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AGRICULTURAL POLICY 1995-2016 IN RWANDA:

CONTRAST BETWEEN THE BEAUTIFUL STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND

CHRONIC FAMINES IN RWANDA

Charles Ndereyehea 1. Introduction

February 24, 2016, I published an article1 in Kinyarwanda which analysed the recent publications

on agriculture in Rwanda. As in previous analyses 2-3, I was pointing out once again that the

economic policy of the Rwanda government dominated by the RPF (Rwandan Patriotic Front),

have led Rwanda agriculture to a dead end.4

Many local media continue to publish articles expressing the same concern, highlighting the

contrast between the shiny statistics of increased agricultural production and chronic famine

raging in every corner of the country. The rosy government statistics, purporting that there is food

self-sufficiency for many Rwandans, does not match the real situation on the ground. It is common

knowledge that official statistics are often manipulated, to show another image of agricultural and

economic success in Rwanda, and hence reinforce the official narrative that Rwanda is on the way

to ensure food self-sufficiency. Yet all economic indicators are flashing red, showing chronic

poverty and famine!5

According to the 2013 World Report on Human Development, Rwanda has a Gini index of 0.53,

which ranks Rwanda among the most unequal countries in the world. The richest 10% account for

40% of income, while the poorest 10% are content with just 3.5% of income. In fact, 82% of the

population lives on less than $ 2 USD per day, the population below the poverty line (those living

on less than $ 1.25 / day) is 63.2% instead of 44 9% put forward in official figures. The population

languishing in multidimensional poverty is estimated at 69% by the same report6.

Local media 7§§ show economic realities that demonstrate in figures and images the existence of

poverty, while officials prefer to live in denial of the plight of Rwandans because they want to hide

it from the international community. The unfortunate alibi, which consists in the mushrooming of

infrastructural development projects in "the very clean capital city Kigali", hides this terrible evil

that crushes the poor (Ansoms (2009). Ansoms observes that: “as elsewhere, policy is a monopoly

of the elite in Rwanda. The majority poor, small smallholder in rural areas, undoubtedly have little aCharles Ndereyehe: Agricultural Engineer, Head of the Mutara Agricultural Service-OVAPAM 1977-1986; Coordinator of

Agricultural Services in Gikongoro and Director of PIA-PDAG project 1986-1992; Member of the National Commission of Agricultural

policies (CNA) 1990-1992; Director General of the ISAR from 1992 to 1994.

French version of the writing was released in July 2016 while this in English is available since September 2016. (http://www.fdu-

rwanda.com/fr/english-politique-agricole-1995-2016-au-rwanda-contraste-entre-les-belles-statistiques-de-productions-agricoles-et-

les-famines-chroniques/)

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influence on the political situation. Policy makers have little institutional or personal links with

rural development issues, and many have a condescending attitude, even contemptuous, toward

poor farmers practicing "traditional" forms of agriculture "8.

The failure of the RPF agricultural policy stems from the following main reasons:

- Agricultural produce is poorly paid by cooperatives controlled by the RPF and the

agricultural produce ends up in the processing industries or in trading companies attached

to the RPF;

- Economic policy is not primarily intended to support agro-pastoralists but to serve the

interests of the omnipresent companies of the ruling RPF political party9.

This explains the widespread rural poverty. Although primary education is declared "free", young

children are unable to attend school because of poverty and hunger; instead, they roam in urban

centres or engage in odd jobs to survive10.

Some local authorities, because of the fear of failing to meet sometimes unreasonable

performance targets, use local militias to squeeze the poor into paying health insurance fees

which they can hardly afford, or to force them to rebuild their destroyed homes under the pretext

that they do not meet the decreed housing standards11.

2. Sources and methods

Two articles have particularly impressed me. The first has been written by an English Researcher

Dr. Neil Dawson, highlighting how the agricultural policy of Rwanda has had an adverse impact on

the poor. The second, dated 16.02.2016 and written in Kinyarwanda echoes the statement made

by the Minister of Agriculture and Livestock, Mrs. Dr. G. Mukeshimana, pointing out that the

problems of Rwanda agriculture are related to a drop in agricultural research12.

This article therefore aims to comment on or clarify some points made in the publications of Dr.

Neil Dawson and the Minister of Agriculture and Livestock.

To better understand the problem, we have relied on official or published documents which

include:

- Crop Intensification Programme in Rwanda 13;

- Agricultural Reform Act 14;

- Publication of LPDI (Land Deal Politics Initiative)15;

- Agricultural research results of ISAR (Institute of Agronomic Sciences of Rwanda) alone or

in collaboration with International Agricultural Research Centres from 1979 to 1992 16§§;

- Local newspapers written in Kinyarwanda.17

The information collected will allow me to comment on the publication of Dr. Neil Dawson, and on

the public statement of Mrs. Minister of Agriculture and Livestock, Dr G. Mukeshimana. It will also

provide an opportunity to give a brief update on agricultural research in Rwanda from 1930 to

1994.

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3. Findings and discussion

3.1. Publication of Dr. Neil Dawson18.

The article entitled "Rwanda Surprisingly Bad Hit by the 'Green Revolution’: "Rwanda is

unpleasantly surprised by the green revolution” is quite clear on the situation in Rwanda. This is

also highlighted through the interview-article "Rwandan agricultural policies hurting the Poorest of

the poor" by L. A. Bagnetto in RFI (Radio France Internationale).

The article corroborates the reservations and concerns that I have always expressed with regard to

the agricultural policy of the RPF. Specific facts show that the economic policy in general and

agricultural policy in particular are not intended to bring farmers out of poverty:

The choice of the neoliberal system serves as a smokescreen that hides a blatant

monopolistic status of the ruling RPF party companies;

The agricultural reform that promotes the despoliation of farmers of their land and the

introduction of the system of mono-cropping are catastrophic policies for the poor and are

intended to create new capitalists made from nowhere by the ruling party RPF.

Dr Neil Dawson believes that forcing farmers to adopt mono-cropping and to abandon their multi-

cropping system of farming is a way to reduce his household income. This leads to a bitter reality:

"the transformation of Rwandan agriculture is based on the use of inputs (seeds, fertilizers,

pesticides ...), which requires the monetization of agriculture and having a capital that the poor

farmer does not have”.

It is absurd to force the farmer to cultivate this or that crop or to force him to be part of an

agricultural credit scheme. The farmer is an economic operator; it is up to him to take the financial

risk, and no one else should impose it on him.

