aircraft design trends and their impact on air cargo oriented aircrafts

UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER

Aircraft Design Trends And Their Impact On Cargo-

Oriented Aircrafts MSc Air Transport Planning And Management

By Arjun Arayakandy

2014-2015

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ABSTRACT

There are several factors that need to be taken into account when designing an aircraft. Whilst most aircraft are passenger-oriented, others are designed for cargo and others combine both passenger and cargo requirements. Regardless of the aircraft purpose, issues such as fuel-efficiency, engine performance, maintenance costs, and route requirements are necessary elements of aircraft design. Aircraft that are cargo-oriented or take into account cargo requirements on passenger routes must also consider cargo capacity in their design. There have been significant changes in aircraft design over the last twenty-five years, and these changes also influence cargo carriers. This dissertation focuses on the trends in aircraft design and their impact on cargo-oriented aircraft. This study will examine the challenges of current aircraft designs, and compare the characteristics of successful, and unsuccessful, cargo aircraft. This study also reviews the design differences between short-haul and long-haul cargo-oriented aircraft. Aircraft currently being manufactured, and future innovations and concepts being implemented on cargo-oriented aircraft by companies like Airbus and Boeing will be compared. This is an overall comparison of the changes that have transpired in aircraft design over the last twenty-five years focusing on aircraft like the MD-11, B-707, DC-8, and the A-300 series, and the trends influencing future cargo-oriented aircraft designs.

WORD COUNT - 16,766

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In my journey of making this dissertation, I have gained many valuable information

regarding the air cargo industry and also the trends in aircraft designs. While trying to

complete this dissertation, I have faced many difficulties. Now with God’s grace as well as

support from my friends and my lecturers I have finished my dissertation.

Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor Mr. Ken Stevens who have greatly supported me

in completing my dissertation. Even though I had faced many troubles during the

completion of work, he is the one who motivated me to complete and his extraordinary

knowledge and his deep experience in the aviation industry helped me to gain new ideas

regarding the air cargo industry.

Secondly, I would like to thank my course leader Dr. Nigel Dennis who is one of the most

intelligent person I have met. He has always been helpful and supportive during the whole

period of my MSc Air transport planning and management course.

Thirdly, I would like to thank my dear friends Vivian Chales James, Sydney Kruapech and

Frances Kremarik for being very helpful.

Finally, I would like to thank my beloved parents for being with me throughout my life and

for being very supportive and friendly.

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CONTENTS

Abstract 1

Acknowledgements 2

List of Tables 7

List of Figures 7

Abbreviations 9

1. INTRODUCTION 11

1.1 Background 11

1.2 Types of goods 13

1.3 10 cargo airlines 13

1.4 TOTAL CARGO TRAFFIC 0F 2013 14

1.5 WORLD ECONOMIC GROWTH 15

1.6 WORLD AIR CARGO TRAFFIC 15

1.7 WORLD RTKs CARRIED ON FREIGHTERS 16

1.8 GDP GROWTH RATES 17

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 18

2.1 TRENDS IN AIR CARGO DESIGN: 18

2.1.1 Classification of freighter aircraft 18

2.1.2 PASSENGER AIRCRAFTS - LOWER DECK: 18

2.1.3 QUICK CHANGE AIRCRAFTS: 19

2.1.4 PURE FREIGHTERS/ ALL- CARGO CARRIERS AIRCRAFTS/ FREIGHTERS: 22

2.1.5 FREIGHTERS : Converted from passenger aircrafts 24

2.1.6 SHORT - /MEDIUM- HAUL AND LONG-HAUL AIRCRAFTS: 27

2.2 UNIT LOAD DEVICES: 27

2.3 I.T. SYSTEMS AND GROUND HANDLING 28

2.3.1 IATA e-freight: 29

2.3.2 Cargo 2000 (C2K): 30

2.4 Factors that affect the air cargo aircraft operation: 30

4

2.4.1 DENSITY: 32

2.4.2 BLOCK TIME AND RANGE: 33

2.4.3 AIRCRAFT PRODUCTIVITY: 34

2.4.4 AIRCRAFT UTILISATION: 35

2.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE FLYING TIME 35

2.5.1 Factor affecting turnaround time 35

2.5.2 Factors affecting the maintenance time 35

2.6 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE MODAL CHOICE 36

2.6.1 Delivery time 36

2.6.2 Cost/Price 36

2.6.3 Frequency 36

2.6.4 Reliability 37

2.6.5 Physical limitations 37

2.6.6 Quality of services 37

2.6.7 Security of product 37

2.7 ALL CARGO AIRLINE COSTS 38

2.7.1 Direct operating costs 38

2.7.2 Indirect operating costs 39

2.7.3 Fuel costs 39

3. METHODOLOGY 41

4. ANALYSIS 44

4.1 ANALYSIS OF B707 44

4.1.1 General characteristics of Model 707 47

4.2 Payload-range for long range step climb cruise of model 707-320B

Passenger-International 48

4.2.1 Payload-range for long range step climb cruise of model 707-320C

Convertible-International 49

4.3 Interior Arrangement of Cargo/Passenger Model 707-320C 50

4.4 Terminal Operations - Turnaround station for model 707-320C- All cargo 51

5. ANALYSIS OF DC-8 52

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5.1 General Airplane characteristics 54

5.1.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODELS DC 8-61,-61F,-62,-62F 55

5.1.3 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODELS DC 8-63,-63F 56

5.1.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODELS DC 8-71,-71F,-73,-73F 57

5.2 PAYLOAD -RANGE CAPABILITY FOR DC 8-54 FREIGHTERS 58

5.2.1 PAYLOAD -RANGE CAPABILITY FOR DC 8-55 FREIGHTERS 58


5.2.3 PAYLOAD -RANGE CAPABILITY FOR DC 8-61/71 FREIGHTERS 60



5.3 INTERIOR CARGO ARRANGEMENT OF MODELS DC 8-62F, -72F 63

5.3.1 INTERIOR CARGO ARRANGEMENT OF MODELS DC 8-63F,-73F 63

5.4 Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-62,-72 64

5.4.1 Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-63,-73 65

6. ANALYSIS OF MD-11 66

6.1 GENERAL AIRPLANE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODEL MD-11 WITH GE ENGINES 67

6.1.1 GENERAL AIRPLANE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODEL MD-11 WITH

Pratt & WHITNEY ENGINES 68

6.2 PAYLOAD-RANGE OF MD-11CF WITH GE ENGINES 69

6.3 INTERIOR CARGO ARRANGEMENT OF MODELS MD 11-F/CF 70

6.4 TERMINAL OPERATIONS- TURNAROUND STATIONS FOR MODEL MD-11 71

7. ANALYSIS OF A300 SERIES 72

7.1 GENERAL AIRPLANE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODEL A300 C4-200, A300 F4-200 73

7.1.1 GENERAL AIRPLANE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODEL A300 F4-600 R

(A 300-600 freighter) 73

7.2 BASIC UPPER DECK CONFIGURATION OF MODEL C4 74

7.2.1 BASIC UPPER DECK CONFIGURATION OF MODEL A300-600 F 75

7.3 TURNAROUND TIME OF MODEL C4 FREIGHTER 76

7.3.1 TURNAROUND TIME OF MODEL A300-600 F 77

7.4 PAYLOAD -RANGE CAPABILITY FOR A 300-600 F 78

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8. A BRIEF ANALYSIS OF FUTURE FREIGHTER AIRCRAFT DESIGN CONCEPTS

AND POSSIBILITY 79

8.1 Developing the conventional aircraft designs 79

8.2 Airships 79

8.3 Ground effect aircrafts 79

8.4 Unmanned aircrafts 79

9. CONCLUSION 80

BIBLOGRAPHY 81

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Total Air Cargo Traffic of 2013 14

Table 2: Freighter Aircraft Types Used in the Earlier Days 18

Table 3: Typical Payload, Volume and Density for Lower Deck Cargo 19

Table 4: The number of Combi, Converted Combi and Quick Change Aircraft 20

Table 5: Top 10 Most Popular Freighters 22

Table 6: The Operational Parameters for Pure Freighter Specifications 23

Table 7: Aircraft in Production, Development and Out of Production for the Boeing 25

Table 8: Wide - Bodied Aircraft Conversions to freighters, 2004-2008 27

Table 9: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for B 707 Aircraft 44

Table 10: Engine Type used by the B707 Family Aircraft 46

Table 11: General Characteristics of Model 707 47

Table 12: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for DC 8 Aircraft 53

Table 13: General Airplane Characteristics Models DC 8-43,-55,-55F 54

Table 14: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for MD 11 Aircraft 66

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: World Economic Growth 2014 -2016 15

Figure 2: World Air Cargo Traffic Forecast by BOEING 15

Figure 3: World RTKs Carried on Freighters 16

Figure 4: Forecast Average Regional GDP Growth Rates 17

Figure 5: Different Equipment Installed in Convertible and Quick-Change Aircraft 21

Figure 6: Boeing Current Market Outlook On Conversions 2013 26

Figure 7: Runway Length-Range Graph 31

Figure 8: Runway Payload-Freight Density Graph 32

Figure 9: Block Speed-Range Graph 33

Figure 10: Capacity Tonne Kilometres-Range Graph 34

Figure 11: Jet Fuel and Crude Oil Price 40

Figure 12: Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320B Passenger-

International 48

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Figure 13: Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320C Convertible-

International 49

Figure 14: Interior Arrangement of Cargo/Passenger Model 707-320C 50

Figure 15: Different Type of Mixed Class Configurations of B707-320C 50

Figure 16: Terminal Operations - Turnaround station for model 707-320C- All cargo 51

Figure 17: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-61, -61F, -62, -62F 55

Figure 18: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-63, -63F 56

Figure 19: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-71,-71F,-73,-73F 57

Figure 20: Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-54 Freighters 58



Figure 23: Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-61/71 Freighters 60



Figure 26: Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-62F, -72F 63

Figure27: Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-63F, -73F 63

Figure 28: Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-62,-72 64

Figure 29: Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-63,-73 65

Figure 30: General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with GE Engines 67

Figure 31: General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with Pratt & Whitney Engines 68

Figure 32: Payload-Range of MD-11CF with GE Engines 69

Figure 33: Interior Cargo Arrangement of models MD 11-F/CF 70

Figure 34: Lower Cargo Deck Arrangement of MD-11 70

Figure 35: Terminal operations-Turnaround Stations for Model MD-11 71

Figure 36: General Airplane Characteristics of Model A300 C4-200, A300 F4-200 72

Figure 37: General Airplane Characteristics of Model A300 F4-600 R (A 300-600 freighter) 73

