant and also suitable for wastelands as a rainfed crop and is fairly drought resistant.

ALREADY EXISTING VEGETABLES

A.1.Moringa oleifera lam

Moringa oleifera belonging to the family Moringacea a family of a monotypic genus, Moringa with a few species .Moringa Oleifera is the only species which is wide spread and consumed as a leafy vegetable, pod vegetable and also flowers are used .The other species Moringa –stenopetala’s leaves are cooked and eaten in Southern Ethiopia.Moringa oleifera a native of Himalayan regions and has been domesticated thousands of years back and is mentioned as a multipurpose tree in the ancient Indian literature due to its a widespread use in agriculture, medicine and industry .Its use however is largely confined to southern part of India, where it is considered as a valuable vegetable due to its unique and inviting flavour.

The leaf and the flower consumption has dwindled in the urban populations due to the labour involved , but the fruit consumption has steadily increased and has a consistent and important position in the south Indian vegetable industry.

Moringa is a handsome soft wood tree and is fast growing, drought tolerant and easily adapted to varied ecosystems and farming systems. It is a backyard tree of more than 2 million households of Southern India.

It has now spread from the Indian sub continent to South East Asia, Caribbean and East Africa. It is widely cultivated in Northern Nigeria by the Hausa people for its leaves, which are cooked and sold by the market women all across Northern Nigeria for hundreds of years. The introduction of this tree into Africa was not well documented.

The tree Moringa is a perennial type cultivated for a long time and has many distinct production disadvantages. It has relatively long pre-fruit bearing period and requires great number of rainy days and vulnerable to pests and diseases.

Scientists in India have produced new shrub type cultivars of Moringa called Periyakulam 1, (PKM-1) and Periyakulam 2 (PKM-2) which have shown definite superiority over the perennial types.

This seed grown cultivars have replaced 60% of the tree types and are becoming very popular. They are ratooned for 2 to 3 years and provide long and fleshy fruits.

Propagation

Tree forms are vegetatively propagated by limb cuttings. Elite trees are cut down leaving a stump with a 90 cm head from which 2 or 3 branches are allowed to grow. From these shoots, cuttings of 100cm long and 4 to 5 cm in diameter are selected and used as planting material.

Shield budding is also practiced in some areas and the budded trees begin to bear fruits in 6 months and give good crops for many years.

Seed propagation is practiced for PKM-1 and 2; seeds do not show any dormancy and remain viable for one year if stored well. There is high degree of variability in the seed because the plant is highly cross pollinated.

Harvest and yield

Perennial types propagated by cuttings take nearly one year to bear fruits and the yields are low for the first two years (80-90 fruits per tree).This gradually increases to 450-500 fruits per tree in the 4th and 5th year.

Annual Moringa types are seasonal in terms of fruit-bearing. Crop sown in September comes to harvest within six months. Fruits of sufficient length and girth are harvested before they develop fibre. Harvesting period lasts for 2-3 months and about 250-400 fruits are harvested per tree.

Developing fruits are sometimes damaged by a fruit fly Gitona distigmata and can be controlled by pesticide Fenthion 80 E C, 0.04 percent during vegetative and flowering stages or Nimbecide 0.3 percent at 1.50ppm during 50 percent fruit set and 35 days after. Neem kernel application of 2 liters per tree at 50 percent fruit set is applied per tree. Weekly removal of affected trees is also required.

Research focus

1. There is need to investigate its performance in different agro-climatic zones of Rwanda ,

2. Acquiring shrub cultivars PKM-1 and 2 comparing yield performance with the tree cultivars available in East Africa,

3. Propagation techniques and sylvicultural practices for maximum yields,4. Agro processing of leaves, fruits for local and export markets.

Increased vegetable consumption is critical to alleviate world-incidence of nutritional deficiencies. Diets rich in micronutrients and antioxidants are strongly recommended to ameliorate the effects of diseases.

Survey of over 120 species of tropical and subtropical edible plants for nutrient content and antioxidant activity (AOA) and crop traits indicated that Moringa oleifera is one of the potential crops to enhance nutrient and antioxidant intake.

Moringa extracts inhibited the growth of staphylococcus – aureus, isolated from food and animal intents.

Fodder could be a biocidal agent to substitute for antibiotics in livestock production, Improves immune functions for fighting infectious diseases, Iron and Vitamin A deficiencies and infectious diseases continue to devastate people of

the developing world, Rich countries have obesity – Both can benefit from it, In Sub Saharan Africa, the consumption level of vegetables is 43 %(recommended level is

73 Kg/person /year), Only 20 are produced intensively, out of 100s of indigenous vegetables which are more

nutritious and disease resistant, and contain a large difference of phytochemichals.

Moringa oleifera (100g fresh leaves) Dry matter

Protein Β-carotene

Ascorbate Tocopherols Iron Calcium

24g 5.7g 15mg 249mg 25 9.2 638

Antioxidant content

Natural antioxidants Total phenolics :74-210µ mol/g

Vitamins Vit A: 1.1-2.8µ mol/g for β-carotene Vit C: 70-100 µ mol/g for ascorbate Vit E: 0.7-1.1µ mol/g for α –tocopherol,

Antioxidant content of Moringa is very high compared to vegetables and fruits.

Results and discussionTable 1.TYPE COLOR and APPEARANCE TEXTURE SMELL TASTE MeanMoringa whole fruit 3.9 3.3 3.1 3.4 3.4Lab lab 3.3 3.2 2.9 3 3.1Okra 3.1 3.6 3.6 4.2 3.6Split Fruit Moringa 2.9 2.9 3.2 2.7 2.9Moringa Flesh 4.3 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8Moringa leaf 1.8 2.6 2.4 2.1 2.2Roselle 4.1 4.1 4 4.4 4.2Cajanus cajan 3.8 3.8 3.3 3.4 3.6NOT GOOD=1 OK=2 GOOD=3 VERY GOOD=4 EXCELLENT=5

Table 1. Organoleptic evaluation of Moringa pigeon pea, okra, and the following organoleptic data was obtained with respect to Moringa pods cooked in three different ways:

1. Whole fruit 3.42. Split fruit 2.93. Flesh fruit of Moringa 3.8

Moringa flesh scored well because there is no fibre to chew and spit. However it is not clear as to why preference was shown to whole fruit pieces compared to split fruits.

Moringa leaves didn’t score well compared to fruits and scored the least in all categories.

The result is interesting because in West Africa Moringa is cultivated in homesteads by Hausa people only for its leaf and fruits are not consumed.

The situation in India is that leaf consumption has come down drastically particularly in the urban areas while fruit is widely consumed and its consumption has increased.

Flowers are not marketed but in rural areas and small towns, the flowers are used by cooking with eggs to make scrambled eggs or omelets.

It will be important to try different recipes with the leaves and also the dry powder to make it acceptable to the rural population.

Cajanus cajan (PIGEON PEA)

A soup was made using overcooked Cajanus cajan split peas with tomatoes. This preparation was liked and was scored 3.6 same as okra. This clearly shows that it can be easily acceptable to the people.

Cajanus cajan can be used with several other vegetables like Capsicum, Amaranthus, French beans, etc, to make different types of stews which can be used to eat with rice or thick porridge of cassava, sorghum and maize. These stews can also be used in combination with cooked green banana or potato.

OKRA

It is native of Africa but Nigeria is the only country which cultivates okra on a large scale, but it is a very popular vegetable throughout Indian subcontinent. It is mostly cooked as a dry vegetable in the Northern part of India. It is also cooked as a stew with or without Cajanus cajan in the South. It does not become slimy because it is stir fried in oil initially to reduce sliminess. However in West Africa it is slightly undercooked to produce draw soup and is liked very much with thick porridge of cereals like sorghum, maize and also tubers like cassava and yam.

It scored well as dry vegetable with a value 3.6. However it should also be tried as a stew with or without Cajanus cajan .Other recipes suitable for Rwandese cuisine need to be developed if this vegetable has to be made popular in Rwanda. It has good nutritive value, high fibre content and the mucilage protects digestive system against ulcers and cancer.

Lab lab beans (Lablab purpureus)

It was prepared as a dry vegetable cooked with little oil, onion and hot chili pepper.

It reassembles in appearance with fine beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). It has a stronger taste than fine beans. It scored 3.1 and was scored slightly higher than Moringa leaf. This leguminous vegetable can also be cooked with Cajanus cajan split peas as a stew and can be used with rice or thick porridges. More recipes need to be developed for this vegetable. It has many varieties of both seed and pod vegetable types. Its leaves also can be used.

Roselle

Roselle scored the highest of 4.2. It seems to be well liked as a soft drink. An appropriate recipe with some species like dry ginger needs to be developed. The crop would be suitable for the Eastern region and can be consumed throughout Rwanda and can also be exported to South Africa.

There are no local soft drinks except natural fruit juices. Roselle therefore can be introduced to provide additional cheap, affordable soft drink to the rural masses and can be used for occasions like marriages and parties.