It is even worse to threaten him by enacting a law on agricultural reform19 stipulating that he

would lose his/her land if he/she fails to reach the production targets set by the state. Thus the

State does not take him/her as a responsible person and therefore the farmer is always at risk of

losing his/her land, main factor of production. When he/she loses the land he/she shifts from the

status of being poor to the status of being “landless". He/she is pushed to wandering around,

causing family instability and misery.

These policies of plundering the land of the poor, make people victims of laws passed by

parliamentarians but are in reality an imposition of the ruling party RPF. These parliamentarians

are more accountable to the ruling party which controls their entry in parliament and therefore

have little interest in farmers. This lack of accountability to the farmers has produced the results

that Dr. Neil Dawson has spelt out.

This situation has been exacerbated by the fact that farmers are victims of local government

administration that has a “performance targets” drawn by the ruling RPF regime to which the

administration has to report. Poor farmers therefore live in an unmanageable and very difficult

situation as no one is there to defend them. Dr. Neil Dawson notes that when the farmer is

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pushed to a hopeless situation, he/she prefers to anticipate events and to sell his/her land.

Farmers are thus forced to become unemployed, wandering around with children without a

future; the poverty is hence compounded by landlessness;

The findings of Dr. Neil Dawson have been validated by three facts:

First: The Rwanda government forces the farmer to take an economic risk without giving

him/her financial guarantees with regard to the economic viability of the proposed

projects. This is because at the end of the production chain, there is no remunerative

prices for agricultural produce.

Secondly: The farmer normally has his own system of farming to ensure food security for

his/her family. The government does not guarantee that food security or the availability of

substitute food products or of basic food products that the farmer does not produce

himself/herself. There is also no indication that the financial income of mono-cropping will

provide enough cash to buy, at affordable prices, what he/he cannot produce

himself/herself.

Thirdly: Even though domestic labour is considered "free", the government gives no

guarantee that the seeds sold to farmers are of good quality, nor does it provide an

undertaking to insure the farmer or to exempt him/ her from paying the debt incurred

when buying seeds and fertilizer in case of bad harvest due to unfavourable weather

conditions;

The researcher Dr. Neil Dawson does not deny that agricultural production could increase, but

noted that this would only be valid for one third of producers. If 85% of Rwandans are farmers as

stated by the Honourable Minister of Agriculture and Livestock, it means that 57% do not record

any increase in production. This situation therefore affects almost 7,000,000 people!

The families will never reach performance targets set by current agricultural policies. This means

that their land risks to be taken away and hence pushed into irreversible poverty. That explains

the famine that prevalent in every corner of Rwanda, even formerly bread baskets of the country

like the Eastern Plateau of Mutara and north-western Rwanda.

The central problem of this whole system stems from the policy of prohibiting the farmer from

choosing themselves a farming system that ensures food security for the family. The peasant is

forced to practice mono-cropping which, in his/her eyes, has no technical or economic

justification. Moreover, further analysis indicated that behind the Rwandan Agricultural Policy

nicknamed "green revolution" are the interests of US multinationals “Monsanto and Syngenta”20

associated with local economic operators who are part of the ruling party RPF business corporate

chain. These companies control the Banking system that provide agricultural credit and award

contracts relating to the transportation of farm inputs that farmers are forced to buy. Farmers

have no power to negotiate prices of these inputs since they are trapped in a neo-liberalism

nurtured by the monopoly of these companies owned by the ruling party. This is the farce of

"good governance" that the regime sells ad libitum to its foreign sponsors.

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3. 2. Statements by the Minister of Agriculture and Livestock, Mrs. Dr. G. Mukeshimana.

The Minister stated: "Some problems that we record in agriculture are related to climate change

and the sharp decline in agricultural research with the replacement of the Institute of Agronomic

Sciences of Rwanda (ISAR) by Rwanda Agriculture Board (RAB). This is due also to the fact that

ISAR has left little results ... ".

This statement seems to be very ambiguous. Is the statement related to research findings or to

germplasm and animals lost during the war?

One understands better what the Minister means when she adds: "this means that the RAB could

not multiply plant seeds or produce new varieties, produce inputs for increased production, or

research on production constraints in order to devise appropriate solutions. ... "21. The fact of the

matter is that the current problem has little to do with ISAR. But of course Mrs. Minister is

embarrassed and needs to find a plausible explanation for the catastrophic situation into which

the government has plunged Rwanda agriculture.

As I pointed out in my conference in Amsterdam on November 19, 2015 "Sustainable development

is not feasible without true reconciliation and democracy in Rwanda, which are prerequisite for

peace and security"22, one of the handicaps for Rwanda is the eternal repetition: the newcomer

destroys what his predecessors have built, to restart afresh at zero. This lack of capitalization of

the efforts already made results in a huge and regrettable waste of financial resources.

Yes, agricultural research has suffered from the war of "liberation" of the RPF (1990-1994) and

post-conflict instability (1995-2002). But one thing must be made clear: research is not witchcraft

and the magic wand does not work. Whether fundamental or applied and development research,

it requires a lot of human and financial resources, time and assiduous and unwavering integrity.

Unfortunately, the Rwanda agricultural research today seems to suffer from the lack of political

will23 and ethical values from the RPF regime and among some researchers. Is it not surprising, for

example, to see that ISAR agricultural research results, are rarely referenced in the new research?

Yet these results are available in national institutions of Agricultural Research of Burundi, Kenya,

Uganda and Ethiopia who formed one common research group ASARECA (Association for

Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa) and in the International

Research Centres of the CGIAR24 (Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres) who

worked with ISAR.

If people want to carry out research without being well documented, how does Dr. Mukeshimana

imagine to achieve tangible progress in agricultural research?

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3.3. Brief overview of agricultural research in Rwanda 1930-1994

Agricultural research in Rwanda began with INEAC25 (National Institute for Agronomic Study of the

Belgian Congo) in 1930. It received its actual form in 1950 [ten-year development plan for the

territory of Ruanda-Urundi (1950 -1960)] to solve the problems of famine that ravaged Rwanda

and Burundi which had been placed under Belgian trusteeship by the United Nations (UN).

The transfer of power between Belgian officials and Rwandan researchers took place after

independence in 1962, the year of the birth of the Institute of Agronomic Sciences of Rwanda

(ISAR). Agricultural research began to grow around 1972 with the arrival of Rwandan university

graduates (agricultural engineers, veterinarians, forest engineers ....). When the 1990 war broke

out, ISAR had just had an experience of 28 years of research in Agriculture - Forestry - Animal

husbandry.