Figure 38: Basic Upper Deck Configuration of C4 74

Figure 39: Basic Upper Deck Configuration of Model A300-600 F 75

Figure 40: Turnaround Time of Model C4 Freighter 76

Figure 41: Turnaround Time of Model A300-600 F 77

Figure 42: Payload-Range Capability for A300-600 78

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ABBREVIATIONS

ACN - Air consignment note

AEI - Aircraft engineering and installation services (Company name)

AWB - Airway bill

C2K - Cargo 2000

CF - Convertible freighter versions

CM - Centimeters

CO2 - Carbon dioxide

CTK - Capacity tonne kilometre

CTM - Capacity tonne miles

EADS/EFW - EADS Elbe Aircraft works (Company name)

E-AWB - Electronic airway bill

ECS - Export control system

F/AF - All freighter versions

FT - Feet

GDP - Gross domestic product

HAWB - House Airway bill

ICS - Import control system

IN - Inch

JIT - Just in time

KPI - Key performance indicators

L - Liters

LB - Pounds

M - Meter

MAWB - Master Airway bill

MLW - Maximum landing weight

MTOW - Maximum take-off weight

MTW - Maximum taxi weight

MZFW - Maximum zero fuel weight

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NMI - Nautical mile

OEW - Operating empty weight

RTK - Revenue tonne – kilometer

STC - Supplementary type certificate

ULD - Unit load device

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The air cargo was basically created and introduced to carry postal shipments. In the US

during an aviation meeting conducted at the Nassau, Boulevard, and Long Island, New York

that the initial US airmail service was started on 23 September 1911. Earl. L. Ovington's

'Queen' monoplane was given charge to carry out airmail distribution on the route between

the post office at the Mineola and a temporary post office started at the flying field in Long

Island. Around 35,000 to 37,000 pieces were delivered by that service. In November 1910, it

was an American businessman who came up with the idea of transporting ten bales of silk

from Dayton, Ohio to Columbus, Ohio. For this he made an agreement with the Wright

brothers to start the service for $5,000 at that time and the distance of that service made

was just 100 km. These silk on their arrival at the destination, was cut into small pieces and

were pasted to postcards as souvenirs. The very first scheduled flight from London to Paris

was in 1919 and it carried one passenger along with the pilot as well as consignments of

leather and also mails. The German air cargo has begun on August 1911 where, the

newspaper 'Berliner Morgen post' hired a plane for flying from the airfield of Berlin -

Johannisthal to Frankfurt. The items carried were bundles of newspapers.

Later the US post office department noticed the demand of this system and its scope of

freight transportation. In the early 1912 they made a recommendation to the US congress

for starting an experimental service and the Congress refused to grant the appropriation of

the $50,000 experimental service recommended by the US postal department.

It was after the First World War that, the factors needed for the commercial aviation

developments were made. There were aircrafts available during that time as well as

participants available with the warring nations who had experience and expertise in flying

during that period. There were also many ex-pilots looking for jobs and that, most of the

military aircrafts were not suitable for carrying out passenger services. Even though the

military aircrafts were cheaply available during those periods, a huge amount of operating

and maintenance costs as well as costs for engines were high. These military aircrafts and its

equipment needed modifications and even new engines and designs as they were formerly

used for military purposes. A huge infrastructure was needed to operate this service which

included new landing strips, connecting roads, ground handling facilities and also weather

and flight control systems. For this, the investment and construction for many years were

needed to start both passenger as well as cargo services. Another problem during that time

was the lack of paid traffic. International and Domestic mail delivery gave around 50% of the

income during 1919 - 1939 and that the commercial aviation needed a huge amount of

financial support. During that period due to lack of rules and regulations related to the

aviation industry, it was impossible to operate services across the International boundaries

legally. Later, a number of conventions as well as agreements were made.

The principle for freedom to fly over an airspace of a country was admitted in the Paris

International Air Convention in 1922. Then the Warsaw Convention became one of the most

important conventions conducted in 1929. This agreement was signed by 152 parties and it

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came into power in 1933. This included the rules related to documentation, International

carriage, limitations of liability of the carriers as well as rules which were governing

jurisdiction. Later in 1955, two conventions were combined into one i.e. the Warsaw

Convention. This convention lead to the base for setting a regulatory framework for the

aviation industry. Some of the nations such as Germany, China, US and the Soviet Union

formed the Pan - American convention based on the commercial aviation which was signed

by 22 countries in Havern during 1928 instead of joining the Warsaw Convention. The ACN

(air consignment note) was introduced which consisted of documents related to the whole

transport process and it was later simplified into the airway bill (AWB) which is used today

also. Even after introducing these regulatory framework, most of the airlines during that

period initially carried newspapers and mails but later, several airlines started the passenger

services. During the 1930s the world-wide air transport network was expanded and that one

of the greatest achievement in the air cargo transport system was the airmail service

between Germany and South America which was a trans - oceanic flight service which

started o 3rd February 1934. It was after the end of Second World War that the air

transport network was expanded globally. Initially during this period, the Dakota and DC-8s

were famous and later new types of aircrafts were developed with turbo - propellers,

combi-aircrafts and then came the jets.

The introduction of jet aircraft made a revolutionary change in the aviation industry. DC-8

and B-707s were the most popular ones during this period which were used to carry

shipments over very long distances. With a fleet of twenty one DC-8S and twenty three

B707s, the Pan-American airways was one of the leading airlines during that period. The jet

aircraft models such as the B707-320C and the DC-8F were a convertible aircrafts with

forward loading doors and re-in forced decks for carrying cargo. These aircrafts could be

converted into freighters as well as passenger carriers. There were also other combi

aircrafts which were able to carry both passengers as well as freight on the main deck of the

aircraft. The use of ULDs (Unit load devices) made it more easier and controllable loading. It

also helped to manage the available space on the aircraft. The quick change systems were

used so as to convert the aircraft into freighters and passenger carriers and it also helped to

carryout cargo services during night and passenger services during the day time. Later in

1969, B 747 series were introduced. The freighter version of the B 747 was also made with

B747-200 series and the first freighter version was delivered in March 1972 to Lufthansa.

The air freight market today, are led by several factors and one of the main factor is due to

the global economic recessions which led to decrease in goods made, shipped and

purchased. Another factor is the rise in fuel costs which led to the rise in transport costs and

due to this, the freighter operators are finding it difficult to survive with the difference in

price rates of new aircrafts which are more fuel efficient. Also that the aircrafts used by the

freight operators which are converted older aircrafts which are costly to operate and

maintain due to the issues such as noise and CO2 emissions. Even though there are these

kinds of problems, the air freight industry is working hard to find more cost-effective

methods of overcoming these difficulties and trying their best to keep surviving in the

aviation industry.

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1.2 Types of goods

There are basically four types of cargo goods. They are-

Emergency goods

Ultra-high value goods

Perishable goods

Routine, non-perishable goods

The emergency goods are the goods such as medicines, important documents, spare parts

and machinery parts etc. which have to be shipped immediately from one country to

another. These type of emergency goods have to be accommodated in an aircraft and

because of its unpredictable nature the airlines must leave a space for accommodating the

emergency goods. The ultra-high value goods are the goods which are highly expensive and

are having high values such as diamonds, jewellery, paintings, antiques etc. For this type of

goods, security is most important while shipping. Perishable goods such as newspapers,

fashion goods, sea foods etc. are the goods which have lots of demand in the air cargo

industry. Then there is the routine non-perishable goods such as the electrical/electronic

goods with high value. The airlines normally have more advantage when comparing the

shipping of high value non-perishable goods to long distances because of its ability to save

time.

1.3 Top 10 cargo airlines

1. FedEx Express

2. UPS airlines

3. DHL aviation

4. Emirates

5. Cathay Pacific Airlines

6. Korean Air Cargo

7. Lufthansa

8. Singapore Airlines Cargo

9. China Airlines

10. British Airways

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1.4 TOTAL CARGO TRAFFIC 0F 2013

Table 1: Total Air Cargo Traffic of 2013

SL NO Total cargo traffic 2013

Cargo (metric tonnes)

Loaded and unloaded

percentage

1 Hong Kong, HK (HKG) 4,161,718 2.3

2 MEMPHIS TN, US (MEM)

4,137,801 3.0

3 SHANGHAI, CN (PVG) 2,928,527 -0.3

4 INCHEON, KR (ICN) 2,464,384 0.3

5 DUBAI, AE (DXB) 2,434,567 6.8

6 ANCHORAGE AK, US (ANC)

2,421,145 -1.7

7 LOUISVILLE KY, US (SDF)

2,216,079 2.2

8 FRANKFURT, DE (FRA)

2,094,453 1.4

9 PARIS, FR (CDG) 2,069,200 -3.8

10 TOKYO, JP (NRT) 2,019,844 0.7 Source: http://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-

Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport-

The above table shows the total cargo traffic of 2013 in which Hong Kong airport is the

airport with the highest cargo traffic.

http://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport-

http://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport-

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1.5 WORLD ECONOMIC GROWTH

Figure 1: World Economic Growth 2014 -2016

Source: http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/cargo/wacf.pdf

According to the Boeing's world air cargo forecast it is said that the percentage of GDP

growth is expected to grow gradually until the 2017. The long term average is predicted to

be keeping the same pace. The GDP was less during the last recession and after that it has

slightly increased but in 2009, the percentage in the GDP growth again decreased.

1.6 WORLD AIR CARGO TRAFFIC

Figure 2: World Air Cargo Traffic Forecast by BOEING


http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/cargo/wacf.pdf


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It is said that the air cargo traffic would double by the next 20 years. The cargo traffic

growth from 2003 to 2013 is 2.6 %. And it is predicted to grow gradually from 2014 to 2033.

In the above figure, there are three scenarios predicted. The highest is expected to be a

cargo traffic growth of 5.5%. Then the medium or the base cargo traffic growth is expected

to be of 4.7% and the final is the lowest world cargo traffic growth which is expected to be

of 4.0%.

1.7 WORLD RTKs CARRIED ON FREIGHTERS

Figure 3: World RTKs Carried on Freighters


The world RTK (revenue tonne-kilometre) carried on freighters is shown in the above figure

in which after the recession, the world RTK has gradually increased and then it was above

60% from 2003 to 2008. In 2009 it decreased to around 57%. According to the Boeing

forecast, the world RTK carried on freighters are expected to be above 55% by 2033 which

will be even higher than that of what it had in 2000.


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1.8 GDP GROWTH RATES

Figure 4: Forecast Average Regional GDP Growth Rates


As per the Boeing Company's world air cargo forecast, it is said that the forecasted average

percentage change for 2013 to 2033 is the highest for China with 6.3% growth. The second

and the third are Africa and Asia with 4.6% growth each. Japan is the country with the least

growth with just 1.0%.