Organoleptic evaluation of cereals

TYPE COLOR and APPEARANCE TEXTURE SMELL TASTE MeanCassava + sorghum 2.3 3.5 2.8 2.6 2.8Cassava + Maize 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.6 3.5Maize 2.9 2.5 3.1 2.5 2.8Wheat 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.7 3.5Cassava 4.3 3.6 3.4 3.9 3.8

NOT GOOD=1 OK=2 GOOD=3 VERY GOOD=4 EXCELLENT=5

Whole wheat and cassava fared well among the thick porridges of single type with 3.5 and 3.8scores. Whole wheat thick porridge is good for diabetics bur is more expensive and need to be prepared from whole wheat as it is not commercially available as whole wheat flour. The white flour of wheat is not nutritious as is used for making bread and cakes.

Conclusion

In the whole cereal category maize, thick porridge did not do well and scored only 2.6. The maize flour was made from local maize .But if we had used the World Food Program (WFP) maize flour fortified with soybean; we might have seen a much higher acceptability.

Combination of cereals with cassava

In order to fortify cassava with one of the cereals we tried three combinations in the ration of 1:4 (one part cereal and four parts cassava ).The scores were as follows :

Cassava + sorghum 2.8 Cassava + maize 2.8 Cassava wheat 3.5

It is interesting to note that cassava + sorghum has scored higher than cassava + maize. However if we had used WFP maize the result could be the opposite. Cassava + wheat have scored 3.5 and seem to be highly acceptable. We need to try soybean flour also with cassava as it has much higher protein content.

More work need to be done to come up with appropriate combinations and nutrient contents to derive suitable formula.

CONCLUSION

This exercise has clearly demonstrated that Moringa pods can be easily incorporated into local diet to make stews. The leaves as fresh leafy vegetable can be used by doing more work on their preparation. Dry leaf powder can also be substituted for fresh leaves if necessary to improve acceptability.

Cajanus cajan split peas when overcooked into a mash can be used alone or in combination with other vegetables to make stews.

Okra as dry vegetable is well accepted. Lab lab beans need more work to improve acceptability. Roselle is highly acceptable and can be cultivated for local consumption. Cereals can be mixed with cassava, but it is also necessary to work with soybean to improve protein content of the thick porridge made with cassava.

RECOMMENDATIONS

All the above vegetables are recommended for use in Rwanda. Cultivation and utilization promotion is recommended through extension as part of community service of the Faculty of Agriculture.

AKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project was carried out by the following students of the Faculty of Agriculture:

1. GAFIGI Jean Paul; 2. ISHIMWE Rodrigue and3. NTIRENGANYA JMV

Community service project report on post-harvest processing of rice through home preparation of parboiled rice and its organoleptic evaluation.

Project executed in Duwane Village of Gisagara District

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Part Two

COMMUNITY SERVICE PROJECT REPORT

ON POST-HARVEST PROCESSING OF RICE THROUGH HOME PREPARATION OF PARBOILED RICE AND ITS

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION

UMUHOZARIHO M. Goretti (Msc)

Alphonsine KENYANGI (Msc)

Dr MURINDA Venuste

Dr Sudarsanam DORAVARI

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE

September, 2009

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction2. Post-harvest processing of rice3. Methods and materials4. Results and discussions5. Conclusion and Recommendations6. Appendix 1 and 2.

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project was carried out by the following students:

4. GAFIGI Jean Paul Faculty of Agriculture5. ISHIMWE Rodrigue Faculty of Agriculture6. NTIRENGANYA JMV Faculty of Agriculture7. MUKESHIMANA Françoise Faculty of Agriculture8. UWAMARIYA Delphine Faculty of Medicine

I also would like to thank members of staff of Crop Production Department for their encouragement and people of DUWANE Village of the GISAGARA District for their co-operation.

Organoleptic evaluation of Parboiled rice conducted on the 9th

September 2009 in DUWANE Village of GISAGARA District

1. INTRODUCTION

Rice – Oryza sativa belongs to the grass family and is among the most ancient edible grasses. Rice was able to spread before the continental drift to many parts of the globe. Although many species occur in the tropical world only two were domesticated namely Oryza sativa in the Far East and Oryza glaberrima in Africa.

Oryza sativa has two cultivars groups

1. The Indica cultivar group: cultivars are mostly from the humid tropics and are tall, leafy, high tillering and prone to lodging, show poor response to Nitrogen, are photo-period-sensitive and flowers when day length is short. The panicle is open and grains are long.

2. The Japonica cultivar group: cultivars are mostly subtropical, traditional cultivars have short stems with wide and erect leaf blades. Japonicas are moderately tillering and respond well to Nitrogen fertilization. They are photoperiod-insensitive with compact panicles and short grains.

In 1966, the International Rice Research Station (IRRI) released the first high yielding cultivars IR-8 from crossing between cultivars from each group. They have short growing period, are disease resistant, N-responsive, and photoperiod insensitive. Subsequently several new cultivars were developed by India and China.

Most of the rice cultivated in Africa is also from these cultivars of Oryza sativa and not Oryza glaberrima. Recently, a hybrid of Oryza glaberrima with Oryza sativa was developed and named New Rice for Africa (Nerica).

In Rwanda, rice cultivars introduced are varieties produced by IRRI and China, and are high in amylose and amylopectin and are therefore are sticky when cooked.

In West Africa and parts of Asia (Sri-Lanka) parboiled rice is produced from these high amylose and amylopectin glutinous varieties in order to overcome the stickiness and improve their nutritional value. The present studies aimed at introducing parboiled rice to Rwanda in order to exploit several advantages of using parboiled rice compared to milled white raw rice.

2. POST HARVEST PROCESSING OF RICE

Rough rice grains or paddy is defined as rice in the husk. Rice stems are harvested with rough rice and threshed manually or using stone rollers or by mechanically means.

Rough rice is traditionally threshed by pounding in wooden mortars. Modern methods use stone or Engleberg or rubber roller machines for dehusking and subsequent polishing to produce white rice.

When the husk is removed by hand or a dehuller, the product is called brown raw rice, and still has outer layers (pericarp, aleurone layers and embryo).

In order to produce white rice, the outer layers are removed by abrasion and the products are bran containing the outer layers and a portion of endosperm. The bran is very rich in vitamins, proteins and fat.

The final product is called raw milled rice and when separated from the broken pieces of grain gives complete grains. The different fractions produced by weight are 20% husk, 50% white rice, 16% broken rice, and 14% bran and meal. It is clear that white rice is very low in nutrients compared to brown rice. Parboiled paddy on the other hand, produces parboiled rice that is rich in nutrients like raw brown rice and can be easily dehusked without breaking the grain.

Rice has following unique features:

It is a major cereal crop particularly in Asia and is increasingly grown in Africa. The nutritive value of rice in terms of proteins, vitamins, minerals and fiber is very close to other

major cereals like wheat, maize, sorghum and millet. Traditionally, rough rice (paddy) is processed by removing the husk through manual labor (hand

pounding) and the brown rice produced is consumed. Many centuries ago in Southern Asia, they found it easy to remove the husk if they partially boil

the rough rice and dry it before pounding it to remove the husk. In the early part of this century, it was discovered that eating polished white rice which is

mechanically processed causes a disease called “beriberi”. It was later discovered that the thiamine content of the rice gets reduced by removing the outer layers of rice through mechanical processing and causes Vitamin B deficiency.

When Americans started growing rice, they decided to parboil the rough rice before milling. This is because 80% of the nutrients particularly vitamins are preserved by parboiling the rice and it is easy to dehusk without breaking the grains.

The reason for the preservation of nutrients is that the nutrients move in from the husk and bran into the endosperm.

Apart from retaining 80% of the nutritive values of brown rice, the parboiled rice is also having the following advantages:

a. It is easier to remove the cover (dehulling);b. It reduces the number of broken grains during processing;c. It has longer storage life;d. Parboiled rice is richer in B vitamins than milled rice;e. It takes longer to digest and so who has consumed it does not feel hungry quickly and,

also, it is good for diabetics.f. Does not undergo end clumping or get scattered due to overcooking.g. Does not get spoiled quickly after cooking.h. Poor quality paddy can also be used to produce parboiled rice in order to improve its

quality.

However, there are also some disadvantages such as:1. It can take longer time to cook however presoaking can reduce the time.2. It involves the additional expenditure of energy (fuel) to parboil the rough rice.3. It looks yellowish and translucent.4. It doesn’t have the smell of fresh rice.