The effort to have a buoyant quality research began with the first "master plan" in 1985. In 1994,

this plan was in its second phase which had led to the decentralization of research to take into

account regional agricultural specialization and the need for research development in the real

environment on the ground. In this respect 8 regional centres of agricultural research had been

created: Ruhengeri: Potato - Maize; Rwerere: Wheat - Triticale - Potato - Maize; Mutara: Rice -

Soybean - Irrigated Maize – Animal Breeding (ranching); Kibungo: Banana; Karama: Sorghum -

Cassava – Animal Breeding - Sprinkler irrigation; Rubona: Cassava - Sweet Potato - Coffee -

Sorghum - Bean - Arboretum; Gakuta-CZN: Forestry - Agroforestry – Acid Soils; Ntendezi: Banana -

Coffee.

It is regrettable that the war has destroyed research findings and research infrastructure obtained

through costly investments. Things destroyed included several selected animals and perennials/

tree crops (coffee and forest heritage); the germplasm bank created at Rubona; those in Ruhande

and Ruhengeri (National Programme for Potato) were ransacked; several research materials

(Laboratories) were looted. However, if there was a political will and adequate funding, plant

seeds26 can be recovered in partner research institutions in ASARECA networks and CGIAR.

An uninformed reader of agricultural research publications in Rwanda could think that research

only started after the RPF took power in 1994. It is good that the Honourable Minister of

Agriculture and Livestock does mention the ISAR research and her researchers should make

reference to previous results obtained by ISAR researchers. It is neither honest nor too

professional to graft research or other scientific research on political changes and propaganda.

ISAR had achieved very significant results in the crop/vegetable field. That's why it is heart

breaking to read or hear that "farmers planted the cassava that has not produced; farmers planted

imported seeds and did not germinate ... ".

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Should we blame the research and researchers or inconsistent agricultural policies?

Looked at it very closely you will find that ISAR had selected plant seeds, suitable for each agro-

climatic region and had developed appropriate farming techniques. We'll give a few non-

exhaustive examples in order to clear any shadows of doubt stemming from insinuations made by

the Minister of Agriculture and Livestock.

3.3.1 TUBERS:

Potato: Sangema for rich land in high altitudes; Cruza for acid soils; and other varieties or

cultivars such as Mabondo, Kirundo, Kinigi, Gahinga, Montsama, etc. were created or

selected by PNAP (National Programme for Potato) in Ruhengeri. Most exceed a

production of 15t / ha, the best reached 30 t / ha of fresh tubers;

In this area, ISAR was working with CIP (International Potato Centre) research stations

Nairobi- Kenya and Lima-Peru;

Cassava: Creolina, Kibombwe, Kiryumukwe, Eala, Maguruyinkware, Mulundi which met

or exceeded the production of 20t / ha of fresh roots. Roots and Tubers programmes were

implemented in collaboration with IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture) in

Ibadan, Nigeria;

Sweet potatoes: Tura(tugure), Mugande, Karebenzungu, Masetsa, Gihingumukungu,

Nserura, Rusenya, Nsasagatebo, Gahungezi, Wadada, Rutambira and others whose

productivity could exceed 15t / ha of fresh tubers.

3.3.2 LEGUMES:

Bean: Umubano, Vuninkingi, Puebla, Gisenyi Ngwinurare, Mabondo, Urunyumba with

productivity exceeding 1.5t / ha of dry seeds;

Soybean varieties which were widely disseminated: Palmetto, Ogden, Bossier, with

support from the breeding programme and Rhizobium inoculation of the laboratory service

Rubona;

Pea: Collection with special focus on varieties Kyondo , Nyagashaza, Rangiro II Cyambiro

and Ibyerabirora.

ISAR was working with CIAT (International Centre for Tropical Agriculture) in Cali, Colombia

and CIRAD (Centre for International Cooperation in Agronomic Research for Development)

in Paris, France.

3.3.3 CEREALS:

Maize: ISAR had an advanced programme of selecting varieties and cultivars, and

multiplied them in the centres of Ruhengeri and Rubona. This included among others

Nyirakagori, Bambu, Katumani in collaboration with CYMMYT (International Centre for the

Selection and Breeding of Maize and Wheat), in Mexico City. Productivity reached 4t / ha of

dry grain and the producer was keeping his seeds;

Sorghum: Several varieties selected including SVR157 which was used as raw grain in

BRALIRWA (Brewery and Lemonade manufacturer of Rwanda). ISAR was collaborating in

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this programme with ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid

Tropics).

Rice: ISAR had begun the breeding programme in close cooperation with the rice projects;

Wheat-Triticale: ISAR had selected and distributed some varieties and cultivars, especially

to provide enough raw materials to mills Kabuga / Byumba and Ruhengeri.

3.3.4 ORCHARD - FRUIT AND HORTICULTURE :

Orange trees: ISAR was doing research on the "greening" and other diseases and pests;

Bananas: Collection of "germplasm" with 62 cultivars at Rubona and setting up a

"laboratory" purification by banana tissue “culture in vitro”. This programme was

implemented in collaboration with IRAZ (Institute of Agricultural and Zootechnical

Research) of Gitega / Burundi;

Avocado: ISAR had made the selection of adapted varieties that were much appreciated by

farmers.

There was also a collection of varieties of pineapple, vegetable crops and flowers.

3.3.5 OTHER CROPS (INDUSTRIAL):

ISAR was working with “Office des Cultures Industrielles” (OCIR).

Coffee trees: The research on varieties, cultivation techniques and the control of diseases

and pests was very advanced. The best known varieties are: Mibilizi; Bourbon Mayagwez,

Jackson, Catura, Catuai ... particular emphasis was also placed on mulch in combination

with agroforestry in partnership with ICRAF (International Centre for Research in

Agroforestry) in Nairobi, Kenya.

ISAR distributed seeds to all nurseries of Rwanda and had planned to start soon a breeding

programme for apical tissues in laboratory in collaboration with the University of

Gembloux.

Tea, Pyrethrum and Cinchona (Quinquina) were kept in collection. Pyrethrum was first

processed at Tamira and then shelved, under the care of OPYRWA (Pyrethrum Board in

Rwanda).

3.3.6 FORESTS AND AGROFORESTERY:

Natural Forest of Nyungwe and others: In collaboration with American universities and

forestry projects "Gishwati and Nyungwe", ISAR was doing research on the conservation,

enhancement and rational exploitation of natural forests.