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2. LITRETURE REVIEW

2.1 TRENDS IN AIR CARGO DESIGN:

2.1.1 Classification of freighter aircraft

There are two main network systems in the air cargo. Freighter aircrafts can be basically

divided into two types. One aircraft is specifically designed for carrying just freight or cargo

known as the pure freighters. Another type of freighter aircraft is the Combination aircraft

which is used both to carry passengers as well as cargo. The combination aircrafts can be

further divided into groups based on their capacity and method of usage as both passenger

and cargo carrying aircraft. The all-cargo aircrafts are designed based on the passenger

aircrafts but they will not have windows and many other features of a passenger aircraft.

Even the payload capacity will be more for the freighter aircrafts than that of the passenger

aircrafts. Then there is the quick- change freighters which were more used in the early days

than now. The quick-change freighters are the aircrafts which is another version of

convertible aircrafts that can be changed to full cargo or full passenger aircraft within a

short period of time.

Table 2: Freighter Aircraft Types Used in the Earlier Days.

SL NO. Type Subtype Non Jet Jet

1 Pure freighters Argosy L500

2 Combination equipment

1. Converted Obsolete aircraft

Merchantman Early B707s

2. All freighter - B747F, DC8 AF

3. Convertible - B707-320 C, DC9 CF

4. Quick - change - B727 QC, DC9 RC

Source: Book- Air freight operations, economics and marketing by Peter Smith. 1974 edition

The aircrafts such as Argosy, Brequet and Hercules mentioned above have been withdrawn

from service.

2.1.2 PASSENGER AIRCRAFTS - LOWER DECK:

They are the passenger networks in which the cargo is carried in the lower deck of the

passenger aircraft which is known as the "Belly Cargo". This is usually done by utilising the

unused space in a passenger aircraft. The primary purpose of such aircraft is passenger

service, but along with that the cargo is also included. Boeing introduced their B747 in the

early 1970's with an assumption that it was meant to carry passengers for a short amount of

its operating life and then they started producing the freighters. The B747 has greater space

than its predecessor model the B707. The aircraft B707 was only able to carry less than 1

tonne of cargo in its lower deck. Wide-bodied passenger aircrafts normally can takes around

25 tonnes as payload. If the network is broad for that airlines and if they are having high

number of frequencies then the belly cargo will help them earn a good amount of revenue.

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But at the same time, the flight timing is scheduled for passenger convenience and some of

the destinations do not entertain cargo much whereas, most of the all-cargo carriers fly at

night. Not only this but also the belly cargo will not be able to accommodate large

shipments compared to the all-cargo carriers. Mostly these types of Belly cargo will be

carrying the emergency items and mails etc. The process of planning and booking of the

cargo onto the passenger flights are a bit difficult than that of booking cargo onto a freighter

because of the difficulty in the calculation of payload and volume availability, i.e., the

difference between the maximum fuel weight and the operating empty weight may be

minimised by that of the weight of the fuel needed for a particular sector during the process

of maximum payload determination and this will be done by taking into account the factors

like temperature, headwinds and other such factors excluding the weight of baggage s and

passengers from the airport that day but today we have more automated systems which

makes it more easier. Then only the remaining maximum payload will be allocated for cargo

and passengers. Another issue is that the variation in passenger loads may remain up to the

very last minute as there are last-minute bookings and passengers who missed flights.

Passenger weights, passenger seating densities, estimated checked baggage and lower deck

container size and load are some of the factors that result in difficulty of payload computing.

Table 3: Typical Payload, Volume and Density for Lower Deck Cargo

SL NO. Aircraft Type Payload with full passenger load (t)

Volume for cargo (cu.m)

Max density (kg/cu.m)

1 A320 1.0 3.6 227.8

2 B737-300 2.3 21.0 107.1

3 B737-400 2.9 24.0 120.7

4 B737-800 3.6 28.0 128.6

5 A330-200 14.1 61.8 228.2

6 A330-300 15.0 80.2 187.0

7 B767-300 16.5 63.0 261.9

8 B747-400 20.0 73.4 272.5

9 A380 20.0 68.0 294.1 Source: Book- Moving boxes by air by Peter S Morell 2011 edition.

2.1.3 QUICK CHANGE AIRCRAFTS:

The freight services are mostly carried out in the evening and during the night. The quick

change freight has an importance in such situations where there is less demand for

passenger operations. During the night it may be used as a freighter and vice-versa during

other time. It can be more effectively used in short- haul routes with more number of

frequencies. In these quick-change aircrafts, the passenger seats are placed on pallets.

During the conversion process, the passenger pallets are unlocked and are being pushed

away with help of rollers and are then moved to a storage unit. The quick-change aircrafts

are more commonly used in the military. It can be re-configured from:

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passenger to cargo and vice- versa

passenger to VIP and vice- versa

passenger or cargo to other emergency units ( medical/ ambulance type)

Air Canada, China post airlines, Europe Air post, Ups cargo are some of the airlines which

use the quick-change aircrafts. Now a day B737-300 QC is the aircraft used by the majority,

Also the B727QC, DC9QC were popular in the earlier days.

In this category itself it can be classified further in to 'Combi' and 'Converted Combi'. The

Combi is a multi- compartment aircraft that is being configured for carrying passengers and

freight together on the main deck whereas, converted combi aircrafts are the aircraft

models including combi models (converted or modified), rapid change, multiple-change and

even convertible freighters used exclusively for freight transport.

Table 4: The number of Combi, Converted Combi and Quick Change Aircraft

SL NO. Aircrafts Combi Converted

Combi

TOTAL

1 B737-200 38 9 47

2 B747-400 30 17 47

3 B747-200 0 41 41

4 B727-100 1 23 24

5 DC-9 0 21 21

6 B707-300 0 20 20

7 DC-10 0 16 16

8 B747-300 6 6 12

9 MD-11 0 7 7

10 B737-400 5 0 5

11 B727-200 0 1 1

12 A300 0 1 1

13 B737-700 1 0 1

TOTAL 81 162 243

Source: Book- Moving boxes by air by Peter S Morell 2011 edition.

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Also, the Lufthansa Technick AG have developed quick-change VIP kits for Airbus and Boeing

aircrafts which helps the operator to re-configure the aircraft from passenger to VIP in a

short period of time according to a press release published by the Lufthansa Technik AG

company.

Some of the advantages of the quick-change aircrafts are-

It has higher asset value

Flexibility in network

It can balance out demand in sectors

Some of the disadvantages of the quick-change aircrafts are-

Even though the quick-change aircrafts takes around 30-55 minutes for re-

configuring itself, it consumes more than an hour totally on ground at airports.

In some cases it may not be able maintain good flexibility in some routes because

whole aircraft is not a quick-change system.

If the airports authorities impose restrictions on night operations especially the jet

aircrafts, then this might seriously affect the quick-change aircrafts as the scheduling

changes and that they may face a situation where there will be a clash between the

passenger and freight demand on that route.

Figure 5: Different Equipment Installed in Convertible and Quick-Change Aircraft

Source: Book- Air freight operations, economics and marketing by Peter Smith 1974 edition.

The above figure shows the difference between the all freighter aircrafts, the convertible

and the quick change aircrafts in which the quick change aircrafts had to add freight floor

equipment otherwise people pallets for changing it for passenger operations.

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2.1.4 PURE FREIGHTERS/ ALL- CARGO CARRIERS AIRCRAFTS/ FREIGHTERS:

Another network system is for the all-cargo carriers or "Freighters" which are the aircrafts

that carry only cargo. The network of the freighters in which they are operated is less than

that of the passenger network depending on the demand of cargo in various parts of the

world but it has also developed much better and is growing over the years. Most of the

freighters are flown at the night and are being scheduled in accordance with the shippers

and also they have some restrictions in some airports due to the complaint of people living

near the airports. Freighter aircrafts are designed and produced in many different sizes and

configurations. An all-cargo aircraft deals only with the development in the freight market

whereas, the convertible aircrafts helps the operator to gain more revenue but at the same

time it was hard to maintain the aircraft as they are being roughly used both as passenger

and cargo carrying aircraft. The B747 has a powered handling system for providing main and

lower cargo hold service.

Table 5: Top 10 Most Popular Freighters

SL NO. AIRCRAFT TYPE TOTAL % UNCONVERTED

1 727-200 290 5

2 IL-76 288 100

3 747-400 259 75

4 MD-11 169 32

5 A300-600 157 71

6 B757-200 152 53

7 DC-8 147 60

8 B747-200 134 44

9 DC-10 125 11

10 DC-9 73 15

Total above 1794 51

Total Jet fleet 2541 48

Note: The above aircrafts are in operation or grounded.

Source: Book- Moving boxes by air by Peter S Morell 2011 edition.

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Table 6: The Operational Parameters for Pure Freighter Specifications

SL NO. PARAMETER SUBTYPE DETERMINANTS

1 Performance 1. Payload Economy of scale in Construction

Origin and destination of markets

Air freight distribution system standards

Volume of Traffic

Frequency

,

2. Range

3.Speed

2 Volume Freight density, Structural constraints

3 Noise Airport Constraints

4 Access 1.Maximum Piece size

Consignment Type

Interface with ground handling system

Designed Handling rates

2.Sill Height

3.Position of Door

5 Handling system installed

Turnround requirements

Available Ground facilities at Airports served

source: Book- Air freight operations, economics and marketing by Peter Smith. 1974 edition.

The above table shows the various operational parameters for the pure freighters such as

performance, volume, noise, access and handling systems installed on these aircrafts. In this

the noise of the aircraft is related with airport environmental issues. The parameter such as

the volume deals is affected by the structural constraints of an aircraft.

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2.1.5 FREIGHTERS : Converted from passenger aircrafts

The aircrafts which are retired from passenger services are being converted into frieghter

aircrafts. After the retirement from passenger service for 18- 20 years then the aircrafts will

be converted into freighter and are then put into freighter service for another 15- 20 years.

Every passenger aircrafts do not have the qualities for converting it into a freighter aircraft

when taking into consideration the cargo door compatibility, cross-sections, cain heights

etc. The conversion process might take around 5-6 months in which the removal of cabin

fixtures, window blinds, seats, and other unnecessary passenger-oriented features will be

removed and alternation in the floor structures are caried out. Cargo doors and strong new

floor structues will be fitted with ball mats and roller tracks which helps for cargo loading

and unloading process.Window will also be removed and was replaced of that metal

covering to reduce fire risk and it also helps to prevent cargo from severe sunlight. Some of

the main factors that have to be taken into account during the conversion of a passenger

aircraft to a freighter aircraft are -

Passenger aircraft price

Price for conversion

Technical features such as payload/range characteristics of conversion

Prices for fuel

Mostly in these cases, the overall cost will be an important factor that have to be takencare

of very carefully because as the age of the aircraft is more, the wear and tear will also be

more. So as to convert it into a good freighter they may have to invest a big amount of

money but still the overall capital cost are relatively low.