In Rwanda, almost all the rice grown is not parboiled; therefore, the nutritive value of rice produced and marketed is very low. It is also found that most urban consumers prefer to buy white polished rice is produced by large modern rice mills or by the smaller millers located in their towns. Recently the authorities have directed the closure of local small scale mills as their machinery was outdated and involves 20-25% breakage of grains. In order to improve the quality, the entire paddy (rough rice produced) is directed to the bigger mills through licensed agents from the villages. It is expected that only white rice produced by big millers would be available for consumption in urban areas as big millers do not have a parboiling unit in their system. Howeverrural farmers can produce raw brown rice which is very high in nutrients for their personal consumption. However it involves dehusking by hand. In view of the present study was undertaken to introduce parboiling technique in the villages as it leads to value addition by this process and slowly enter urban markets to popularize homemade parboiled rice to the urban population of Rwanda. In order to help the poor farmers to attain the maximum nutritive value from rice, they either have to consume brown rice produced by hand pounding the raw rough rice or to parboil the rice before dehusking. This study is aimed at introducing the parboiling technique to the farmers and evaluate parboiled rice acceptance in comparison to brown rice and milled raw rice. It may also pave the way for rural women to produce parboiled rice and sell it commercially for urban consumption. Parboiled rough rice can be dehusked by small scale rice millers. Parboiled rice thus produced would have less broken grains and very good in appearance.

3. METHODS AND MATERIALS

Paddy also called rough of both long and short varieties rice was purchased from villagers of GISAGARA District.

1) 5 Kg of both long and short types were cleaned and dried and were pounded to obtain RAW BROWN RICE.

2) 10 Kg of both long and short types were cleaned and PARBOILED RICE was produced using the home preparation technique given in (APPENDIX 1)

3) 5 Kg of MILLED RAW RICE of both short and long types were purchased from the local market.

In this survey, six types of cooked rice were served to them namely brown short and long, milled short and long and parboiled short and long and an organoleptic evaluation was conducted on the 9th September 2009 in DUWANE village of GISAGARA district. A total of 18 respondents participated in this exercise, comprising of both villagers and outsiders from Huye Town in equal numbers. They were given a questionnaire to fill in using a 5 point scale to evaluate organoleptic characteristics namely color and appearance, texture, smell and taste. The questionnaire is given in APPENDIX 2.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Organoleptic results are shown in Table 1 and the preliminary data is showing promising results for PARBOILED RICE for the following reasons:

1. In the color and appearance category it scores low because of its yellowish brown color as against the white milled rice which scores very high. Raw brown rice also has poor scoresbecause of the brownish color.

2. In the texture category parboiled rice scores higher or same as against others because cooked parboiled rice produces free rice grains separate from each other, since starch is gelatinized.

3. Parboiled rice has no fresh aroma like that of raw rice because it has lost free volatile (aldehydes and ketones) during parboiling. However the smell was accepted for parboiling short and scored highest for parboiled long. This is a strong indication that parboiled rice has no objectionable odor to them in spite of the fact that all of them may be eating it for the first time. This shows that it will be easy to introduce parboiled rice in Rwanda.

4. In terms of taste evaluation parboiled rice scores the highest and comes close to brown raw rice. It is a well known fact that highly milled rice has a bland taste as it contains only starch compared to brown and parboiled rice, which are rich in nutrients.

If equal weightage is given to all the factors the results may be misleading and give the impression that they all score the same. However milled parboiled rice may score high on all characteristics, but at present it is not possible produce it as all mills are closed.

Table 1. ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF COOKED RICE*

TYPE COLOR and APPEARANCE TEXTURE SMELL TASTEA: Brown Short 1.7 2.4 3.5 3B: Brown Long 2.5 2.8 2.1 2.2C: Milled Short 3.7 2.6 2.8 2.6D: Milled Long 4.5 3 3.1 2.8E: Parboiled Short 1.1 3.3 2.8 3.6F: Parboiled Long 1.8 2.7 3.4 3.5NOT GOOD=1 OK=2 GOOD=3 VERY GOOD=4 EXCELLENT=5*The above are average values calculated from the responses given by 18 participants.

5. CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATION

1. Parboiled rice is well received in terms of texture, smell and taste compared to raw brown and raw milled types of rice.

2. This clearly indicates that urban population will patronize the rice easily if it becomes available in the market and people are informed through mass media of its nutritive value.

3. Color and appearance of parboiled rice can be improved if the processing is standardized and small scale milling machinery is made available to the rural farmers.

4. Large scale mills should be encouraged to add on parboiling unit to their existing mills in order to produce parboiled rice.

5. High amylose short grain rice is particularly suitable for parboiling as it reduces stickiness and makes the grains to become separate after cooking.

6. Long grains rice of intermediate amylase quantity seems to be preferred by the urban population and can be made more attractive by parboiling the same in order to improve its nutritive value.

7. Diabetics can take advantage of parboiled rice as it has lower glycemic index than raw rice.8. Technique of parboiled rice production can be demonstrated in all the Districts by Students of

the Faculty of Agriculture.9. Wide publicity can be given by NUR Research Commission to Ministries and NGOs for adoption

of parboiling technology at various levels.10. More tests are required to back up these findings and more information on actual nutritive

values by analysis of samples is required.

6. REFERENCE

Post-harvest processing of rice:

www.fao.org/documents

7. APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1

HOME PREPARATION OF PARBOILED RICE

1. Clean the rough rice in water and pre-soak the rough rice for 24 hours or more until it absorbs water.

2. Boil rough rice with just enough water until the outer covers of the rice (palea and lemma) just separate.

3. Dry the parboiled rough rice in shade until the moisture level reaches 16%.4. Hand pound or mill the rice to remove the outer-cover and dry the rice to below 12% moisture

for safe storage. This procedure is demonstrated to the farmers for their evaluation and future adoption, if they consider it as a beneficial procedure.

APPENDIX 2

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF COOKED RICE

TYPE COLOR and APPEARANCE TEXTURE SMELL TASTEABCDEFNOT GOOD=1 OK=2 GOOD=3 VERY GOOD=4 EXCELLENT=5

Strategies for the development of agro-entrepreneurship in rural areas of Rwanda.

Presented at the International Conference on Agripreneurship & Rural Development, Banaras Hindu

University, December 2009, Varanasi – India

҉

Part Three

STRATEGIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRO-ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN RURAL AREAS OF RWANDA

Dr Daniel N. RUKAZAMBUGADr Venuste MURINDAProf Peter Y. K. SallahDr Sudarsanam DORAVARIdsudarsanam@nur.ac.rwFaculty of Agriculture, National University of Rwanda.

Keywords: Poverty alleviation, agricultural productivity, diversity of fruits and vegetable crops.

Abstract

A socio-economic survey conducted in two villages of Rwanda has indicated the necessity to diversify fruit and vegetable base by introducing improved varieties both for local and export purposes. In order to develop sustainable agriculture, mixed cropping of fruit, vegetable and staple food crops is required to provide food security and by introducing suitable agro –forestry species such as Moringa, Sesbania, Pigeon pea, Neem and Pongamia to combat soil degradation and provide fuel wood. A multifaceted approach suitable to the different agro –climatic zones and also to the rural farmers can bring about diversification and increased production resulting in food safety, and can lead to the development of agro – industries through agro-entrepreneurship.

Introduction

Rwanda faces enormous development challenges which are for beyond its means: poverty, an economy dominated by low-yield subsistence Agriculture, resource scarcity, soil degradation and the legacy of the genocide. Rwanda is helping itself; it has developed a credible frame work for its own development initiatives and through the international community activities.

The key objectives of poverty reduction (MINECOFIN, 2007) strategy are to increase economic growth, reduce population growth, combat extreme poverty, and ensure more effective poverty reduction strategies. In the area of Agriculture, the main program includes the intensification of sustainable production system in crop cultivation and animal husbandry; building the technical and organizational capacity of farmers by promoting commodity chains and agribusiness; and strengthening institutional framework of the sector at central and local level.

Ultimately these initiatives will strengthen the enabling environment for the rural private sector, increasing the access of poor farmers to markets and expanding the commercial potential of Agriculture.

Agricultural productivity and poverty

In short, growth in Agriculture drives rural development by directly benefiting the poor by increasing their production and creating employment opportunities to landless. It also creates opportunities for the poor to migrate due to growth in industrial sector; reduced food prices help the poor to spend less proportion of their income on food and also enables them to participate in decision making, collective action and withstand calamities by means of their savings and assets building. It is therefore necessary to accelerate research in agricultural technology which increases agricultural productivity in marginal lands and thereby reduce poverty.

The aim and objective

The objective of the study is to unravel the differences in assets, access, and activities and come up with strategies for poverty alleviation through appropriate old and new agricultural technologies and relevant types of agricultural research required for poverty alleviation through increased agricultural productivity leading to agroenterprises and agroprocessing industries.

Results and discussions

Diagrams 1, 2, 3 show individual family land holding and the same are pictorially represented. The results from KINTEKO show that 40% of the poor families have less than a hectare and 60% have no land. While among the rich 20% of the families have one hectare and 10% have half hectare and 70% have less than half hectare. Lack of availability of land due to the poor families places them in dire straits to directly participate in future innovations in agriculture. This unequal land distribution is a major constraint for accelerated increase in agricultural productivity by the poor families as against the rich.

In DUWANE, only 10% have no land, 30% have less than a hectare, 30% have half hectare and 10% have three quarter of a hectare and 20% have one hectare. This shows that there is more equitable access to land for the families in DUWANE and it can provide opportunity for collective action to introduce new agricultural technologies.