The Centre for forest seeds, at Ruhande supplied seeds to all reforestation nurseries of the

Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock.

Based on farmers' knowledge and practices, and on the choice of locally adapted and

exotic species, ISAR had begun to streamline Agroforestry that had become a common

practice across the country.

This programme was supported by the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry,

ICRAF Nairobi, Kenya. 27

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3.3.7 LIVESTOCK:

Cattle: Research on crossbreeds "Jersey, Pie-black, Brown Swiss, Sahiwal" was very

advanced. The results had allowed progressive farmers and cooperatives to benefit from

the efficient crossbreeds "crossbred three races Ankole-Jersey-Sahiwal” adapted to local

ecological environment and socio-economic life and to constraints in feeding the livestock.

Research on the local breed "Ankole" very resistant to many diseases and infections, and

less demanding on energy, began in 1976 and identified quality bloodstock and female

offspring which could give an average 10L /d of fresh milk.

Sheep and Goats: The research on small ruminants, including sheep and goats, was in its

beginning and in parallel with artificial insemination.

Poultry and Fish farming: ISAR had left the research to projects of the Ministry of

Agriculture and Livestock (MINAGRI) and the National University of Rwanda (UNR), but

only helped in the diagnosis of diseases and the provision of vaccines by its veterinary

laboratory of Rubilizi.

3.3.8 FARMING TECHNIQUES AND EXTENSION PROGRAMME :

Fight against erosion (LAE), farming techniques, fertilization of crops: Many results were

obtained on the LAE, farming techniques, crop rotation techniques and crop association,

the use of organic and mineral fertilizers in different types of soil with special emphasis on

acid soils. The characterization of the physical environment had produced valuable holistic

information that certainly affect the current environmental changes.

Which normal agricultural engineer would, for example, afford to ignore the fact that LAE

by bench terraces is effective, and that if it is applied incorrectly, it can lead to the

reduction of soil fertility, and in certain circumstances lead to the disaster of landslide, a

phenomenon which is irreversible?

Plant pathology laboratories and laboratories for vitro culture at PNAP-Ruhengeri and

Rubona had allowed the treatment or the control of certain viral diseases namely in Potato

and Banana.

Socio-economics: the study of man in relation to his environment and his vital needs

produced results that guided and allowed researchers to identify or review research topics.

Extension schemes: technology transfer techniques, developed through the results of the

socio-economy and characterization of the physical environment, had helped to provide to

the agricultural extension projects high quality seeds, responding to consumer tastes and

as well as appropriate farming techniques. These technological packages were offered,

accepted generally, without any physical or police coercion.

In the area of farming techniques and socio-economy, ISAR was supported by GTZ (German

Technical Cooperation Agency), FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations), UNDP, CIAT, USAID, etc.

Without being exhaustive, we wanted to point out some research results made by ISAR and which

are sufficiently documented (see note 16). RAB researchers can find methodologies that have

helped achieve these results outlined above.

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They can then be inspired to make any improvements or to start research based on new

constraints or potential assets, as well as up-to-date research tools. Minister G. Mukeshimana is

right to point out that agricultural research in Rwanda has declined, this is particularly so because

it has ignored to take into account what has been achieved.

It is not enough to blame RAB. Research requires lot and is expensive.

The real question is: does research receive enough attention and adequate funding28 as well as

scientific freedom to refer to the work done by researchers non-aligned to the RPF?

Is research prioritising topics really geared towards meeting the needs of the farmer?

There is little doubt that the cutting of the budget will affect agriculture, already poorly funded,

and the cutting will probably affect research also. And when one looks at the agricultural

intensification programme: "Started in September 2007, the CIP programme focuses on six priority

crops namely maize crops, wheat, rice, Irish potato, beans and cassava"29, however sweet

potato, banana and sorghum are missing from the list. This leads to doubt whether RAB is keen to

meet the needs of farmers. Indeed, apart from regions of high altitudes, these crops together with

beans form the basic diet of the majority of Rwandans (pp 110-111)30 . And it was even said in the

Rwanda mythology, that the future king would be found with a sorghum seed in his closed fist at

birth!

For maize, declared as priority in the monoculture programme, many local papers highlight that its

price is not remunerative and does not even cover the cost of inputs. Thus, the farmer works at a

loss, and has no many alternatives to meet the food needs of his family.

We reiterate that when a crop is imposed, economic logic requires that the consumer should have

easy access to substitutes to what he does not produce or should have at least an income allowing

him to buy foodstuffs that supplements what he/she produces. It all seems that this is not the case

currently.

Mono-cropping can be an agronomically dangerous system, especially if done in succession

without regard to crop rotation or fallow which is unlikely in Rwanda due to scarcity of land.

How does the Ministry of Agriculture plan to provide to farmers an adequate and continuous food

security without breaking the cycle of fungal diseases and pests that proliferate after successive

mono-cropping of rice, potato, maize, cassava, etc.? There is enough reasons to fear for the

future.

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4. Conclusions

The Romans said that “you must feed the people and entertain them so that they don’t rebel”. If

Rwanda wants to do the same with these 85% of Rwandan farmers and to live in peace with its

1.2000.000 inhabitants, the RPF government has two logical and priority choices:

Investing in agriculture to make it the engine of development and increase the food and

income of rural farmers31

Developing simultaneously the other economic sectors to create employment in order to

reduce pressure on agriculture.

That's the priority sector where the RPF should put the funds that Rwanda receives from the

international community32, the different contributions taken regularly from businessmen and the

general population. It is not healthy nor sustainable for Rwanda to invest these financial resources

in the huge salaries of parliamentarians and senior officials33, in overspending on multiple trips of

the President abroad34 or in maintaining an oversized army35. The RPF should know that it is

universally known that compared to war, dialogue is the cheapest option financially and in terms

of saving lives.

To persist in wanting to import commodities to feed an estimated population of 12 million

people, will eventually strangle the economy of Rwanda because the country has few export

products to constitute enough foreign reserves36.

It is too easy to blame the weather conditions.

Appropriate agricultural policies should help the know-how of the Rwandan farmer. Indeed, over

the years, he was able to overcome the climatic risks by diversifying the plant seeds, varieties and

cultivars, and combining crops. A good government is one that respects its farmer / producer in his

choices and economic behaviour, and who cares about the daily concerns of the governed and the

food security of his family.