For example Boeing commercial aviation services carryout passenger to freight

conversionsfor Douglas and Boeing aircraft models. From 34 tons (17tonnes) 757-200 to a

124ton (113tonnes)747-400 and anything in between them. Boeing also does conversions

for MD-80 through propietary data license. Another example is the Airbus (EADS-EFW)A310-

200, A300-600,A320. From EADS-EFW the A310-200F was the only converted aircraft

available and FedEx was the first company to introduce this in 1994. Not only that but also,

the launch customer for the Airbus/EADS Company converted A310-300F was FedEx.

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Table 7: Aircraft in Production, Development and Out of Production for the Boeing

SL NO. IN PRODUCTION IN DEVELOPMENT (Boeing Converted Freighter)

OUT OF PRODUCTION

1 B737 Freighter (737-700C)

B747-400 BCF B707-320C Freighter

2 B747-8 Freighter B767-300BCF B727-100/200 Freighter

3 B767 Freighter (767-300)

MD-11BCF B737-200/-300 F

4 B777 Freighters - B747-200F/-200SF/-100SF

5 - - B757-200F

6 - - DC-8F

7 - - DC-9F

8 - - DC-10F

9 - - MD-11F source: http://www.boeing.com/boeing/commercial/startup/freighters.page?

Not only companies like Boeing and Airbus are authorised to do conversions but also other

companies like -

AEI B737-200/300/400

ALCOA-SIEB757-200

IAI-Bedek B747-400, B767-200,B737-300

Pemco (US)- B737-300/400

Precisions Conversions (US) - B757-200

Singapore Technologies- B757-200, MD-11

TAECO (China)- MD80/90, B747-400

Sometimes aicraft manufacturers (OEM-original equipment manufacturers) themselves

provide conversions for their passenger aircrafts. There are also other non-OEM specialist

companies that carryout conversionsbut, they have to get the Supplimentary Type

Certificate (STC) from aeronautical authorities. A total number of 90 B727-200Fs were

operated by FedEx and they have given the contract to Singapore Technologies Aerospace

to convert 87 of the them to freighters. Generally speaking, the conversions are cheaper

when it is done by Non - OEM companies but at the same time it is risky when it deals with

product support and there is also apossibility of the STC holder to go bankrupt. Some

conversion specialists like GATX Airlog (B747-100/200), Hayes (B727), Rosenbaum (DC8)etc

have faced such situations where they had to go bankrupt.

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Figure 6: Boeing Current Market Outlook On Conversions 2013

(Source : Boeing_Current_Market_Outlook_2014.pdf)

In the above figure it is given that out of 15,700 Boeing aircrafts removed 14,370aircrafts

are permenantly retired from service. Out of these 1,330 aircrafts are converted to

freighters and 840 new aircrafts are added to freighter fleet while 1,130 freighters are

removed and permenantly retired from from service making it a total number of 2730

freighter fleets in the 2033.

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2.1.6 SHORT - /MEDIUM- HAUL AND LONG-HAUL AIRCRAFTS:

The aircraft B727 and its variants were meant for short haul services. The conversion started

in the early 1980's with the B727-100 and then the B727-200 UNTIL EARLY 2000'S. Normaly

the age of the aircraft that was to be converted was from the range 15-19 years for the

B727-100 series and 20-above 22years for the B727-200 series.The B727-100 was also

converted to 'combi' aircraft as well as a quick-change aircraft which could be reconfigured

as passenger as well as freighter carrier. These aircrafts were used in short haul services.

Later the B737-300 was also converted. Not only the short haul aircrafts, but also the Long

haul aircrafts have been converted to freighters. For example, the aircrafts such as B747-400

and also MD-11s were converted.

Table 8: Wide - Bodied Aircraft Conversions to freighters, 2004-2008

SL NO. AIRCRAFT INDICATIVE PAYLOAD (t)

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 TOTAL 2004 -2008

1 A300 39 2 3 8 13 8 34

2 A310 29 5 9 6 5 5 30

3 DC-10 65 2 5 4 1 12

4 B767-300 38 4 13 7 8 8 40

5 MD-11 58 10 19 17 12 9 67

6 B747-200 112 2 2

7 B747-400 124 1 11 26 17 55 Source: Freighter Operations Guide, 2009

Book- Moving boxes by air by Peter S Morell 2011 edition.

The above table shows the conversions made for the wide-bodied aircrafts to freighter

aircrafts from the year 2004 to 2008 where a total of 67 MD 11 aircrafts were converted

into freighter aircrafts which is the highest compared to the others.

2.2 UNIT LOAD DEVICES:

Unit load devices (ULD) are the types of containers and pallets which are used in packing

freight as well as for mail and are carried on all types of aircrafts. The pallets are platforms

of standard dimensions on which goods are assembled and secured by using pallet nets and

straps before being loaded as unit onto a plane. It has a flat under surface to interface with

ball, roller or caser surfaces. The containers are the box-like devices in which a number of

packages are stored, protected and being handled as a single unit and the technique of

packing the products inside these containers are known as containerisation. They help the

airlines in maximising their capacity usage as well as to save time during the process of

loading and unloading. They are made of aluminium and various other composite materials

so as to make reduce the weight as much as possible. The expected life span of such a

container is ranging from 10-15 years if they are handled carefully. In order to maximise the

space and outcome, they are packed tightly as possible by well trained and skilled handlers.

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Before loading onto an aircraft, the pallets will be covered with nets and plastic sheets. Then

on arrival at the destination, the unloading is carried out by the handlers at that airport. The

process of unloading cargo is generally termed as "Break-Bulk" by the industry. There are 6

basic types of containers used. They are -

LD1 (covers half the width of the aircraft), with a capacity of 4.59 cubic metres.

LD2 (half-width), 3.4 cubic metres.

LD3 (half- width), 4.5cubic metres.

LD6 (covers the full width of the aircraft), 8.9cubic metres.

LD8 (full-width), 6.88 cubic metres.

LD11 (full- width, rectangular), 7.16cubic metres

Out of the above mentioned types of containers, the LD3, LD6 and LD11 are designed for

aircrafts like MD-11, B777, B747, B 787, IL-86, IL-96 and L-1011 , also for the Airbus wide

body aircrafts.

The aircrafts like MD11, B747F, AN- 124 etc are the frequently used aircrafts to transport

outsized items such as helicopters, vehicles, locomotives, bridge sections etc. Such type of

items are loaded by using cranes, ramps and even by hand depending on the load and the

type of aircraft and are then tied to the main floors with the help of special heavy duty ties.

Depending on the types of products it is carrying, there are some codes used to identify

them.

They are-

A - Certified aircraft container

D - Non-certified container

P - Certified aircraft pallet

R - Thermal certified aircraft container

H - Horse stall

K - Cattle stall

V - Automobile transport equipment

2.3 I.T. SYSTEMS AND GROUND HANDLING

Ground handling otherwise the shed handling process is the process in which the cargo is

taken or moved from the shipper to the warehouse. The handler has to make the cargo

ready for the shipment by arranging it either on pallets or onto containers (ULDs). After this,

they will be handed over to the ramp handlers and before that the customs clearance and

all the other such necessary documentations should be obtained. In case of the inbound

cargo, the process mentioned above will be conducted in the reverse order i.e., the cargo

will be handled and will be made ready for the consignee. For maintaining a good

relationship between the airlines and the company, it is important to maintain high level of

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standards and for that, staffs should be trained properly and it should be continuously given

so as to meet the demands.

KPIs- is the key performance indicators which are used for monitoring the level of service

standard quality. These types of quality check programs are performed in some airports.

The duty of the ramp handler is to take the cargo from the ground handler and to load it

into the aircraft and in the case of inbound cargo, he/she should deliver the cargo to the

ground handler. According to the survey and research done by IATA, each air cargo

shipment carried, had at least 30 paper documents for it while it makes its way from the

shipper to the consigner, forwarder, handlers, terminal operators, airlines, ramp handlers as

well as the customs authorities. From the research and survey made by the IATA, they found

that annually, 7800 tonnes of documents were generated in the air cargo industry which is

surprisingly equal to the carrying capacity of 80 B 747 freighters. IATA managed to bring a

change for this system by developing systems such as Cargo 2000 (C2K) and e- freight which

is now a universal business tool used by several companies, making the task easier than it

was before.

E-AWBs (Electronic air waybills) are used nowadays by which the details and updates of the

special cargo carried such as the express shipments as well as the dangerous goods are

being recorded. According to the security procedures, the data of the cargo that is shipped

should be sent to the concerned authorities in the country as well as the customs

authorities in the destination and also the airlines. ICS (Import control system) is another

system developed by the customs department in Europe. The airlines are supposed to

submit ICS data to the customs. ICS deals with the House air waybills (HAWBs) whereas the

Export control systems (ECS) deals with the MAWBs (Master air waybills). The older system

of doing most of these manually through taking care of loads of documents were heavily

decreased with the help of these new systems and thus the work load is decreased and are

made more easier.

2.3.1 IATA e-freight:

IATA has developed the IATA e- freight system to make the process easier, accurate and

more reliable through developing electronic messaging system instead of dealing with

documentation and reduced paper works.

Benefits of e-freight include:

Time management - With the help of e- freight transit times for the supply chain

were made faster. The shipment document can be send even before the cargo

reducing the time of end to end transport cycle by an average 24hrs

More Accuracy - One- time electronic data entry at the origin helps to reduce the

amount of delays of shipments due to problems like inconsistent data entry and

other such documentation errors. There is a great way of keeping the important

documents in the system which helps to reduce the risk of misplacing documents.

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Regulatory compliance - All the International and local regulations relating to the

customs, civil aviation as well as other regulatory authorities are met by e-freight in

relation with the provision of electronic documents.

2.3.2 Cargo 2000 (C2K):

C2K has been developed for setting the quality standards for the air cargo supply chain so as

to improve the efficiency of this industry. The aim of C2K is to improve the customer service

and reduce costs for the participants by introducing a programme of agreed business and

automation standards which are able to be measured and to promote the quality of

performance. C2K developed its Master operating plan based on the customer research in

detail and it is also assisted by leading IT and Software companies. The number of processes

done individually in the air cargo supply chain were reduced from 40 to 19. Thus C2K is less

labour intensive and as a result of that it helps to reduce the amount of paper works needed

for the shipment. It also reduces the time required for irregularity checks such as the service

failures, manual track and trace procedures thus leading to a low service recovery cost.

There are 3 phases in which the C2K's quality management system are being implemented.