Diagram 1. Diagram 2. Diagram 3.

Table 3: Percentage of farm and non- farm income of the families.

KINTEKO DUWANE

Poor %) Rich %)

Farm income 7.2 0.8 6.8

Non-farm income 93.8 99.2 93.2

Conclusion

The above study has indicated land as a primary constraint for increasing agricultural productivity in addition to slow adoption of high yielding varieties, cultural practices and modern agricultural technologies. A major constraint is lack of resources like water, electricity and capital.

Rural diversification of livelihoods (Ellis, 2000) of this vulnerable group is an urgent need which cannot be addressed immediately by top down national programs. There is a need for a shift from the general to the particular, from seeking single solutions with wide spread application to addressing specific problems in a limited context; while recognizing the need for diversity utilizing it to reduce poverty alleviation requires concerted efforts through an interdisciplinary approach. Some of the poverty alleviation strategies for the poor in these villages are suggested below:

1. Diversification of vegetable base for own use and market gardens;

2. Introduction of fast growing fruit trees of existing and exotic varieties of fruits;

3. Rearing of poultry, rabbits, and fisheries;

4. Introduction of simple agro processing industries to provide labor and value addition to agro products such as:

a) Parboiled rice production;

b) Production of rice flakes;

c) Producing snack foods through process from maize, sorghum and rice;

d) Pickling jams and jelly, cassava and banana chips, etc.

e) Extraction of edible oils from sunflower, seeds, etc.

5. Provision of basic infrastructure, incentives and extension in innovative agro-technologies such as mushroom cultivation, sericulture, apiculture and others considered appropriate based on availability of raw materials and markets.

Overall, I would like to conclude that increase in agricultural productivity alone for poor families probably cannot overcome poverty immediately but when coupled with other

innovations to create non farm incomes, poverty alleviation can be accelerated in these vulnerable groups and make them resist against calamities such as drought, famine and climate change.

There are no shortcuts or quick fixes to poverty reduction. The process requires dedicated and consistent commitment that is flexible and involves both the poor and institutions. Poverty reduction in low-income countries depends on progress in farm yields and employment, followed by efforts towards promoting employment-intensive non-farm activities, with a fall in the number of people involved in agriculture and an increase in urbanization. Enhanced small scale agricultural development can meet immediate poverty reduction targets and can help create new opportunities for employment and income in other sectors. There must be change in the access of the poor, especially women, to material factors such as land, water, infrastructure technology and knowledge; and participation in institutions and alliances is essential. It is necessary for broad partnership to be mobilized. It is the poor who need to be given power and voice to be able to set up institutional frameworks that will work.

Acknowledgement:

I thank Rodrigue ISHIMWE and Jean Paul GAFIGI, students of the Faculty of Agriculture for their assistance in administering the questionnaire.

References

Ellis, F. (2000). Rural livelihood and diversity in developing countries. Oxford University Press.

MINECOFIN, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (2007). Economic Development and Poverty Reduction System (EDPRS). Kigali.

A study on poverty alleviation strategies in Rwanda.

Presented at the 6th NUR Conference 2009

҉

Part Four

A STUDY ON POVERTY ALLEVIATION STRATEGIES IN RWANDA

Dr Sudarsanam DORAVARIDr Venuste MURINDADr Daniel N. RUKAZAMBUGAFaculty of Agriculture, National University of Rwanda.

Abstract:

In order to achieve speedy economic growth and alleviate poverty, this study attempts to show how agricultural research generates agricultural productivity growth which can improve the living conditions of the poor. A sample survey has been conducted in the study area using a questionnaire to ascertain the level of agricultural productivity and several areas of agricultural research required were identified. They basically revolve around introducing new crops and increase the agricultural base, which leads to increased agricultural productivity and agro-processing industries.

Key words: Poverty alleviation, agricultural productivity, rural livelihood diversification, diversity of fruits and vegetable crops.

Résumé :

Afin de réaliser une croissance prompte de l’économie et réduire la pauvreté, cette étude essaye de montrer comment la recherche agricole peut croître la productivité agricole en améliorant les conditions de vies. Une enquête par échantillonnage a été menée en utilisant un questionnaire pour s'assurer du niveau de productivité agricole et plusieurs domaines de recherche agricoles exigés ont été identifiés. Ils s’agissaient fondamentalement d’introduire des nouvelles cultures et améliorer la base agricole, qui accroît la productivité agricole et des industries agro-alimentaires.

Mots clés : Réduction de la pauvreté, productivité agricole, diversification rurale de vie, diversité des fruits et légumes.

INTRODUCTION

Rwanda faces enormous development challenges which are for beyond its means: poverty, an economy dominated by low-yield subsistence Agriculture, resource scarcity, soil degradation and the legacy of the genocide. Rwanda is helping itself; it has developed a credible frame work for its own development initiatives and through the international community activities.

The key objectives of poverty reduction (MINECOFIN, 2007) strategy are to increase economic growth, reduce population growth, combat extreme poverty, and ensure more effective poverty reduction strategies. In the area of Agriculture, the main program includes the intensification of sustainable production system in crop cultivation and animal husbandry; building the technical and organizational capacity of farmers by promoting commodity chains and agribusiness; and strengthening institutional framework of the sector at central and local level. The program also recognizes the importance of environmental and land priorities of ecosystems and the rehabilitation of degraded areas and strengthening newly established central and decentralized institutions, special attention will be paid to sustainable land tenure security through the planning and management of land registration and rational land use, soil and water conservation, combating deforestation, preservation of biological diversity, adaptation and mitigation against the impact of climate change.

These objectives form part of vision 2020 and the expected outcomes are: creation of non agricultural jobs; increased agricultural productivity and production; greater protection and rehabilitation of natural environment; greater access to the means of production for women and men in rural areas; less vulnerable farmers, diversification of the rural economy; greater awareness of ways to prevent HIV/AIDS among rural population.

In the long term, the program will help transform Rwanda’s economy by increasing rural income and purchasing power as well as enhancing savings and investments. Strengthened infrastructure will also lead to better environmental management and protection.

Ultimately these initiatives will strengthen the enabling environment for the rural private sector, increasing the access of poor farmers to markets and expanding the commercial potential of Agriculture.

Rapid environmental degradation, declining food security, and unstable population growth are significantly linked to one another, and also to chronic poverty. The dominance of low yield Agriculture, the use of fire wood as the chief source of household energy, not to mention the years of conflict and repeated population shifts, have all taken a heavy toll on Rwanda’s soils, forests and water.

Natural resource management must receive constant attention if sustainable development is to be achieved. Rehabilitation and conserve natural resources directly and also build capacity for environmental protection. Promoting poverty reduction by supporting modernization of the rural economy will help ease the pressure on natural resources.

Some of the major factors contributing to increasing poverty in Rwanda are:

1. Low agricultural productivity leading to poorer yields for major crops;

2. Population pressure on arable land;

3. Poor agricultural marketing in rural areas;

4. Rural unemployment/under employment;

5. Lack of savings and investment in rural households;

6. Weak environment conservation practices.

Agricultural productivity and poverty

Agricultural growth will benefit the rural poor and reduce food prices for the urban poor (Colin Thirlel, 2001). The urban growth process is going to be driven by the agricultural sector. This paradigm has not been overturned in spite of failure of Agricultural projects in some countries and consequently the rise of “New Growth Theories” which emphasize the dominant role of technologies, infrastructure and education. Much of the literature shows that Agricultural growth precedes growth in manufacturing and services, but not the other way round. Growth in Agriculture is always in favor of the poor subject to fair ownership of land and has ripple effect by increasing non-farm income through rural diversification.

In short, growth in Agriculture drives rural development by directly benefiting the poor by increasing their production and creating employment opportunities to landless. It also creates opportunities for the poor to migrate due to growth in industrial sector; reduced food prices help the poor to spend less

proportion of their income on food and also enables them to participate in decision making, collective action and withstand calamities by means of their savings and assets building.

Agricultural technology has initially provided food security in Asian countries by increasing staple crops yields by several times and benefited largely farmers with irrigation facility but later it also benefited rain fed farmers by providing improved varieties of crops suitable for semi arid lands.

It is therefore necessary to accelerate research in agricultural technology which increases agricultural productivity in marginal land and thereby reduce poverty. Technical advisory committee of CGIAR (2000) (Idriss Jazairy, 1992) states its new goal as: “To reduce poverty, hunger, and malnutrition by sustainably increasing the productivity of resources in Agriculture; forestry and fisheries.” CGIAR will develop a two pronged approach for the future support of agricultural research, in favored environments to ensure food security and prevent future poverty, while at the same time tackling the more complex problems of poverty in the marginal and hard areas.

IFAD’s response in its Rural Poverty Report 2001 (Westley, 2001): the challenges of ending rural poverty (IFAD, 2001). It argues that the only way to achieve the target of halving poverty by 2015 and reaching other development goals as set out in the millennium declaration into focus on rural poverty reduction, to reverse the decline in the flow of resources to the rural and agricultural areas and to ensure that the institutions in the rural areas are developed in order to increase the capabilities of the poor to help themselves.