The research is only a mediator or a tool, through which technological packages are passed on to the farmer with a guarantee that they will profit him and hence makes it easy for him to accept and adopt them37. Getting results by coercion, fines, spoliation of land, etc. is inadequate and it needs to be recalled that the use of coercion by colonial administration always generated frustrations that led to bloody revolutions in the world. Lastly, Rwanda should not have the luxury to redo the research for what has been done or is already known. Efforts should focus on improving existing results and resolving new problems.

5. Acknowledgements.

The author would like to express his sincere thanks to Dr Venant Rutunga, former head of the

Department «Milieu et systèmes de production» (environment and farming systems) in ISAR and

Regional Director of Rubona Research Centre, for reviewing and enriching this article.

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Références 1 http://www.fdu-rwanda.com/RW/kinyarwanda-rwanda-radio-inkingi-ikiganiro-ku-buhinzi/ 2 https://soundcloud.com/radio-inkingi/nderehe-aravuga-ku-kibazo-cyubuhinzi-mu-rwanda 3 http://www.fdu-rwanda.com/fr/pour-un-developpemt-agricole-et-rural-durable/ 4 2011 : http://www.fdu-rwanda.com/fr/pour-un-developpemt-agricole-et-rural-durable/

2012 : http://www.fdu-rwanda.com/RW/kinyarwanda-mu-rwanda-abaturage-bamerewe-nabi-ninzara-kumpamvu-za-gahunda mbi-yubuhinzi-leta-ya-fpr-inkotanyi-yo-iremeza-ko-abaturage-bayo-bafite-ibyo-kurya-bihagije-ko-ahubwo-b/

2013 : http://www.fdu-rwanda.com/fr/rwanda-la-famine-guette-les-producteurs-de-riz-de-la-plaine-de-bugarama-prives-de-la-

jouissance-de-leurs-productions/#more-2897

http://www.fdu-rwanda.com/RW/kinyarwanda-fdu-inkingi-irateganya-iki-cyasimbura-politiki-y-ubuhinzi-ya-fpr-yicisha-

abaturage-inzara/

2014: http://www.fdu-rwanda.com/RW/kinyarwanda-rwanda-inama-ishyaka-fdu-inkingi-rirakemanga-ingamba-zo-kuzahura-ubukungu-bukomeje-kujya-aharindimuka/

5 http://www.igihe.com/amakuru/u-rwanda/article/guverinoma-y-u-rwanda-yahagurukiye-ikibazo-cy-amapfa-avugwa-mu-bice bimwe-mu-by http://www.france24.com/en/20151102-rwanda-accused-manipulating-poverty-statistics http://www.rfi.fr/afrique/20150124-rwanda-arrestation-trois-maires-soupconnes-malversations/ http://www.umuseke.rw/iburasirazuba-inzara-iri-gutuma-bamwe-basuhukira-mu-mahanga.html http://ubukungu.rw/spip.php?article4095 http://www.makuruki.rw/IMIBEREHO-MYIZA/article/Rutsiro-Barataka-inzara-nyuma-yo-kubuzwa-guhinga-amasambu-yabo http://www.kigalitoday.com/ubuhinzi/ubuhinzi/Barataka-inzara-batewe-no-kuteza http://izubarirashe.rw/2016/06/abanyamusanze-barataka-inzara-uwumugabo-arya-rimwe-ku-munsi-hari-ubwoba-bwa-bwaki/ La famine qui fait rage au Rwanda est-elle virtuelle ? Publié le 29/02/2016 https://nkbnkb.wordpress.com/2016/02/29/la-famine-qui-fait-rage-au-rwanda-est-elle-virtuelle/ Tough times as Rwanda cuts down on spending; by BERNA NAMATA June 11 2016 http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Tough-times-as-Rwanda-cuts-down-on-spending-/-/2560/3245294/-/gsmqrx/-/index.html The fertile roots of Rwanda's green revolution19 February 2015 http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/feb/19/rwanda-africa-green-revolution-fertiliser-mdgs; Rwanda: Achieving Food Security, Reducing Poverty, Moving up the Value Chain; July 12, 2016 http://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2016/07/12/rwanda-achieving-food-security-reducing-poverty-moving-up-the-value-chain

6 IKV & Pax Christi: Rwanda Beyond the sterile debate: Between Believers and non-believers; January 2009. United Nations Development Programme, « Human Development Indicators », Rwanda : http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/RWA Is Rwanda’s economy resilient? http://www.jambonews.net/en/news/20160624-is-rwandas-economy-resilient/ Rwanda Economic Update, June 2015 : Financing Development https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/22364 https://www.wfp.org/content/cost-hunger-africa-rwanda http://www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/Nine-million-Ugandans-go-hungry-every-year---report/-/688334/2732682/-/oip5skz/-/index.html Le Devoir, « Le développement économique au Rwanda–miracle ou mirage? », le 11 juillet 2008 http://www.ledevoir.com/non-classe/197227/le-developpement-economique-au-rwanda-miracle-ou-mirage https://medium.com/@dhimbara/kagames-economic-mirage-892ae7d15cdb#.nyvq7wqgc 2012-2016 - Rwanda - Document de stratégie pays http://www.afdb.org/fr/documents/document/2012-2016-rwanda-country-strategy-paper-25282/

7 http://www.kigalitoday.com, http://www.kigalitoday.com/spip.php?rubrique44, http://izubarirashe.rw/... - NZARAMBA: Abanya Kigali basigaye bita ibirayi "ROTI" kubera kubura no guhenda : 17 aug. 2016!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3tPpk-2rWiA - Barataka inzara kubera kubuzwa guhinga ngo bategereje Stevia; Yanditswe na Norbert Niyizurugero 18-02-2016

http://www.kigalitoday.com/spip.php?article28796 - Imbuto bahawe mu gihembwe cy’ihinga gishize zarabahombeje; Yanditswe na Cyprien M. Ngendahimana 15-02-2016;

http://www.kigalitoday.com/spip.php?article28757 - Rusizi: Abahinzi b’umuceri ntibishimira igabanuka ry’ibiciro by’umuceri; January 23, 2016

http://www.umuhinzi.com/markets/11679/rusizi-abahinzi-bumuceri-ntibishimira-igabanuka-ryibiciro-byumuceri/ - Ngororero: Ntibavuga rumwe ku igabanuka ry’umusaruro w’ibirayi; February 18, 2016

http://www.umuhinzi.com/programmes/11835/ngororero-ntibavuga-rumwe-ku-igabanuka-ryumusaruro-wibirayi/ - VOA - Inzara Iravuza Ubuhuha i Rwinkwavu mu Rwanda ; 09-12-15

http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x3hf8lk - Kuba ‘Ikigega cy’Ibiribwa’ ntibibuza Musanze gucumbagira mu iterambere; 16/10/2015

http://izubarirashe.rw/2015/10/kuba-ikigega-cyibiribwa-ntibibuza-musanze-gucumbagira-mu-iterambere/ - Abahinzi b’ibigori barasabwa kwirinda akajagari mu byo bakora; 17/02/2016

http://izubarirashe.rw/2016/02/15155/ - Musanze: Abahinzi b’ibirayi barinubira ibiciriro by’amakusanyirizo : 06/11/2015