They are -

Phase 1- It helps to manage the airport to airport movements, shipment tracking and

planning at the MAWB level. A plan will be automatically formed along with a

number of checkpoints by which each and every cargo shipments transported will be

measured as well as managed as soon as a booking is made.

Phase2 - The door to door movement will be monitored and in this phase at HAWB

level, the shipment planning and tracking is done.

Phase 3 - At this phase the shipment planning and tracking is managed at the

individual price level as well as tracking of documents. It helps to provide real time

management of the transportation channel for each pieces. It also helps to control

the information flow. The most important is the controlling of information in phase

3, because there will be limited need for paper or other such documentations so as

to bare the minimum level required by the law.

2.4 Factors that affect the air cargo aircraft operation:

After the recession, the International air trade is slightly ascending till now. The cost of

shipping by air along with the change in the final price of goods and the nature of the

International trade also changed. There are many factors that affect the air cargo industry as

well as some factors that have to be taken into account for improving the performance of

the air cargo supply chain. The aircraft type has an important role in the whole air freight

distribution system. The cargo aircraft should be designed in such a way that freight

processing can be done more easily and within a short period of time on the ground. Not

only that but also the technical performance of the aircraft should also be good. The

modern freight aircrafts are expensive to buy and operate. Even though the new aircrafts

are expensive, t will be having lots of new features and new technologies which will help to

improve the efficiency. Comparing to the other surface transport modes, the aircraft has

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various other factors that have to be included such as the momentum, lift, drag, payload

capacity etc. Greater amount of power is required to move an aircraft because the

resistance or otherwise drag of an aircraft relative to its weight will be high. So as to move

this heavy vehicle carrying cargo, more fuel is consumed. While designing an aircraft, the

manufacturers have to be careful while dealing with the weight of the aircraft as well as fuel

efficiency. To reduce the weight of the aircraft, lightweight aluminium alloys are used. The

cargo aircrafts normally carry big amount of payloads so, the wing area will be also large

enough to give lift, resulting in cruising economy. Normally an aircraft moving in three

dimensions at high speed at high altitudes needs pressurisation equipment as well as other

sophisticated systems for controlling and guiding the aircraft. The cost of an aircraft can be

dependent upon the fundamental parameters of an aircraft like, the range, speed and

payload capacity. These parameters are all interconnected, thus the analysis will be done

base on this relationships other than looking at them individually. Technology is another

factor which helps to improve the performance of an aircraft and it is also being developed

and improved day by day by the manufacturers and designers. Not only the technology but

also, there are other certain external factors to be considered such as, the length and the

altitude of the runways as well as the air temperature. Because of the reduced density of

the air, fuel consumption will be more if the runway length is long. At the same time, if the

runway length is short there will be a reduction in the payload or in the range so as to make

a quick take-off. At higher temperature, less thrust is produced per kilogram by the fuel thus

resulting in the reduction of payloads carried which tend to provide revenue.

Figure 7: Runway Length-Range Graph


The above figure shows the linear relationship between payload and range. If the payload is

reduced, then the aircraft will be able to carry more fuel thus extending the range that can

32

be flown. It is based on the disposable load of the aircraft i.e., the residual waste that is left

after the subtraction of the empty operating weight from the maximum take-off weight is

known as the disposable weight. The volume of the cargo hold as well as the structural

limitations of the fuselage are the two factors that limit the maximum payload. So it would

not be possible to increase the revenue payload as the fuel requirements are reduced are

being reduced on the short sectors. The range depends on the fuel carried by the aircraft

and that the capacity of an aircraft's fuel tank will be of a fixed amount. The fuel consumed

by the aircraft will be more if the payload carried on that aircraft is also more thus resulting

in reducing the range of that aircraft. The freighter aircrafts are made more productive with

higher payloads which in turn gives lower direct operating costs per capacity tonne

kilometre.

2.4.1 DENSITY:

The maximum weight limit for an aircraft is given set by the balance and structural strength

of that aircraft. The ratio between the maximum structural payloads to that of the available

volume gives the density which should be achieved or else exceeded if that aircraft is to be

operated with a full weight of freight on-board. This is known as the aircraft's design

density. There are two types of density for the traffic that are the unladen and the laden

densities. When it is in the form of individual consignments, the traffic has unladen density

and when it is been prepared for carriage then, it has laden density. If the laden density is

less than that of the design density then, even before the weight limits of that aircraft will

be reached, the aircraft will become full and also unused volume will be there if the traffic

density is high.

Figure 8: Runway Payload-Freight Density Graph


33

The above graph shows the payload and freight density of an aircraft with respect to the

design density. After making allowance for the unusable space, the design density should be

related with the laden traffic density. Pricing would be done based on the volume and

weight.

2.4.2 BLOCK TIME AND RANGE:

Block time is the time taken to cover a particular sector. The block time will increase,

therefore less than proportionately with that of the increase in the range. The time taken

for take-off and the time taken for climbing to the optimum cruising altitude also, to

descend and land is fixed. The block time can be formulated as -

Block time, B= R/S+K

Where, B-Block time in hours

R- Range in Km

S- Maximum cruising speed in km/hour

K- Constant in hours giving the fixed time required to climb to and descend from cruising

altitude.

Figure 9: Block Speed-Range Graph


Block time has a significant role and is important because of its impact on the aircraft

productivity as well as direct operating costs per unit of output. Assuming that the payload

is unaffected, the productivity of the aircraft should improve as the block speed also

increase along with the range. Irrespective to the payloads and cruising speeds, the aircrafts

that are operating on long sectors are capable of producing more outputs per time period

than that of the aircrafts operated on short sectors due to the higher block speed. So, this is

34

an important factor that should be considered while dealing in the case of a short-range

aircraft's higher operating costs.

2.4.3 AIRCRAFT PRODUCTIVITY:

The direct operating costs can be set based on the annual productivity of an aircraft which is

calculated by multiplying the annual utilisation of the aircraft in hours and the aircraft

productivity in CTK (Capacity Tonne Kilometres or Capacity Tonne Miles). The productivity

output can be measured by comparing the payload and speed. The output in CTK per flying

hour can be achieved by multiplying the payload and block speed for any range. The

aircrafts with different speeds and payloads and speeds can be compared in this way.

Figure 10: Capacity Tonne Kilometres-Range Graph


In the above graph the maximum productivity is achieved along with high capacity tonne

kilometres per hour and then it starts to decline. The productivity of an aircraft per hour will

increase with higher range because of the initial stability of payload with increasing average

speed.

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2.4.4 AIRCRAFT UTILISATION:

Aircraft utilisation is another import factor of the aircraft economics. A great amount of

time is required to maintain the aircraft as well as to load and prepare the aircraft between

each and every services. Unoccupied or available time is the amount of residual time that is

available after the activities such as loading, unloading etc. Utilisation is affected by the

length of the turnaround times as well as that of the frequency.

2.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE FLYING TIME

The flying time normally depends on the factors such as the length of the sectors, amount of

traffic, speed and performance of an aircraft. The carrier will operate smaller fleets so as to

lower the unit costs and to maintain high utilisation per aircraft. Another factor that affect

the flying time is the number of frequency of service. Load factors will rise i there is lower

frequency, but at a point at which there is rise in the unit costs, then this lower frequency

may reduce utilisation.

2.5.1 Factor affecting turnaround time

Turnaround time can be defined as the length of the time between the end of one flight for

loading and unloading, refuelling as well as the maintenance done for the aircraft. The

turnaround frequencies depends on the length of the sectors in which the aircraft is being

operated i.e. the incidence of turnarounds per flying hour will be lower when the sector

length is long. The turnaround time depends upon two main factors such as -

Replenishing and checking of the aircraft

Removal and replacement of payloads.

The ground handling and ground support systems also have an important role in reducing

the turnaround time of the aircraft. Another threat to increased turnaround time is due to

any delays that occur for example if the aircrafts that stand on apron are full and

unscheduled maintenance works etc.

2.5.2 Factors affecting the maintenance time

The maintenance time of an aircraft depends on the factors like the availability of aircraft

components, maintenance policies adopted by carriers as well as regulations. If an airline is

having a very small number of fleets then, they will have to be more careful while

scheduling because, if any of the aircrafts are under maintenance then, there will be slight

reduction in the income even if they try to make up with putting other aircrafts on extra

services. A larger fleet size creates economy of scale in the maintenance methods, through

preventive maintenance, re-usage and rotation of the aircraft components. The

maintenance time taken per aircraft decreases with the size of the fleets. Major

maintenance will have to be done in the periods where there is little demand. The airlines

will be keen on keeping the aircrafts airworthy as much as possible so as to avoid regulatory

issues.

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2.6 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE MODAL CHOICE

Today the air freight industry is developing faster along with technology. The air cargo helps

to save a lot of time while shipping a product. For example, machine part, flowers and other

such items that are to be sent immediately to distant places, are being sent by air cargo. But

at the same time there are several factors that have to be taken into account while dealing

with the air cargo. They are -

Delivery time

Cost/Price

Frequency

Reliability

Physical limitations

Quality of service

Security

2.6.1 Delivery time

The delivery time from the shipper's point of view is the time taken for collecting the

product from the factory and o deliver it to the corresponding consignee or distributor in

the country of destination. The air cargo has greater advantage when it deals with delivery

time when compared with the other modes of surfaces transports. But delays and late

pickups as well as customs clearance etc. at the destination airport would sometime

diminish this advantage. It is more advantageous in the longer routes rather than on the

shorter routes as there is less chance for influencing the delivery time of door to door

delivery services in the shorter routes.

2.6.2 Cost/Price

The cost of shipping by air includes the rate charged to the shipper along with other

associated charges for the documentation, demurrage clearance, handling, collecting and

delivery etc. The air freight rate depends upon the shipment size, density, type of

commodity, place to be sent etc. Usually the airliners will get low rates from the forwarders.

The cost of fuel also affect the total price for shipping a product by air.

2.6.3 Frequency

For emergency shipments, frequency of service as well as the length of the routes is an

advantage. But when comparing passenger services with cargo services, the passenger

services has more advantages. But at the same time when comparing air cargo with other

modes of transports such as shipping by ocean and also by trucks then, the air cargo has

more advantages in the case of number of frequencies in service which helps to reduce the

shipment time with daily services but, there will be a limit in the amount of cargo carried by

air than that of the other modes of shipping. With good frequency, the Just in time (JIT)

system helps to maintain the reputation of the air cargo industry with respect to the length

37

of the routes. Frequency has similar effects as that of the delivery time. The manufacturing

companies and other such factory units can utilise more if there is good frequency for the

air cargo because, they can send their products as well as plan according to that particular

pattern of services. But in some cases, the products will be delivered only after the factory is

shut. So even with transit time advantages in some occasions, unsuitable timings and delays

may become a problem.