The aim and objective

The aim is to study the agricultural productivity, the rural livelihoods and their living conditions in a sample population of two villages: KINTEKO and DUWANE of GISAGARA district. In KINTEKO village, two groups were identified with relatively large gap in income based on their living standards (such as cement and mud house). However, in DUWANE, it was not possible to differentiate the two distinct groups based on living standards, so a single population was surveyed.

The objective of the study is to unravel the differences in assets, access, and activities and come up with strategies for poverty alleviation through appropriate old and new agricultural technologies and relevant types of agricultural research required for poverty alleviation through increased agricultural productivity.

Methods and materials

Several community development projects are being carried out by the National University of Rwanda in GISAGARA district. In furtherance of this effort, two villages were selected with differential access to water resource and also the size of the population. DUWANE village is relatively small with about 50 families located on the road to GISAGARA district headquarters and it consists of families with low income and living in poverty but having a better access to water.

KINTEKO village has a large population and two groups with differential income each of ten families were surveyed. The questionnaire consisted of thirty questions related to ownership of land, farm and off-farm income, staple crops cultivated, types of vegetables and fruits grown, livestock reared and professions engaged in by family members. Most of the other questions were related to their family food habits and pressing problems and their desire to diversify their agricultural resources such as new crops and also their ideas on income generating, on and off-farm activities which they consider relevant.

One of the areas of old agricultural technology of post-harvest processing of rice through parboiling was considered to be an appropriate technology for introduction into these rural communities because

it creates employment for women to produce parboiled rice. This processing technique is new to Rwanda and has significant potential to improve their nutrition and living condition. The technique involves pre-soaking rough rice overnight or longer in water at ambient temperature, followed by boiling or steaming the steeped rice at 1000c to gelatinize the starch, while the grain expands until the hull’s lemma and palea start to separate. The parboiled rice is then cooled and sun-dried before storage or milling. Parboiled paddy could not be milled because currently all the small rice hullers in the market are closed by government order.

The farmers have no choice but to sell the paddy to licensed agents who in turn supply the same to large rice millers, the reason given by the government is that there is high proportion of broken rice when processed by old, small rice hullers in the local market. As a result, treated rough rice was hand threshed by women in DUWANE.

Results and discussions

Diagram 1, 2, 3 depict land area distribution of the rich and poor families of KINTEKO and moderate income families of DUWANE.

Diagrams 1, 2, 3 show individual family land holding and the same are pictorially represented. The results from KINTEKO show that 40% of the poor families have less than a hectare and 60% have no land. While 20% of the rich families have one hectare and 10% have half hectare and 70% have less than half hectare. Lack of availability of land to the poor families places them in dire straits and discourages them to directly participate in future innovations in agriculture. This unequal land distribution is a major constraint for accelerated increase in agricultural productivity by the poor families as against the rich.

In DUWANE, only 10% have no land, 30% have less than a hectare, 30% have half hectare and 10%have three quarter of a hectare and 20% have one hectare. This shows that there is more equitable access to land for the families in DUWANE and it can provide opportunity for collective action to introduce new agricultural technologies.

Diagram 1. Diagram 2. Diagram 3.

Table 1: Total per annum income in RWF in sample families of the villages.

KINTEKO

DUWANE

Rich Poor

FAMILY

No

FARM

INCOME

(in RWF)

NON-FARM

INCOME

(in RWF)

TOTAL

In RWF

FARM

INCOME

NON

FARM

INCOME

TOTAL FARM

INCOME

NON-FARM

INCOME

TOTAL

1 12000 396000 408000 10000 120000 130000 50000 102000 152000

2 46000 60000 106000 35000 0 35000 53000 0 53000

3 0 949000 949000 2000 108000 110000 0 73200 73200

4 0 600000 600000 30000 0 30000 36000 300000 336000

5 0 480000 480000 0 12000 12000 6000 960000 966000

6 0 960000 960000 0 120000 120000 1000 68000 69000

7 0 732000 732000 7000 480000 487000 0 120000 120000

8 0 732000 732000 10000 0 10000 0 96000 96000

9 0 594600 594600 2000 180000 182000 0 121000 121000

10 0 1548000 1548000 0 217000 217000 5000 240000 245000

Total 58000 7051600 7109600 96000 1237000 1333000 151000 2080200 2231200

Average 5800 795160 710960 9600 123700 133300 15100 208020 223120

Table 2: Percentage of farm and non- farm income of the families.

KINTEKO DUWANE

Poor Rich

Farm income 7.2 0.8 6.8

Non-farm income 93.8 99.2 93.2

Table 3: Size of families

KINTEKO DUWANE

No Poor Rich

1 9 6 3

2 3 8 4

3 6 9 4

4 5 4 6

5 5 4 3

6 4 4 3

7 8 9 3

8 6 9 4

9 4 4 2

10 4 4 7

Total 54 61 39

Average 5.4 6.1 3.9

The family size as seen in Table 3 for the different groups shows that the rich group is relatively bigger in family size than the poor groups and consequently their food consumption seems to be higher and in order to have food security, they may be avoiding trading in their food surpluses. The poor families seem to lack sufficient non-farm income and they may be forced to trade their agricultural products but they may also buy food using their non-farm income towards the end of harvesting period.

Diagrams 4, 5 and 6: Class interval distribution of total income

Tables 1 and 2 show total income and proportion of income from farm and non-farm sources per annum. In KINTEKO, farm source of income in both the rich and the poor families is very minimal, so both can be considered as subsistence farmers. Lack of availability of land poses a formidable challenge in increasing agricultural productivity through modern technologies this peculiar situation requires highly specific programs for diversification of rural livelihoods by adopting a multi-pronged approach. Much of the income of the rich group is generated through small businesses and members of the families holding jobs such as pastor, cook, tailor, mason, driver, green grocer, etc. There is a similar trend in the case of the poor also but the non-farm income generated is much less than the rich and because non-farm income generated by the poor through unskilled labour and petty trading of agricultural commodities due to lack of capital and skills to engage in professional services. It is perplexing to note that the richer group with more access to land has less farm income than the poor.

Diagram 4. Diagram 5. Diagram 6.

The Diagrams 4, 5, 6 showing class interval distribution of total income per annum for the different groups indicates more heterogeneity among the rich in KINTEKO and more homogeneity among the poor of KINTEKO and DUWANE. This can easily be interpreted due to the different occupations engaged in by the rich in comparison to the poor in KINTEKO and those in DUWANE whose occupation is mostly unskilled labour on and off farm and some petty trading.

Table 4: Types of crops cultivated by the sample population

KINTEKO DUWANE

Rich Poor

Family

No

Name of Crops Number of

item types

Name of

Crops

Number

of items

Name of

Crops

Number

of item types

1 R; B; M; IP; Cau; Ba 6 B; Sg; M 3 B; Sg; SP; M; Sg 5

2 B; Ca; Sg; Cau 4 Sg; B; SP 3 Sg; B; M; R 4

3 B; Sg; R 3 B; IP; SP; Cau 4 B; M; SP; Sg; IP 5

4 Ba; Ca 2 Sg; B; SP 3 B; SP; Sg; M 4

5 B; SP 2 Ba; Cau; B 3 Sg; B; M 3

6 M; B; Sg 3 0 0 Sg; M 2

7 B; Sg; Ca; SP 4 M; Ba; B 3 B 1

8 B; Sg; Ca; SP 4 B; M; SP 3 B; SP; M 3

9 B; Sg; M 3 B; Sg 2 B; M 2

10 B; SP; R; Sg; M 5 B; M; SP; Sg 4 SP; B; Sg; M; Ba 5

Total: 36 Total: 28 Total: 34

R: Rice; B: Beans; M: Maize; IP: Irish potato; SP: Sweet potato; Cau: Colacasia; Ba: Banana; Sg:Sorghum; Ca: Cassava.

Table 5: Types of vegetables and fruits cultivated by the sample population

KINTEKO DUWANE

RICH POOR

Fam.