13

http://izubarirashe.rw/2015/11/musanze-abahinzi-bibirayi-barinubira-ibiciriro-byamakusanyirizo/

- GISAGARA: Barasaba gushumbushwa vuba: June 11, 2013 http://www.umuhinzi.com/community/5804/gisagara-barasaba-gushumbushwa-vuba/

- Nyabihu: Akarere gafatanije na RAB barimo gushakira umuti ikibazo cy’imbuto y’ibirayi June 5, 2013 http://www.umuhinzi.com/crops/5753/nyabihu-akarere-gafatanije-na-rab-barimo-gushakira-umuti-ikibazo-cyimbuto-yibirayi/

- Rulindo: abahinzi b’indabo mu gishanga cya Yanze baravuga ko umusaruro wabo upfa ubusa : June 5, 2013 http://www.umuhinzi.com/markets/5749/rulindo-abahinzi-bindabo-mu-gishanga-cya-yanze-baravuga-ko-umusaruro-wabo-upfa-ubusa/

- Icyegeranyo cy’umuryango Global Hunger Index cyo mu mwaka wa 2012 cyerekana u Rwanda nka kimwe mu bihugu bifite ikibazo cy’ingorane zo kubona ibyo kurya bihagije; Ibiherutse kuvugururwa: 25 ukwa cumi, 2012; http://www.bbc.com/gahuza/amakuru/2012/10/121025_rdahunger.shtml

8 L’investissement agricole » facilité par l'État au Rwanda : regroupement des terres, renforcement du contrôle : par Chris Huggins ; Septembre 2013 http://www.iss.nl/fileadmin/ASSETS/iss/Research_and_projects/Research_networks/LDPI/LDPI_WP_16_FR.pdf

9 http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7fcab78c-ff1b-11e1-a4be-00144feabdc0.html#ixzz4BesU0sUT Rwandan Patriotic Front: Party builds a formidable business group; By William Wallis; September 24, 2012 http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7fcab78c-ff1b-11e1-a4be-00144feabdc0.html#axzz41BviKQNT ; The East African: Our businesses are clean, says RPF ; By Edmund Kagire Rwanda Today ; October 12 2012 http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/Rwanda/News/Our-businesses-are-clean-says-RPF/-/1433218/1532008/-/7j64skz/-/index.html How much is Paul Kagame Worth? in Richest Politicians › Presidents http://www.celebritynetworth.com/richest-politicians/presidents/paul-kagame-net-worth/

10http://bwiza.com/ni-iki-gituma-abana-bata-ishuri-mu-rwanda/ http://www.kigalitoday.com/uburezi/amashuri/article/nyamasheke-haravugwa-imibare-ya-baringa-mu-bana-bataye-amashuri http://www.igihe.com/amakuru/u-rwanda/article/ikibazo-cy-abana-bata-amashuri-cyongeye-kugarukwaho-nk-igiteye-inkeke http://www.igihe.com/amakuru/u-rwanda/article/gakenke-65-by-abana-bari-munsi-y http://www.igihe.com/amakuru/u-rwanda/article/nyabihu-gutenguhwa-na http://www.igihe.com/amakuru/u-rwanda/article/gakenke-haracyari-abanyeshuri The Cost of Hunger in Africa: Rwanda 2013 https://www.wfp.org/content/cost-hunger-africa-rwanda Rwandan children still forced into work, illegal activities instead of school; By RODRIGUE RWIRAHIRA; November 7 2014 http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/Rwanda/News/US-report-exposes-shame-of-child-labour-in-Rwanda-/-/1433218/2515048/-/l9jkq5/-/index.html Children still face hardships despite Rwanda high ranking; By Joram Muhoozi; November 22 2013

http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/Rwanda/News/Children-still-face-hardships-despite-Rwanda-high-ranking/-/1433218/2084268/-/3gj0snz/-/index.html

11http://www.kigalitoday.com/spip.php?page=ocslevel3&id_rub=1478

http://imvahonshya.co.rw/amakuru/mu-ntara/intara/article/karongi-gitifu-yakubise-izakabwana-umuturage-amuziza-gutura-muri-nyakatsi

12Rwanda Hit Surprisingly Bad by the 'Green Revolution: February 17, 2016 http://mobile.english.rfi.fr/africa/20160208-lalalala https://theconversation.com/why-the-green-revolution-is-making-farmers-poorer-in-rwanda-54768 http://www.economywatch.com/features/Rwanda-Hit-Surprisingly-Bad-by-the-Green-Revolution0217.html Ibibazo byugarije ubuhinzi bifitanye isano n’ubushakashatsi bwasubiye inyuma-Minagri : 16-02-2016 http://www.igihe.com/ubukungu/article/ibibazo-byugarije-ubuhinzi-bifitanye-isano-n-ubushakashatsi-bwasubiye-inyuma

13Crop Intensification Programme (CIP) : Started in 2007 http://www.minagri.gov.rw/index.php?id=618 PLAN STRATEGIQUE POUR LA TRANSFORMATION DE L’AGRICULTURE AU RWANDA; DOCUMENT PRINCIPAL ; MINAGRI 2004 http://www.minagri.gov.rw/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/CIP/MORE_INFORMATION_ABOUT_CROP_INTENSIFICATION_PROGRAMME.pdf

14Official Gazette no Special of 16/06/2013: http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/RWA131805.pdf

15L’investissement agricole » facilité par l'État au Rwanda : regroupement des terres, renforcement du contrôle par Chris Huggins; Septembre 2013 http://www.iss.nl/fileadmin/ASSETS/iss/Research_and_projects/Research_networks/LDPI/LDPI_WP_16_FR.pdf