2.6.4 Reliability

Reliability is the consistency required for achieving planned distribution of a product. It

helps to simplify the shippers planning and helps to attain lower inventory costs. If there is

less reliability, then there is a chance for the shipper to change the mode of transportation

itself. Consistency is one of the main factors that affects the mode of transport.

2.6.5 Physical limitations

The freighter aircrafts have a limit on the cargo to be carried especially, the size and weight

of the goods. Comparing to the other modes of transport especially by sea, road, and rail.

The nose or tail loading equipment’s as well as the upgrades in technology helps to reduce

the constraints but still the amount of goods that can be carried on board is less for

freighter compared to other modes of transport.

2.6.6 Quality of services

It is the factor that covers all the above mentioned factors. It is the level of standard service

provided by the airline. The airlines should be keen on maintaining high levels of quality

services so as to maintain a good relation with its customers. It shows the status of an

airline. It includes services like booking services, enquiries, call centres etc. Delay in

shipments and goods getting damaged will lead to diminish the level of quality of service

thus it has adverse effect on the reputation of that airline company. The introduction of

cargo 2000 (C2K) has helped to improve service and also to smoothen the documentation

works for the shipments. "Track and trace" system also helps the customers to locate their

goods which have been shipped.

2.6.7 Security of product

The security of the product is an important factor that have to be taken into account i the

air cargo distribution system. The protective packing and handling of these should be done

carefully. Theft, damage while handling, damage from environmental conditions, pilferage

etc. are some of the main types of factors that affect the security of the product. The system

of containerisation helps to reduce the amount of theft and damage of the products. But

comparing to the other modes of transportation, the air freight is more secure. One of the

reason is the shorter period of transit time and also that only a few people are authorised to

take care of the cargo. In many cases the air cargo shipment is being stolen either on its way

from or to the airport. Usually the valuable goods will be packed and placed at the centre of

the containers in freighters. The key issues regarding air cargo theft are

lack of effective cargo theft reporting system

38

need to upgrade the crime laws and prosecution

The nature and importance of cargo crime is not clearly understood by neither the

government nor the air cargo industry.

2.7 ALL CARGO AIRLINE COSTS

There are basically two types of costs of operation. They are -

Direct operating costs

Indirect operating costs

2.7.1 Direct operating costs

The direct operating costs can be classified into

Flight operations which includes the flight crew salary and expenses, fuel and oil

costs, equipment rental costs, hull insurance, third party insurance, miscellaneous

items.

Direct maintenance which includes cost of direct maintenance labour, maintenance

materials, contract maintenance

Depreciation which includes costs of flight equipment such as airframes, engines

equipment and spare parts

The insurance of aircraft is included in fixed cost of operation. Fuel and oil costs are included

in the direct operating costs. Comparing to the passenger airlines, the freighters have less

number of crew. Maintenance of the aircraft is required at certain intervals of time that too,

irrespective how long the aircraft has been flown as well as number of take-off and landings

made by it. The components of an aircraft has a life expectancy expressed in flying hours.

These kind of costs can also be related directly with the output produced.

Factors affecting direct operating costs

1. Factor input costs -

Equipment including spaces like airframe, engines, ancillary equipments

Labour (flight and maintenance)

Fuel and oil

Insurance

Interest

2. Design characteristics of aircraft -

Payload

Range

Speed

Crew size

Fuel and oil consumption

39

Maintenance need

Turnaround performance

3. Route structure and pattern of traffic

4. Managerial efficiency -

Scheduling

Maintenance efficiency

Labour control

Airline size

5. Management ad government policy -

Depreciation

Maintenance

Regulations

2.7.2 Indirect operating costs

The indirect operating costs are the costs which are generated from the traffic and sales,

advertising etc. These costs are considered to be independent.

Indirect operating costs include -

Indirect maintenance

Ground equipment

Passenger and cargo service

Traffic and sales

Advertising and public relations

Administrative and general

The indirect operating costs cannot be directly linked to the aircraft operations. For

example, so as to reduce the labour costs by adding machines as there is a rise i the labour

costs, then also the labour becomes a fixed cost because a minimum number of manpower

is required to keep the machine systems running.

2.7.3 Fuel costs

The fuel cost have become an important factor of an airline's profitability. They also have

impact on the environmental issues related with an aircrafts like CO2 emission level. The fuel

and its other costs can be split into two main components such as fuel price and fuel

efficiency. The fuel price varies every time and for the airlines, it is the jet kerosene which is

bought and used in the aircrafts. The cost of delivery of fuel from airport o the aircrafts as

well as the cost of transport from the refinery are also included in fuel price. Some airports

even charge for the access to the ramps. Hedging is not always going to be successful as

there can be unpredicted change in the fuel costs. The fuel efficiency can be increased

40

through improved and good operational manoeuvres like maintaining lower cruising speed.

Improved and upgraded fuel efficient aircraft engines will also help to reduce the fuel costs.

Figure 11: Jet Fuel and Crude Oil Price

The above figure shows the fluctuations in the jet kerosene and crude oil price from the

year 2008 to 2014. The fuel price for both the jet kerosene and the Brent crude oil

decreased in 2009 but, it gradually increased afterwards and from 2011 the price for both of

these were in between $120 to $140b. But during the period between 2012 and 2013 there

was a small decrease in the prices of these to almost near $80b but, again gradually

increased after that. But the price of jet kerosene is predicted to be decreasing from 2014 to

$110b. The price of jet kerosene is always been higher than that of the Brent crude oil.

41

3. METHODOLOGY

This dissertation focuses mainly on the trends in aircraft designs and its impact on cargo-

oriented aircrafts.

This study uses secondary data for its analysis. This study also looks into the factors that

affect the air cargo overall performance. The technical data and specifications for various

cargo aircraft will be compiled and compared, providing an analysis of the different

characteristics of each individual plane.

This work views into the different types of cargo-aircrafts used in the past as well as present

especially, the aircrafts like MD-11, DC-8, and B-707 and A-300 series. A comparison will be

done based on their technical specifications and design. Not only that but also, it will look

into the future designs and innovations as well as the ground handling, IT and other

technologies used in cargo industry.

The analysis has been divided into 5 chapters which consists of separate chapters for each

aircrafts like the B707, DC 8, MD 11, A300 and a separate chapter about future freighters.

While comparing the aircrafts, four main characteristics like the general characteristics of

the aircrafts, the payload-range capability for each aircrafts, interior arrangement of cargo

and the turnaround time for each aircrafts are discussed.

The aircrafts compared mainly in this thesis are:

Narrow bodied aircrafts such as B707 freighters and DC 8 freighter

Wide-bodied aircrafts such as MD 11 freighters and A300 freighter series.

The analysis of each aircraft includes the general characteristics which consists of:

Maximum ramp weight

Maximum taxi weight (MTW)

Maximum take-off weight (MTOW)

Maximum landing weight (MLW)

Maximum structural payload

Maximum seating capacity

Operating empty weight (OEW)

Maximum cargo volume capacity

Usable fuel capacity

Maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW)

The maximum take-off weight (MTOW) is the maximum amount of weight that can be

handled by an aircraft with respect to its structural strength and also according to the

requirements of airworthiness.

The maximum taxi weight (MTW) is the maximum amount of weight that can be taken by

an aircraft during taxiing with respect to the structural strength of that aircraft and also

according to the requirements of airworthiness.

42

The maximum landing (MLW) weight of an aircraft is the maximum weight limit that can be

handled by an aircraft for landing with respect to the structural strength of that aircraft and

also according to the requirements of airworthiness.

The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) can be defined as the maximum limit of operational

weight of an aircraft without considering the usable fuel carried on it.

The operational empty weight (OEW) is defined as the basic weight of an aircraft including

the weight of the crew, all unusable fuel and other propulsion agents, the weight of the

systems and equipment so as to operate an aircraft excluding the usable fuel and the

payload.

The maximum structural payload will achieved by subtracting the operational empty weight

(OEW) from the maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW).

The maximum seating capacity is the maximum number of passengers that an aircraft can

accommodate in it with respect to the certifications and regulations.

The maximum cargo volume capacity of an aircraft is the maximum available volume on an

aircraft for cargo.

The usable fuel is the amount of fuel that is available for propulsion of an aircraft..

All the above mentioned characteristics of each aircrafts are compared and studied in order

to understand the differences in technical specifications of each aircrafts. This will help the

researcher to handle the other challenges in this thesis, which are:

Payload-range capability of each aircraft models

Interior cargo arrangements and configurations

Turnaround time for each freighter aircraft

Firstly, the payload-range for each aircraft models are analysed and a comparative

discussion is carried out in order to find the difference in the range for each aircraft with full

payload. The range of an aircraft is the total distance an aircraft is able to fly between take-

off and landing with the fuel carried by it in which the distance covered by the aircraft will

be shown in the terms of nautical miles or kilometres. The payload capacity is the load

carrying capacity of an aircraft in which the load may be passengers, cargo or other

equipment etc. It is denoted in unit of weight. This part of the research is based on finding

the maximum range an aircraft could achieve with full payload using the maximum fuel each

aircraft could consume. The payload-range comparison also considers the maximum take-

off weight and maximum zero fuel weight of the aircraft.

Secondly, the different types of aircraft interior cargo arrangements and configurations are

compared between each aircraft that is chosen for this thesis. This is done in terms of the

maximum number of cargo containers and pallets that could be accommodated in each

aircraft model.

43

Thirdly, the maximum turnaround time for each aircrafts is also compared with the specified

aircrafts. This thesis in respect to overall turnaround time, gives more importance to the re-

fuelling time, cargo loading and unloading operations.

These characteristics will then be examined, the key aspects that enable them to be

successful cargo carriers and those factors which have been critical to an aircraft's

unsuccessful utilisation as a cargo carrier will be identified. There is also an examination of

future design trends like the airships, ground effect aircrafts and the design of improved

aircrafts based on existing aircraft designs highlighting those features which have greater

scope for developing the air cargo industry in the future.

44

4. ANALYSIS

4.1 ANALYSIS OF B707

The design of Boeing 707 family of aircrafts were actually derived from the 707 prototype

(Boeing made model 367-80). B 707 was also developed from the Boeing model 367-80 and

all the other models of the B707 were derived basically from the B707-100 series. The other

models which were derived from the B707-100 series also maintained the same body

section as that of B707-100.