Nbr

Name of item Nbr of

Items

Name of

item

Nbr of

items

Name of

item

Nbr of items

1 Vegetables Aub; A 2 Cb; A; To; Cl 4 A; Cb 2

Fruits Av; G 2 − 0 Av; L; PF 3

2 Vegetables Cb; Aub; C; A 4 A; Cl 2 Cb; A 2

Fruits − 0 Av; TT 2 G 1

3 Vegetables A 1 A 1 A; Cb; C 3

Fruits − 0 − 0 Av 1

4 Vegetables A; Cb; Cl 3 Cb; Aub 2 A 1

Fruits − 0 − 0 Av; G 2

5 Vegetables A 1 A 1 A 1

Fruits − 0 − 0 G 1

6 Vegetables A; On; Cb; Aub 4 − 0 A; Cb 2

Fruits Av; P; Mgo; P 4 − 0 Av; G 2

7 Vegetables A 1 Cb; A 2 C; A 2

Fruits Av 1 − 0 − 0

8 Vegetables A 1 Cb; A 2 A 1

Fruits Av 1 Av 1 − 0

9 Vegetables − 0 A 1 A 1

Fruits − 0 Av 1 − 0

10 Vegetables A; Cb; Aub 3 A 1 A; Cb; Aub 3

Fruits Av; O 2 − 0 Av; P; Ba 3Total types vegetables 20 16 18Total types Fruits 10 4 13

FRUITS: G: Guava; P: Paw paw; Mgo: Mango; PF: Passion fruit; Av: Avocado; O: Orange; TT: Tree tomato; −:No item. VEGETABLES: A: Amaranthus; C: Carrots; Aub: Aubergine; To: Tomato; Cb: Cabbage; Cl: Cassava leaves; On:Onions.

Tables 4 and 5 deal with the different types of staple crops, vegetables and fruits and the results indicate that there is very little difference in the number of types cultivated except that the poor in KINTEKO have less number of types of fruits grown on their farm, this can easily be explained, since the majority of them do not have access to land and are either renting land or given small pieces of land in exchange for their free agricultural labour. These results indicate that there is scope for introducing new varieties of particularly fruits and vegetables for market gardening in order to diversify the agricultural base and provide employment for the landless poor.

This can go a long way to increase agricultural productivity through increased on and off farm income generation and meet the energy and nutritional requirements of particularly of the poorer families and enhance their productivity.

Diagram 7: Types of animals reared by the families

Diagram 7 is a bar diagram representing different types of animals and their numbers reared by the three groups. Only the rich in KINTEKO have cows while the poor have none. With regard to other animals, there is no much variation except that the DUWANE group has more of all types than the poor of KINTEKO. This clearly indicates that rearing animals by poorer groups can also alleviate poverty by generating additional income through livestock production.

Parboiled rice

Parboiled rice takes longer to cook than raw rice and may be presoaked in water to reduce the cooking time to be comparable to that of raw rice. The cooked grains are less sticky, do not clump end and are resistant to disintegration, the grains are also harder. They also tend to expand more in girth rather than in length as compared to raw rice.

The process of making parboiled rice was demonstrated and rice was cooked and given to the villagers for their response. The degree of acceptance was highly encouraging.

Conclusion

The above study has indicated land as a primary constraint for increasing agricultural productivity in addition to slow adoption of high yielding varieties, cultural practices and modern agricultural technologies. A major constraint is lack of resources like water, electricity and capital.

While increasing agricultural productivity would bring about increased income generation and play a catalytic role to drive rural development, it alone may not be able to bring out immediate poverty alleviation among the poor farmers.

Rural diversification of livelihoods (Ellis, 2000) of this vulnerable group is an urgent need which cannot be addressed immediately by top down national programs. There is a need for a shift from the general to the particular, from seeking single solutions with wide spread application to addressing specific problems in a limited context; while recognizing the need for diversity utilizing it to reduce poverty alleviation requires concerted efforts through an interdisciplinary approach. Some of the poverty alleviation strategies for the poor in these villages are suggested below:

6. Utilizing multipurpose agroforestry species to improve soil fertility, crop productivity, and provide fodder and food products;

7. Diversification of vegetable base for own use and market gardens;

8. Introduction of fast growing fruit trees of existing and exotic varieties of fruits;

9. Planting of fodder crops particularly for rearing cattle and fodder trees for goats;

10. Rearing of poultry, rabbits, and fisheries;

11. Improved wood stoves and growing trees for fuel, wood and timber;

12. Post harvest preservation and transportation of fruits and vegetables;

13. Rain harvesting and erosion control;

14. Honey production through bee-hives;

15. Introduction of simple agro processing industries to provide labour and value addition to agro products such as:

f) Parboiled rice production;

g) Production of rice flakes;

h) Producing snack foods through processes from maize, sorghum and rice;

i) Pickling jams and jelly, cassava and banana chips production.

j) Extraction of edible oils from sunflower, sesame and groundnuts seeds.

16. Growing of trees for biofuels on marginal lands;

17. Raising seedlings of fruits and multipurpose trees for income generation;

18. Acquiring skills in arts and crafts and producing the raw materials necessary;

19. Vocational training in agro allied and general professions;

20. Training programs for women in agro processing and agro allied technologies;

21. Provision of basic infrastructure, incentives and extension in innovative agro-technologies such as mushroom cultivation, sericulture, apiculture and others considered appropriate based on availability of raw materials and markets.

Overall, I would like to conclude that increase in agricultural productivity alone for poor families probably cannot overcome poverty immediately but when coupled with other innovations to create non farm incomes, poverty alleviation can be accelerated in these vulnerable groups and make them resist against calamities such as drought, famine and climate change.

There are no shortcuts or quick fixes to poverty reduction. The process requires dedicated and consistent commitment that is flexible and involves both the poor and the institutions. Poverty reduction in low-income countries depends on progress in farm yields and employment, followed by efforts towards promoting employment-intensive non-farm activities, with a fall in the number of people involved in agriculture and an increase in urbanization. Enhanced small scale agricultural development can meet immediate poverty reduction targets and can help create new opportunities for employment and income in other sectors. There must be a change in the access for the poor, especially women, to material factors such as land, water, infrastructure technology and knowledge; and participation in institutions and alliances is essential. It is necessary for broad partnership to be mobilized. It is the poor who need to be given power and voice to be able to set up institutional frameworks that will work.

Acknowledgement:

I thank Rodrigue ISHIMWE and Jean Paul GAFIGI, students of the Faculty of Agriculture for their assistance in administering the questionnaire.

References

Colin Thirlel et al. (2001). Poverty and agricultural productivity Relationship between changes in Agricultural productivity and the incidence of poverty in developing countries. DFID report No. 7946.

Ellis, F. (2000). Rural livelihood and diversity in developing countries. Oxford University Press.

Idriss Jazairy, M. A. (1992). The state of world Rural Poverty, An inquiry into causes and consequences. Intermediate Technology Publications .

IFAD, Poverty and agricultural productivity Relationship between changes in Agricultural productivity and the incidence of poverty in developing countries. (2001).

MINECOFIN, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning. (2007). Economic Development and Poverty Reduction paper (EDPRS). Kigali.

Westley, A. R. (2001). The challenge of Ending Rural Poverty. Development Policy Review , 19 (4): 553-562.

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Fruit and vegetable consumption patterns in Rwanda and strategies to improve nutritional status by introduction of

exotic fruit and vegetable species from Africa and Asia.

Presented at the 5th NUR Conference 2008

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Part Five

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FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CONSUMPTION PATTERNS IN RWANDA AND STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE NUTRITIONAL STATUS BY INTRODUCTION OF

EXOTIC FRUIT AND VEGETABLE SPECIES FROM AFRICA AND ASIA

Dr. Sudarsanam DORAVARI (Associate Professor)Faculty of Agriculture, NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF RWANDAP.O. Box 117,BUTARE, RWANDA

Introduction:

Fresh raw fruits and vegetables are generally more nutritious than cooked or processed ones. Nutrients’, especially the B- Complex Vitamins and Vitamin C, are lost during cooking and storage. Fresh fruits are a good source of vitamins and minerals, especially Vitamins A and C and of Carbohydrates in the form of cellulose and natural sugars. Fresh fruits are also refreshing because they contain a lot of water. Yellow fruits such as papaya, mango, apricot and persimmon are good sources of carotene, which can be converted into Vitamin A. Other fruits such as bananas and apples contain valuable bulk fiber (indigestible cellulose) which helps to regulate bowel movements. Some fruits are also good sources of mineral salts.

Dietary patterns have varied over time. Changes in these patterns are based on such things as agricultural practices and climatic, ecological, cultural and socio-economic factors, which in turn determine which foods, are available. At present, virtually all dietary patterns show that the nutritional needs of population groups are adequately satisfied or even exceeded.

This is true except where socio-economic conditions limit the capacity to produce and purchase food or aberrant cultural practices restrict the choice of foods (vegetarianism). It is thought that if people have access to a sufficient quantity and variety of foods, they will meet, in large part, their nutritional needs. However, for certain groups of people because of economic restrictions, levels of certain micronutrients may not be met from food alone. Thus micronutrient adequacy must be included in evaluating the nutritive value of diets alongside energy and protein adequacy.

The first step in the process of setting dietary guidelines is defining the significant diet-related public health problems in a community. Once these are defined, the adequacy of the diet is evaluated by comparing the information available on dietary intake with the established recommended nutrient intakes (RNIs). Nutrient intake goals are specific for a given setting and their purpose is to promote overall health, control specific nutritional diseases, and reduce the risk of diet related multifactorial diseases. Dietary guidelines represent the practical way to reach the nutritional goals for a given population. They take into account customary dietary patterns and indicate what aspects of each should be modified. They consider the ecological setting in which the population lives, as well as the socioeconomic and cultural factors that affect nutritional adequacy.