16Root Crops in Eastern Africa Proceedings of a workshop held in Kigali, Rwanda, November 1980 - Programme National de la Promme de Terre (PNAP) M. Bicamupaka. D. Goffinet , P. Tegera et P. vander Zaag ; 1980 - Regional wheat workshop for Eastern, Central and Southern Africa, 1; Gisenyi, Rwanda; June 1980 - Le mouton local 1. Quelques caractéristiques zootechniques. Note Technique 6 ISAR-Butare. Ngendahayo M 1980 - Potato research and transfer of technology in Rwanda M. Bicamumpaka and S. Nganga : Proceedings of the Regional workshop ,

Addis-Ababa Ethiopia ; CIP- Lima 1982 - Le mouton local 1. Estimation de la production laitière et évolution de la quantité d'aliment ingère pendant la phase

d'allaitement. Note Technique 2, ISAR-Butare. Ngendahayo M 1982 - Rapport du Séminaire : La Recherche Agricole au Rwanda: Bilan et Perspectives ISNAR 1983 - Colloque régional à Bujumbura décembre 1983.CRDI/Canada

14

- Compte rendu du deuxième séminaire régional sur l'amélioration du sorgho et du mil en Afrique de1'Est; ISAR-CRDI-

SAFGRAD/ICRISAT; novembre 1984 - Yield levels of potato crops in central Africa. Agricultural systems; Haverkort A 1986 - La productivité des petits ruminants dans les stations de recherche de l'ISAR. ILCA Research Report; Murayi Th, Sayers AR and

Wilson RT 1987. - Improvement of Sweet Potato in East Africa ; CIAT-CIP-IITA; 1988 - Productivity of the small east African goat and its crosses with Anglonubian and the alpine in Rwanda. Tropical animal health

and productions; Wilson R T and Murayi T 1988. - Indigenous African small ruminant strains with potentially high productive performance. Small ruminant research; Wilson R T,

Murayi T and Rocha 1989 - Séminaire National sur la problématique de la fertilisation et du revenu du paysan sur les sols acides de hautes altitudes du

Rwanda tenu à Gikongoro. MINAGRI-Rwanda (eds), 1989. - Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda: Point de la Recherche 1962-1987; ISAR-Butare 1989 - Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda (ISAR) : Plan Directeur National de la Recherche Agronomique 1990 – 2000;

ISAR, Butare. 1990. - Actes du Sixième Séminaire Régional sur l'Amélioration du Haricot dans La Région des Grands Lacs ; Kigali,

Rwanda ;1991 - Progress de la recherche sur les plantes a racines et tubercules au Rwanda. Ndamage, G., Ntwawuruhunga, P. and

Mulindangabo, J ; 1992 ISAR, Butare, Rwanda, IDRC, Ottawa, Canada. - Production et recherche sur la banane en Afrique de l'Est et en Afrique centrale. Kirkby AR et Ngendahayo D. 1993; - L’agroforesterie et la GCES au Rwanda ; Comment restaurer la productivité des terres acides dans une région tropicale de

montagne à forte densité de population ? Cah. Orstom, sér. Pédol., vol. XXVIII, no 2, 1993 - Contribution de la production et de la commercialisation du blé a l'augmentation des revenus des petits paysans des régions de

haute altitude du Rwanda; Munyemana A 1995; These de doctorat. Universite Hohenheim, Stutgartt. - Economic Impact of High-yielding, Late-Blight-Resistant Varieties in the Eastern and Central ; Rueda J L., Ewell P T, Walker T S,

Soto M., Bicamumpaka M and Berrios D 1996. - Forage potential of eight woody species: intake and growth rates of local young goats in the high land region of Rwanda.

Agroforestry systems; Niang A, Ugiziwe J, Styger E and Gahamanyi A 1996. - L'agroforesterie, la fertilisation minérale et la GCES au Rwanda; Eric Roose, Directeur de Recherche en Pédologie, ORSTOM,

Montpellier, France ; François Ndayizigiye, Géographe chercheur, ISAR, Station Rubona, Rwanda ; - Identification des sources d'information et bases de données sur la diversité biologique au Rwanda, Rapport final. Minagri -

Kigali. Sibomana M et Gapusi R J 1997 - Agroforestry, water and soil fertility management to fight erosion in tropical mountains of Rwanda. Soil Technology; Ndayizigiye

F and Roose E 1997 - Synthèse des résultats de la recherche sur l’agronomie du Caféier arabica au Rwanda au 30/03/1994 : Tropicultura 1998-99 - La Pomme de terre au Rwanda: Une analyse d'une filière a hautes potentialités : Munyemana A et von Oppen M ; Centre

International de la Pomme de Terre, CIP-Lima-Perou ; 1999 - List of Dr Venant Rutunga's scientific publications: http://www.editions-sources-du-nil.fr/Rutunga.htm - Les plantes cultivées en régions tropicales d’Altitude d’Afrique ; Nyabyenda P ; CTA 2005 - Cultures industrielles et d'exportation. Cultures fruitières. Culture maraichères. Nyabyenda P, 2006.

17http://www.umuhinzi.com/ http://www.kigalitoday.com, http://izubarirashe.rw/

18 Rwandan agricultural policies hurting the poorest of the poor: study http://www.economywatch.com/features/Rwanda-Hit-Surprisingly-Bad-by-the-Green-Revolution0217.html http://m.en.rfi.fr/africa/20160208-Rwandan-agricultural-policies-hurting-poorest-poor-study

19Official Gazette no Special of 16/06/2013; Itegeko n. 43 ryo ku wa 16/06/2013 rigenga ubutaka mu Rwanda; kuva ku ngingo 52 kugeza ku ngingo 63

20L’investissement agricole » facilité par l'État au Rwanda : regroupement des terres, renforcement du contrôle par Chris Huggins; Septembre 2013 http://www.iss.nl/fileadmin/ASSETS/iss/Research_and_projects/Research_networks/LDPI/LDPI_WP_16_FR.pdf

21“Bimwe mu bibazo bigaragara mu mwuga w’ubuhinzi muri iyi minsi bikomoka ku ruhererekane rw’ibintu byinshi birimo imihindagurikire y’ibihe n’ubushakashatsi muri iyi ngeri bwasubiye inyuma. Iyi mpamvu yiyongeraho kuba nyuma y’uko Ikigo cy’Ubushakashatsi mu by’Ubuhinzi (ISAR) isimbuwe n’Icyigo cy’Igihugu cy’Ubuhinzi n’Ubworozi (RAB), ubushakashatsi bwasubiye inyuma…” Arongera ati ” “Ubushakashatsi bwabaye nk’ubugana hasi cyane. Ibibazo turi kubona byinshi ni umusaruro mucye wasigaye ku byo ISAR yasize. Bivuga ko RAB itabashije gutubura imbuto, ngo ikore imbuto nshya, ikore inyongeramusaruro, hanyuma inakore ubushakashatsi ku bibazo turi guhura na byo, bityo itange ibisubizo…”