The B707 family were mainly of four categories. They are:

707-100 series

707-200 series

707-300 series

707-400 series

Out of these the -100 and the -200 series were mainly used in the domestic routes whereas,

most of the -300 and -400 series were used for inter-continental services. The B707-200 was

light and was able to carry less payload than that of the -100 series. It also had a different

engine and a different gross weight than that of the -100 series. B707-300 series were

mostly used for inter-continental services as mentioned before and because of that these

aircrafts had longer body, higher gross weight as well as greater wing-span with high-lift

trailing edge flaps.

The B707-300 series of airplanes have basically 3 types which are the B707-320, -320B and

the -320C. The B707-320, -320B are passenger airplanes and B707-320C was a

passenger/cargo convertible version and also had an all freighter version of it. Given below

is the total order and delivery summary of the model B707 published by the Boeing

company.

Table 9: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for B 707 Aircraft

707 model summary

Through Feb 2015

Model Series Orders Deliveries Unfilled

707-120 56 56 -

707-320B 174 174 -

707-E3A 61 61 -

707-138 7 7 -

45

707-E3D 7 7 -

707-E6A 17 17 -

707-KE3 8 8 -

720-000 65 65 -

707-120B 72 72 -

707-220 5 5 -

707-420 37 37 -

707-138B 6 6

707-320C 337 337 -

720-000B 89 89 -

707-320 69 69 -

Total 1010 1010

Source: http://www.boeing.com/commercial/

From the above table we can understand that a total of 1010 B707 aircrafts were delivered.

Out of all, with a total of three hundred and thirty seven deliveries, the model B707-320C is

the highest. The second highest is the model B707-320B with a total of 174 deliveries. At the

same time, only 69 deliveries were made for the B707-320. The passenger/cargo convertible

model was more popular in the B707 family because of its great ability by which the airlines

was able to make a good revenue from both the passenger as well as the cargo. The B707s

are still used by the Spanish Air force, Colombian Air force etc., but not for passenger service

today. Some of the airlines which used the B707 were the Pan Am, Trans World Airlines,

Continental Airlines, British Airways etc. Other than models in the B707 family, B707-320

and -320C were the most popular ones not only because of their ability to gain more

revenue but also due to their performance characteristics.

http://www.boeing.com/commercial/

46

Table 10: Engine Type used by the B707 Family Aircraft

Model Engine Type Vertical Tail height Maximum ramp weight

(Metres) Kilogram

707-120B JT3D 12.7 117,100

707-220 JT4A 12.7 112,400

720** JT3C 12.62 104,400

720-B** JT3D 12.55 106,700

707-320 JT4A 12.85 143,500

707-420 R.CO-12 12.85 143,500

707-320B JT3D 12.83 148,900/152,500

707-320C JT3D 12.80 152,500

Source: http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/707.pdf

Height is that the height above ground at OEW.

Here the 720 and 720B are also shown because they are the derivatives of the 707-

100 series.

From the above table we can understand that most of the B707 models used the Pratt &

Whitney turbo-jet and turbo-fan engines. Another engine used in the B707-420 is the Rolls-

Royce Conway engine which were basically turbo-fan engines with bypass system. The

Model Engine Type

Length Span Body

Overall (Metres)

Fuselage (Metres)

Wing (Metres)

Tail (Metres)

Height (Metres)

Width (Metres)

707-120B

JT3D 44.22 42.32 39.88 13.21 4.33 3.76

707-220

JT4A 44.20 42.32 39.88 12.20 4.33 3.76

720** JT3C 41.30 39.78 39.88 12.20 4.33 3.76

720-B**

JT3D 41.68 39.78 39.88 13.21 4.33 3.76

707-320

JT4A 46.61 44.35 43.40 13.94 4.33 3.76

707-420

R.CO-12

46.61 44.35 43.40 13.94 4.33 3.76

707-320B

JT3D 46.61 44.35 43.42 13.94 4.33 3.76

707-320C

JT3D 46.61 44.35 43.42 13.94 4.33 3.76

http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/707.pdf

47

overall length for the 707-320B and the -320C was 46.61 metres with a wing-span of 43.42

metres each. The vertical tail height of the B707-320B is slightly higher than that of the -

320C and the maximum ramp weight is 152,500 kilograms each. The height and width of all

the models are same whereas the overall lengths for the 707-320,-320B,-320C,-420 were

46.61 metres and for the rest of the models it had slight variations. The 720 and the -720 B

had only slight variations with that of the B707 models and that these models were derived

from the design of B707-100 series.

4.1.1 General Characteristics of Model 707

Table 11: General Characteristics of Model 707

*-International configuration

**- Domestic configuration

***- Maximum take-0ff weight of 335,000 pounds is possible when using wet thrust.

Source-http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/707.pdf

The maximum ramp weight for the models like B707-320B and -320C is 152,000 kilograms.

The maximum landing weight for the B707-320C is higher than that of the -320B but at the

same time the take-off weight for both the -320B and 320C are the same. The operating

empty weight for the -320C freighter (International) is less than that of the -320B. The zero

fuel weight and the usable fuel capacity for both the -320B and 320C are the same. The


48

maximum structural payload of the -320C is higher than that of the passenger models and

the maximum structural payload for the -320C freighter is 42,000 kilograms which is the

highest when compared to all the other B707 models mentioned above. When comparing

the maximum cargo capacity, it is clear that the freighter has the highest cargo capacity.

4.2 Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320B Passenger-

International

Figure 12: Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320B Passenger-

International


The payload -range for long range step climb cruise for the B707-320B is shown above in

which it clearly notifies that the least take-off weight is 200,000 LB with 141 passengers and

baggage in which the range between 1,000 and 2,000 NMI and the highest range is in

between 5,000 and 6000 NMI with a usable fuel of 90,290 L.


49

4.2.1 Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320C Convertible-

International

Figure 13: Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320C Convertible-

International

Source-


The payload-range for the long range step climb cruise of B707-320C is shown in the above

graph in which the range of the -320C is in between 5000 and 6000 NMI with a maximum

take-off weight of 333,600 LB and the least range is between 1000 and 2000 NMI with a

take-off weight of 200,000LB. Here the aircraft carries 13 pallets along with 17,000 LB of

cargo carried on the lower deck ad it also has the maximum usable fuel of 90,290 L.


50

4.3 Interior Arrangement of Cargo/Passenger Model 707-320C

Figure 14: Interior Arrangement of Cargo/Passenger Model 707-320C

Sourcehttp://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/707.pdf

Shown above are the different types of interior arrangements of B707-320C in which it is

able to accommodate up to 7 pallets 88x108 (223BY 274CM) in a mixed passenger/cargo

arrangement and in an all-cargo mode it is able to carry up to 13 pallets 88 BY 125 IN.

(223BY 318 CM).

Figure 15: Different Type of Mixed Class Configurations of B707-320C


In the all-cargo mode, the total cargo volumes including the lower cargo compartments is

7,630 CU FT (216.08 CUM).



51

4.4 Terminal Operations - Turnaround station for model 707-320C- All cargo

Figure 16: Terminal Operations - Turnaround station for model 707-320C- All cargo

Source- http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/707.pdf

The turnaround time for the -320C is shown above in which it clearly shows that it could

take a total turnaround time of 55 to 60 minutes for a B 707-320C-Freighter. The loading

and unloading process consumes more time out of all. The fuelling process for the -320C

takes 10 to 20 minutes approximately.


52

5. ANALYSIS OF DC-8

The DC-8 or otherwise, Mc Donnell Douglas DC-8 is a narrow body jet airliner with four

engines. The DC-8s entered into service along with Delta Airlines as well as the United

Airlines on September 18th, 1959. It was able to attain speed more than 930km/hr

(600MPH). More than 300 DC-8s were in service during 1995, which made more than 340

scheduled flights per day. According to the aviation week intelligence database in January

2013, it reported that there were 36 DC 8s in service worldwide. The company had built 263

number of series 60 aircrafts and out of that around 110 of the aircrafts were converted into

series 70. The DC 8s had many variants including the super sixties and the super seventies.

Pratt & Whitney engines such as the JT3D-7 and JT3D-3/B turbo fan engines were used in

the Dc -8s. Lufthansa Cargo also operated DC 8s earlier and has now retired all their DC

8s.The DC-8 family includes models like-

series 10

series 20

series 30

DC 8-43 (series 40)

DC 8-55

DC 8-61

DC 8-62

DC 8-63

DC 8-71

DC 8-72

DC 8-73

DC 8-55F

DC 8-61F

DC 8-62F

DC 8-63F

DC 8-71F

DC 8-72F

DC 8-73F

53

Table 12: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for DC 8 Aircraft

DC-8 Model Summary

Through Feb 2015


DC-8-50F 15 15 -

DC-8-40 32 32 -

DC-8-10 26 26 -

DC-8-50 89 89 -

DC-8-50C 39 39 -

DC-8-61 78 78 -

DC-8-63F 7 7 -

DC-8-61C 10 10 -

DC-8-62 51 51 -

DC-8-20 36 36 -

DC-8-62F 6 6 -

DC-8-63 47 47 -

DC-8-30 57 57 -

DC-8-62C 10 10 -

DC-8-63CF 53 53 -

Total 556 556 -

Source- http://www.boeing.com/commercial/


54

A total of five hundred and fifty six DC8s were delivered and out of that ten DC 8-62Cs and

fifty three DC 8-63Cs were delivered. The highest number of aircrafts delivered in the DC 8

family were the DC 8-50s with 89 deliveries and the second highest was the model DC 8-61s

with 78 deliveries. The DC 8's used Pratt & Whitney JT3D engines most of the aircrafts but

the 40 series had Rolls-Royce engines.

5.1 General Airplane Characteristics Models DC 8-43,-55,-55F

Table 13: General Airplane Characteristics Models DC 8-43,-55,-55F

Source: http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/dc8.pdf

The above table shows the airplane characteristics of models like DC 8-43,-55,-55F. In this,

the -55F was the freighter version which had the same maximum take-off weights as that of

the DC 8-55 and a cargo volume of 9020 CU FT which was greater than that of the DC 8-55

with 1390 CU FT. The operating empty weight for the -55F was less than that of the DC 8-55.

But at the same time the maximum payload that would be carried by the 55F was almost

double that of DC-55 also, the maximum design fuel weight of the -55F was greater than the

DC-55 as it was meant to carry cargo on-board.

http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/dc8.pdf

55

5.1.2 General Characteristics of Models DC 8-61, -61F, -62, -62F

Figure 17: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-61, -61F, -62, -62F


Here the airplane characteristics of models such as the DC 8-61, -61CF, -62, -62F are shown

in which, when comparing the -61 F and the -62F we will be able to understand that the

maximum take-off weight was more for the DC-62CF than that of the -61CF but the

maximum design zero fuel weight and the operating empty weight for the -61CF was slightly

more than that of the -62CF. The maximum payload carried by the -62CF was more than

that of the -61CF but at the same time, the maximum cargo volume of the -61CF was higher

than that of the -62CF.