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An alternative approach based on quantitative definition of nutrient needs expressed as Recommended Nutrient Intakes. This has served many purposes such as guiding food and nutrition policy in many countries in order to establish dietary and nutritional priorities consistent with the broad public health concerns. It also provided precise requirements of nutrients but unfortunately has not been able to solve the nutritional problems of the world. In contrast to RNIs, Food Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDG) are based on the fact that people eat food and not nutrients. It can be used to educate the public through the mass media and provide a practical guide to selecting foods by defining dietary adequacy1.

Information on guidelines for a healthy diet should provide both a quantitative and qualitative description of the diet for it to be understood by individuals in terms of size and number of servings per day. It is not only enough to estimate the nutrient content of different foods but it is also necessary to determine their bio availability which is in turn affected due to the potential interaction between nutrients. One of the preferred way of ensuring adequate nutrition and micronutrient sufficiency is by consuming foods with high micronutrient density – such as pulses or legumes, vegetables (including green leafy vegetables) and fruits. However, most population groups who subsist largely on refined cereal grain or tuber based diets are deficient in micro nutrients. It is therefore imperative for these groups to diversify their diet by including fruits, vegetables, leafy vegetables, legumes and small quantities of meat, fish, eggs and especially organ meat such as liver along with their staple diet. This will increase micronutrient density and reduce the prevalence of diseases resulting from a micronutrient deficiency across populations groups2 .

Fruits rich in Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) will enhance the absorption on non-haem iron present in plant foods. Recently there is growing evidence to indicate the role of phyto-chemicals and anti-oxidants in preventing damage to human body although they are not used by our body as nutrients. In young children, sedentary women or the elderly, the diet may not provide sufficient amounts of vitamins and minerals to meet RNIs. Pregnant and lactating women have greater micronutrient needs relative to their energy needs so they will also require an increased micronutrient density.In practice dietary diversification can be achieved by:

1. Home or community vegetable and fruit gardens2. Raising of fish, poultry and small animals ( rabbits, goats and guinea pigs)3. Implementation of large-scale commercial vegetable and fruit production4. Reduction of Post harvest losses of the nutritional value of micronutrient – rich foods, such as

fruits and vegetables5. Improvement of micro nutrient levels in soils and plants, which will improve the composition of

plant foods and enhance yields 6. Minimal cooking of vegetables rich in vitamin C, folate and other water-soluble or heat labile

vitamins in small amounts of water would retain them in appreciable amounts.

1 Preparation and Use of food-based dietary guidelines – Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Consultation, Geneva, World Health Organization 1996 ( WHO Technical Report series, No. 880)2 . Oyaruzan MT, Uauy R, Olivares S., Food –based approaches to improve vitamin and mineral nutrition adequacy. Archivos Latini americanos de Nutrision (Guatemala), 2001, 51:7-18

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7. It is also necessary to reduce the intake of inhibitors of iron absorption and to increase the intake of enhancers of iron in a given meal Absorption of Zinc (Zn) is inhibited by unrefined cereals which are rich in phytate chemicals. They can be reduced by fermentation

8. Fortification of commonly used cereal foods such as wheat flours can be done to provide iron and Folate in a similar way of providing Iodine through Iodized salt

9. Supplementation is the last resort particularly in case of people suffering from deficiency diseases and lactating women

10. Households across all regions should select predominantly plant-based diets rich in a variety of vegetables and fruits, pulses or legumes, and cut down on starchy staple foods. This should not exclude small amounts of animal foods.

Inadequate diets occur when food is scarce or when food traditions change rapidly, as is seen in societies undergoing demographic transitions or rapid urbanization. Traditional diets, when adequate and varied, are likely to be generally healthful and more protective against non-communicable diseases than typical western diet, consumed predominantly in industrialized societies3

WHO/FAO consultation acknowledged the limitations in its knowledge of the important factors which affect nutrient utilization, and recommended that the International Food Data System (In Foods) effort, led by FAO and the United Nations University ( UNU), be strengthened. Special emphasis should be laid on the composition of micronutrients of local diets as affected by the sociological setting by including an analysis of cooked foods and typical food combinations as actually consumed by local population. This will enable countries to develop Food Based Dietary Guidelines4 .

In view of the above and due to abysmal research carried out in Rwanda in this area, an attempt is made to make inroads into this vital area which affects health and well being of all Rwandans and particularly ameiolarates, pediatric, prenatal and post natal health hazards. It will also prevent rural and vulnerable sections of populations from essential micronutrient deficiencies and non-communicable diseases.

Methods and Materials:

Student’s pursuing First year Bachelor of Agriculture degree in the Faculty of Agriculture of the National University of Rwanda, Butare were selected for survey of food habits in Rwanda. The student population comprises of 400 students and ten percent of this was chosen for survey. The survey questionnaire (Appendix-1) was administered to 10 students each of both sexes from rural and urban backgrounds, and was randomly selected to fill the questionnaire.

The survey consisted of 10 questions wherein they were asked only to mention their age, sex and urban or rural background. The questions were explained and sufficient time was given to fill in the questionnaire.

3 . Requirements of Vit.A, iron, folate and Vitamin B12, Report of a joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation, Rome, FAO of the United Nations, 1988 ( FAO Food and Nutrition Series, No. 234 .Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Human Vitamin and Mineral requirements (1998):Bangkok, Thailand

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Q.1. Asked to fill in food items normally consumed by Rural and Urban populations for Breakfast, lunch and dinnerQ.2. Asked to fill their own consumption of food items on campusQ.3. Asked to mention what Rwandans would like to consume if there were no constraintsQ.4. & 5 To list fruits and vegetables in their order of consumption in Rwanda and when they are normally consumedQ.6.To give their preference for cooked or uncooked vegetablesQ.7. To arrange from a list of seven fruits in their order of nutritive valueQ.8. Asked to recommend types of foods to improve health of rural peopleQ.9 & 10. To state whether their diet is balanced or not and give reasons.

Results and DiscussionInformation provided for questions 1 and 2 were analyzed to identify the extent of use of vegetables and fruits in the diet of Rural and Urban populations. The data are presented in terms of male and female respondents and also rural and urban respondents.

Table : 1 Use and Non use of Fruit and Vegetables by Rural populations in their Breakfast, Lunch and Dinner

On their back-ground (Rural/Urban)

Respondent Use of Fr.& Non-use of Fr.& No Answer Veg Veg Urban Male 03 21 06Rural Male 05 23 02Sub- total 08(M) 44(M) 08(M)

Urban Female 03 16 11Rural Female 11 19 00 Sub-total 14(F) 35(F) 11(F)

Summary Male 08 Male 44 Male 08Based on Sex Female 14 Female 35 Female 11

The Respon- Rural 16 Rural 42 Rural 02Dents based Urban 06 Urban 37 Urban 17

Sub-total 22 79 21

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Based on the above data the rural populations consumption of fruit and vegetable is as follows according to the various respondents when compared this with the fruit and vegetable consumption of urban populations ( data not shown) the following results are obtained

Table: 2 Use of Fr. & Veg. in Diet

The overall pattern of consumption of fruit and vegetable by both rural and urban populations is extremely low. Female and rural respondents have included Fruit and Vegetable in both rural and urban diets than male and urban respondents. Rural male and female respondents have scored higher possibly due to their increased usage and dependency on them compared to urban respondents.Choice of food items preferred for Breakfast ( BF), Lunch (L) and Dinner(D) by Students of NUR, Butare

Table: 3 Food Items

*Percentages are given in brackets

Items chosen as

From the above it is clear that the breakfast is not heavy and revolves around tea, porridge and bread. However it is significant to note that fruits are also preferred for breakfast along with milk.

Respondents Rural Diet Urban Diet (%) (%)

c. Urban 10 17b. Female 23 20a. Male 13 20

Tea Bread Porridge Milk Meat F&Veg Others

33(27)* 25(20) 21(17) 14(11) 00 11(9) 19(15)

Female (U&R) 15 14 11 07 00 05 08

First choice 17 06 14 04 00 00 02

Male (U&R) 18 11 10 07 00 06 11

d. Rural 27 23

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Table: 4 Food Items chosen for lunch by students of NUR, Butare

Respondents Potato Rice Banana Beans cassava Meat Fr&Veg. Others (L)

Male (U&R) 23 14 06 13 02 09 06 05

45(29)* 27(17) 13(8) 31(20) 08(5) 13(8) 10(7) 09(6)

*Percentages are given in brackets

Items chosen as 14 14 00 08 00 03 00 01First choice

The above results clearly show that the diet is predominantly tuber and rice based. While beans are usually included to provide protein, the use of meat, vegetables and fruits are given secondary importance while they are the major sources of micronutrients. This clearly indicates the pattern in both rural and urban diets and provides strong argument to diversify fruit and vegetable availability coupled with increased consumption. Meat, fish and eggs in small quantities are essential to provide some micronutrients which are not easily available from plant sources.