22http://www.fdu-rwanda.com/en/english-sustainable-development-is-not-possible-without-true-reconciliation-and-democracy-in-rwanda-which-are-prerequisite-for-peace-and-security/#more-4583

23http://www.igihe.com/amakuru/u-rwanda/article/haracyari-icyuho-mu-bushakashatsi-bwo-mu-rwanda http://imirasire.com/amakuru-yose/hirya-no-hino/mu-rwanda/article/abahanga-mu-rwanda-baranenga-leta-kudaha-agaciro-ubushakashatsi-bwabo

24http://www.cgiar.org/cgiar

15

25De l’agriculture itinérante à l'agriculture intensifiée; publication INEAC, hors. série. F. Jurion et J. Lebrun, 1967. 26Les Ressources Phylogénétiques du Rwanda : Appui à la Filière Semencière du Rwanda ; Une ressource stratégique pour la gestion

de la sécurité alimentaire d’aujourd’hui et de demain ; http://semences.minagri.gov.rw/SIFSR/Data/35FR112I121v2.pdf. 27http://www.editions-sources-du-nil.fr/Rutunga.htm 28The Institute of Policy Analysis and Research (IPAR- Rwanda): Annual Analysis of Rwanda’s Agriculture Budget Expenditure 2015-

2016; October, 2015 ; Action aid International Rwanda; http://ipar-rwanda.org/index.php?option=com_edocman&view=document&id=60&catid=1&Itemid=115&lang=en http://rwandaeye.com/english/8259/rwanda-to-spend-rwf-1949-4-billion-in-201617-fiscal-year/ http://ktpress.rw/2015/04/breaking-news-rwandas-budget-for-2015-2016-out/ http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/rwanda/overview

29About Crop Intensification Programme- CIP : http://www.minagri.gov.rw/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/CIP/MORE_INFORMATION_ABOUT_CROP_INTENSIFICATION_PROGRAMME.pdf

30Table 6.4.2 Percentage of households cultivating different crops http://www.minagri.gov.rw/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/CIP/MORE_INFORMATION_ABOUT_CROP_INTENSIFICATION_PROGRAMME.pdf THE THIRD INTEGRATED HOUSEHOLD LIVING CONDITIONS SURVEY (EICV3) NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STATISTICS OF RWANDA http://www.statistics.gov.rw/survey-period/integrated-household-living-conditions-survey-3-eicv-3. http://data.lesechos.fr/pays-indicateur/rwanda/aide-publique-au-developpement-nette-recue.html

31Banque africaine de développement : Fonds africain de développement Rwanda ; Document de stratégie pays 2012-2016 du groupe de la banque ; Octobre 2011 http://www.mdrwi.org/livres/probleme%20developpement.htm https://www.iisd.org/pdf/2002/envsec_conserving_peace.pdf

32http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/DT.ODA.ODAT.CD/countries 33http://www.ijwiryademokarasi.de/en/121-rwanda-ishema-ryacu-campaign,-agaciro-kandi-mu-rwanda,-turambiwe-imisanzu-ya-

hano-na-hato.html Disparities in Rwanda civil servant pay blamed for graft, skills flight http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/Rwanda/News/Outrage-over-huge-disparities-in-new-public-service-salaries-/-/1433218/1855740/-/156yosez/-/index.html

34A leader who travels a lot probably does not need you so much; By FRANK KAGABO; October 17 2014 http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/Rwanda/Opinion/A-leader-who-travels-a-lot-probably-does-not-need-you-so-much/-/1433246/2490140/-/dawxf4/-/index.html

35 Rwanda. Lois réprimant le « négationnisme » : une parade du parti-Etat aux demandes pressantes de démocratisation du pays; Emmanuel Neretse ; 12 avril 2016 ; http://www.echosdafrique.com/20160412-rwanda-lois-reprimant-le-negationnisme-une-parade-du-parti-etat-aux-demandes-pressantes-de-democratiser-le-pays Rwanda assessing risks to stability: CSIS, June 2011: csis.org/files/publication/110623_Cooke_Rwanda_Web.pdf “….the country’s apparent stability masks deep-rooted tensions , unresolved resentments, and an authoritarian government that is unwilling to countenance criticisms or open debate” The Observer view on Rwanda and Paul Kagame’s lust for power; 3 January 2016 https://www.theguardian.com/world/commentisfree/2016/jan/03/paul-kagame-and-others-damage-africa-lust-to-rule-for-ever Panama papers: les jets privés du monarque Kagame et son pillage du patrimoine rwandais http://www.twagiramungu.com/index.php/403-panama-papers-les-jets-prives-du-monarque-kagame-et-son-pillage-du-patrimoine-rwandais-6.html

36 Rwanda : la valeur des actifs extérieurs nets des banques commerciales a baissé de 70% en 2015 à 40 millions $ ; Idriss Linge ; 14 mars 2016 http://www.agenceecofin.com/gestion-publique/1403-36576-rwanda-la-valeur-des-actifs-exterieurs-nets-des-banques-commerciales-a-baisse-de-70-en-2015-a-40-millions IMF: Rwanda: Letter of Intent, Memorandum of Economic Financial Policies, and Technical Memorandum of Understanding; May 25, 2016 http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2016-03-09/197812/ See also comment: “Whatever way you choose to look at it, it cannot be other than a disaster in the making that we consume so much from outside than we are able to fund through our own sales beyond our borders. This is simply not sustainable. And don't let us compare the potential dangers of our deficit to that of the US…”

37 Commission Nationale d’Agriculture - Volume I : (1) Allocation et Exploitation des Terres de Marais; (2) Le Terrassement pour la Conservation des Sols; (3) Les

Cultures Associées ; Novembre 1990: - Volume II : Appuis à la production agricole ; Analyse du Sous-Secteur des productions animales ; Avril 1991 - Volume III : Productions Agricoles du Rwanda ; Zones agro-climatiques du Rwanda ; Juin 1991 - Volume IX : La Commercialisation des Produits Agricoles au Rwanda : Février 1992 - Volume VI: Décembre 1991: (1) Le Sous-Secteur Forestier; (2) Développement des Ressources Halieutiques. - Rapport préliminaire de synthèse : 1992