Table: 5 Results for dinner indicate the following responses from NUR, Butare

Potato Rice Banana Beans Cassava Meat Fr&Veg Othrs

TotalResponses 34 12 14 23 21 15 14 09 (24) (8.5) (10) (16) (15) (11) (10) (06)Items Chosen as1st choice 08 12 02 04 13 01 01 01

Female (U&R) 22 13 07 18 06 04 04 04

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The data reflects the same conclusion drawn about lunch and gives equal importance for meat and fruit and vegetable. It is however disheartening that rice was chosen as the first choice over cereals such as maize and sorghum with better nutritive value. This clearly shows that food habits are determined by multiple factors, which need to be further investigated.

Table: 6 Pertaining to usage of Vegetables and fruits by Rwandans in their order of consumption yielded the following data

Vegetables Green Cabbage Carrot Tomato Others Leafy Vege- Tables(GLV) Amaranthus &Cassava leaves

UM 05 05 00 00 01RM 05 01 00 01 01

UF 07 01 01 00 01RF 05 03 01 00 02

Vegetables-Chosen as

1st Choice (22) (09) (02) 01) (06)The data indicate high consumption of leafy vegetables compared to the European vegetables. Therefore it is necessary to introduce more varieties of indigenous and exotic leafy vegetables to Rwanda. It is equally imperative to diversify other exotic European and other Asiatic vegetables and develop styles of cooking them, which can be incorporated into local cuisine for favorable acceptance by urban and rural populations.

Table: 7 Consumption of fruits by Rwandans yielded the data given below

Respondents Avocado Banana Orange Mango Pineapple Guava Papaya

UM 04 04 01 01 - - -RM 04 03 01 01 01 - --UF 02 07 - - - 01 --RF 05 01 02 - 01 00 01

Total 15 15 04 02 02 01 01

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Avocado and Banana are the top two fruits consumed in equal proportions. However, rural respondents seem to have access to a wider variety of fruits due to their proximity and affordability as they are cheaper in the rural areas than urban markets due to transportation cost and middlemen hiking the price.

Avocado being a high calorie fruit due to high fat content is a boon to the low income urban and rural populations to meet gaps in calories and at the same time boost their micronutrient sufficiency. However avocado consumption appears to be more among rural respondents than urban respondents and it is the other way round for bananas. In this respect there is a need to encourage avocado production and consumption among urban populations.

The above data reinforces the idea that if more varieties are introduced into home gardens and commercial farming, their supplies can be augmented and prices can be lowered and make them affordable. Rural populations will greatly benefit as growers since, they will have access to consume the same.

Table 8: Pertains to evaluating seven fruits for their nutritive value and arrange them from high to low. The following were selected by different groups a the most nutritive fruits.

Avocado Papaya Pine Banana Orange Passion Mango Apple Fruit

UM 02 01 02 02 01 01 01RM 02 03 02 02 01 00 00UF 04 02 01 01 00 01 01RF 02 03 03 01 01 00 00Total 10 09 08 06 03 02 01

Respondents from urban areas have graded Avocado with highest nutritive value, where as the ruralrespondents have scored papaya with a higher nutritive value. This could be on account of the earlier publicity campaigns carried out in urban areas. This indicates a dire necessity to educate rural populations regarding high nutritive values of Avocado. It is also surprising that banana has scored higher than orange, passion fruit and mango. This could be on account of their high use of banana fruit.

Regarding their preferences for cooked and uncooked vegetables the preference was for cooked vegetables by males and uncooked by females. Rural respondents preferred cooked vegetables and in the case of urban it was for uncooked vegetables (salads) as can be evidenced from the data below. (Table 9) This is encouraging because it is possible to introduce several types of vegetables which can only be consumed after cooking or without cooking.

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Table 9: Preference for cooked or uncooked vegetables

Females 08(40) 12(60)Urban 08(40) 12(60)

Table 10: Response to the question regarding their preference for consumption of fruits (AB= After breakfast, AL = After Lunch, AD = After Dinner and AT = Any Time) the responses were as follows

AB AL AD AT

UM 01 01 00 08RM 01 01 01 07UF 01 04 00 05RF 00 04 00 05

While there is no strict timing for consuming fruits, females tend to take after lunch and also of any time. The recent findings that fruits rich in ascorbic acid (Vit. C) enhances absorption of iron from non - haeme sources such as green leaves and cereals; it is necessary to encourage the habit of consuming fruits after meals.

When the respondents were asked to suggest foods to improve the health of rural populations the responses given were as follows:

Rural 13(65) 07(35)

Males 13 (65) 07(35)

Cooked Uncooked

UM 05 05RM 08 02UF 03 07RF 05 05

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Table 11

Respondents Greens Meat Legumes Rice Fruits Potatoes Milk Vegetables

UM 01 01 01 01 03 02 01RM 06 01 02 01 00 00 00UF 03 03 03 00 01 00 00RF 02 03 02 03 00 00 00

Males 07 02 03 02 03 02 01

Rural males have chosen greens (leafy vegetables) consumption as a major way of improving health over meat. But surprisingly rural females have chosen meat and rice to improve health. This is alarming because they have the responsibility to improve the health of their families and therefore need to be educated about the nutritive values of foods available in rural areas in order to improve their health. Consumption of fruits was considered more by urban respondents compared to rural respondents. This could also be due to their awareness of the health benefits of consuming fruits.

Lastly, when the respondents asked about their assessment of their diet in terms of adequacy of nutrients, the response was a follows:

Table: 12

Respondents Adequate Inadequate

UM 03 07

UF 05 05

Total 10 30RF 01 09

RM 01 09

Rural 08 04 04 04 00 00 00Urban 04 04 04 01 02 01

Females 05 06 05 04 0 00 00

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Urban respondents relatively gave positive response compared to the rural respondents over all the proportion of those who gave negative response is alarmingly high.

To a question to state the reasons for inadequacy of a healthy diet, the response was that they are provided with only starchy foods in inadequate amounts and body building foods are lacking in their diet. The few specific responses given are shown below

Table 13

Respondents Meat Fruit & Veg. LegumesUM 03 03 02RM - 01 -UF - 02 01RF 02 02 02There is some indication that they are aware of the importance of fruit and vegetables for a healthy diet apart from increasing consumption of meat and legumes. This also clearly indicates their understanding of balanced and healthy diets is general in nature and lack specifics of food based dietary Guidelines.

Conclusion

The results clearly indicate very low consumption of fruits and vegetables by both rural and urban populations as shown in Table 1. In Rwanda starchy staples ( potato, sweet potato and raw banana) are much cheaper compared to prices of fruits and vegetables and goat and beef are simply out of reach of a vast majority of people. Dry fish to some extent is the only animal food within their reach.

WHO recommended consumption of 400 grams per day percapita consumed preferably in 50 gms servings is not possible unless there is a substantial increase in production of fruits and vegetables and education to the populace of the importance of consuming the same.5

Students diet is largely starch based with legumes and is lacking sufficient intake of leafy vegetables and fruits (Tables 3, 4 and 5). Food habits while are largely determined by price, availability and socio-cultural factors which play a major role in determining the desirability of consuming certain types of food preparation and are generally specific to a given ecological setting and social class.

Table 6: reveals a clear preference for green leafy vegetables (GLV). This is encouraging as they have much higher nutrition value compared to others and many indigenous leafy vegetables to Africa and tropical Asia have high potential to diversify the existing narrow choice of GLV. Many of the European vegetables ( Lettuce, Carrots, Cabbage and Cucumber) are also amenable to be consumed as raw salads

5Marie T.Ruel, Nicholas Minot and Lisa Smith, International Patterns and determinants of Fruit & Vegetable Consumption in Sub-Saharan Afric:a multicountry comparison, |Food Policy Res.Institute. Background paper for the joint FAO/WHO workshop on Fruit and Veg. for Health, 1-3 Sep.2004, Kobe, Japan

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and can provide many vitamins and micronutrients which are usually lost to varying degrees by different methods of cooking.

Table 7 indicates Avocado and Banana being chosen as the most consumed fruits. While avocado’s choice is justified, banana is less nutritive than many others. Therefore it is necessary to diversify fruit crops, by introducing fruit crops from other African and Asian countries. Many African countries like South Africa, Kenya and Tanzania have been growing many exotic crops for a long time and some of them have been introduced as commercial crops for export

Table 8: In evaluation the fruits for nutritive value it is encouraging that Avocado was chosen but banana came in the 4th position and orange, passion fruit and mango came in the 5th , 6th and 7th positions.

Table 11: Indicates that there is no clear idea about how to improve the health of rural dwellers. It is encouraging that rural males consider the use of GLV, as a way of improving the health. Unlike rural females considering meat and rice as the solution and only urban males and females consider fruits as a way for improving health of rural dwellers. The above results strongly support the need for diversification of the resource base of GLV, vegetables and fruits coupled with research on making them organoleptic by devising ways of minimal cooking to convert them into tasty and palatable.

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FACULTY OF AGRICULTURECROP PRODUCTION AND HORTICULTURE DEPARTMENT

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