56

5.1.3 General Characteristics of Models DC 8-63, -63F

Figure 18: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-63, -63F


The maximum take-off weight for the -63F is slightly higher than that of the -62F. The -63F

and -73F have the same maximum cargo volume of 12,830 LB. The maximum payload

carried by the -63F is higher than that of both the -62F, -71F, -72F -73F. The amount of

usable fuel carried was same for -62F, -63F, -72F and -73F.


57

5.1.4 Figure 19: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-71,-71F,-73,-73F

Figure 19: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-71,-71F,-73,-73F


The super seventies of DC-8 family had used the CFM56-2 high-bypass engines. These

models were actually designed based on the DC-61,-62 and the -63s. The operating empty

weight of the -73F is higher than that of the models like -72F and the -63F. The maximum

cargo volume of the -72f was the same as that of -61F with 12,171 LB. The DC 8-71 CF, -71

AF, -73 CF and -73 AF were able to carry up to 18 cargo pallets and the models like DC 8- 72

F, - 72 AF were able to carry only 14 cargo pallets.


58

5.2 Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-54 Freighters

Figure 20: Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-54 Freighters

Source-http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/startup/pdf/freighters/DC-

8F_payload.pdf

From the above figure we can understand that the DC 8- 54 freighters used the Pratt

&Whitney JT3D-3B engines and that the maximum range lies between 3,000 and 4,000 NMI.

The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 101,600 kg (224,000 LB). The maximum take-off

weight for both of these aircrafts are 142,880 kg each. The DC 8-54 AF has a range in

between 4,000 to 4,500 NMI whereas the range of DC 8-54 CF is between 5,000 to 5,800

NMI which higher when compared with the other because of its increased fuel capacity.

5.2.1 Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-55 Freighters


Source: http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/startup/pdf/freighters/DC-

8F_payload.pdf

http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/startup/pdf/freighters/DC-8F_payload.pdf




59

From the above figure we can understand that the DC 8- 55 freighters also used the Pratt

&Whitney JT3D-3B engines. The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 101,600 kg (224,000

LB). The DC 8-55 CF has a range in between 4,100 to 4,500 NMI whereas the range of DC 8-

55 AF is between 5,200 to 5,800 NMI which higher when compared with the other because

of its increased fuel capacity. The maximum take-off weight for both of these aircrafts are

147,420 kg each which is higher than that of DC 8-54 freighters.




8F_payload.pdf


&Whitney JT3D-3B engines. The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 104,320 kg (230,000

LB). The DC 8-62 freighters have a range in between 5,500 to 6,000 NMI whereas the range

of DC 8-62 AF is slightly higher range than the other even though both of the aircrafts have

the same fuel capacity of 94,635 L. The maximum take-off weight for both of these aircrafts

are 151,955 kg each which is higher than both the DC 8-54, -53 freighters.



60

5.2.3 Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-61/71 Freighters

Figure 23: Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-61/71 Freighters


8F_payload.pdf


&Whitney JT3D-3B engines and the -71 freighters used the CFM56-2C1 engines. The

maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 106,140 kg (234,000 LB). The DC 8-61 CF has a range

in between 4,500 to 5,400 NMI whereas the range of DC 8-71 CF is between 5,500 to 6,500

NMI which is higher than the other even though both of the aircrafts have the same fuel

capacity of 89,865 L. The maximum take-off weight for both of these aircrafts are 148,775

kg each which is higher than both the DC 8-54, -53 freighters.



61




8F_payload.pdf

From the above figure we can understand that the DC 8- 63 freighters used the Pratt

&Whitney JT3D-7 engines. The DC 8-63 CF were the ones with high demand. The maximum

zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 118,385 kg (261,000 LB). The DC 8-63 freighters have a range in

between 5,000 to 6,000 NMI whereas the range of DC 8-63 AF is slightly higher than the

other even though both of the aircrafts have the same fuel capacity of 94,635 L. The

maximum take-off weight for both of these aircrafts are 161,025 kg each which is higher

than the DC 8-54, -53, -61/-71, -62 freighters.



62




8F_payload.pdf

From the above figure we can understand that the DC 8- 73 freighters used the CFM56-2

engines. The maximum range lies between 4,000 and 5,000 NMI. The DC 8-73 freighters

have a range in between 6,000 to 7,000 NMI whereas the range of DC 8-73 AF which is

slightly higher than the other even though both of the aircrafts have the same fuel capacity

of 94,635 L. The maximum take-off weight for both of these aircrafts are 161,025 kg each

which is higher than the DC 8-54, -53, -61/-71, -62 freighters.



63

5.3 Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-62F, -72F

Figure 26: Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-62F, -72F


Shown above is the interior arrangement of DC 8-62F, -72F in which it is able to

accommodate up to 14 pallets totally on a full freighter mode. The total cargo capacity of

these models are 7,971.8 CU FT including the lower deck cargo. The DC 8-72 CF could also

carry 4 cargo pallets along with up to 106 passengers in a mixed arrangement with both

cargo and passengers.

5.3.1 Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-63F, -73F

Figure27: Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-63F, -73F




64

Shown above are the different types of interior arrangements of DC 8-63F,-73F in which it is

able to accommodate up to 18 pallets totally on a on a full freighter mode. The total cargo

capacity of these models are 10,671.2 CU FT including the lower deck cargo. The DC 8-73 CF

could also carry 4 cargo pallets along with up to 189 passengers in a mixed arrangement

with both cargo and passengers.

5.4 Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-62,-72

Figure 28: Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-62,-72


The turnaround time for the DC 8-62,-72 is shown above in which it clearly shows that it

could take a total turnaround time of 30 to 35 minutes for these models. The loading and

unloading process consumes more time out of all with loading will take up to 15 to 30

minutes and unloading could take up to 15 minutes. The fuelling process for these takes up

to 25 minutes approximately.


65

5.4.1 Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-63,-73

Figure 29: Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-63,-73


The turnaround time for the DC 8-63,-73 is shown above in which it clearly shows that it

could take a total turnaround time of 40 to 45 minutes for these models. The loading and

unloading process consumes more time out of all with loading will take up to 20 to 40

minutes and unloading could take up to 20 minutes. The fuelling process for these takes up

to 25 minutes approximately.


66

6. ANALYSIS OF MD-11

Mc Donnell Douglas MD-11 series is a wide-bodied jet airliner with tri-jet engines. Two out

of the three engines are fixed underneath both the wings and another engines is fixed under

the vertical stabilizer. It has similar capabilities as that of the B777 freighters and is ideal for

medium as well as long haul operations. The MD-11 family includes the models like-

MD-11

MD-11C (Combi)

MD-11CF (Convertible freighter)

MD-11ER (Extended range)

MD-11F (All freighter)

MD-11 BCF (Boeing converted freighter)

Table 14: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for MD 11 Aircraft

MD-11 Model summary

Through Feb 2015


MD-11-ER 5 5 -

MD-11 131 131 -

MD-11-F 59 59 -

MD-11-C 5 5 -

Total 200 200 -

Source- http://www.boeing.com/commercial/

From the above table we can understand that a total of 200 aircrafts were delivered. Out of

all, with a total of one hundred and thirty one deliveries, the model MD 11 is the highest of

all. The second highest is the model MD-11-F with a total of 59 deliveries. At the same time,

only 5 deliveries were made for the MD-11-ER. The MD-11-F model was more popular in the

because of its great ability by which the airlines was able to make a good revenue from the

cargo carried and because of its fuel efficiency. The MD 11-F and MD 11-BCF are still used by

some cargo airlines such as Fed Ex, Lufthansa etc.


67

6.1 General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with GE Engines

Figure 30: General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with GE Engines

Source: http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/md11.pdf

The above given table shows the general characteristics of MD 11 aircrafts with GE engines.

The maximum landing weight for the freighter and convertible freighter are the same and

are higher than that of the others, but at the same time the take-off weight of MD-11-ER is

highest of all. Not only that but also the operating empty weight for the MD-11-ER is higher

than that of all the others. The maximum design zero fuel weight for the convertible

freighter and the all freighter are same and the maximum usable fuel capacity for MD-11-ER

is the highest. The maximum payload of the all freighter version is higher than that of the

convertible freighter version and the maximum payload for the all freighter version is

91,962 kilograms which is the highest when compared to all the other models mentioned

above. When comparing the maximum cargo capacity, it is clear that the freighter has the

highest cargo capacity out of all.

http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/md11.pdf

68

6.1.1 General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with Pratt & Whitney Engines

Figure 31: General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with Pratt & Whitney Engines


The above given table shows the general characteristics of MD 11 aircrafts with Pratt &

Whitney engines. In these models with P & W engines also, the maximum landing weight for

the freighter and convertible freighter are the same and are higher than that of the others,

but at the same time the take-off weight of MD-11-ER is highest of all with 630,500 LB. Not

only that but also the operating empty weight for the MD-11-ER is higher than that of all the

others. The maximum design zero fuel weight for the convertible freighter and the all

freighter are same and the maximum usable fuel capacity for MD-11-ER is the highest with

41,615 L. The maximum payload of the all freighter version is also higher than that of the

convertible freighter version and the maximum payload for the all freighter version is

91,962 kilograms as that of the MD 11 aircrafts with GE engines which is the highest when

compared to all the other models mentioned above. When comparing the maximum cargo

capacity, it is clear that in this case also, the all freighter version has the highest cargo

capacity out of all.


69

6.2 Payload-Range of MD-11CF with GE Engines

Figure 32: Payload-Range of MD-11CF with GE Engines

Source: http://www.brinkley.cc/AC/mdf.htm

From the above figure we can understand that the maximum range lies between 7,000 and

8,200 NMI. The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 209,246 kg (461,300 LB) for the MD

11 ER and 204,800 kg for MD 11 F. Both of the aircrafts have the around the same amount

of fuel capacity of 146,169 L. The maximum take-off weight for ER is slightly higher than the

MD 11 F.

http://www.brinkley.cc/AC/mdf.htm

70

6.3 Interior Cargo Arrangement of models MD 11-F/CF

Figure 33: Interior Cargo Arrangement of models MD 11-F/CF


Shown above are the different types of interior arrangements of MD 11-F/CF in which it is

able to accommodate up to 26 pallets totally on a on a full freighter mode.

Figure 34: Lower Cargo Deck Arrangement of MD-11

Source: http://www.brinkley.cc/AC/mdf.htm

The above shown figure is the lower deck cargo arrangement in MD 11 F/CF


http://www.brinkley.cc/AC/mdf.htm

71

6.4 Terminal operations-Turnaround Stations for Model MD-11

Figure 35: Terminal operations-Turnaround Stations for Model MD-11


The turnaround time for the MD 11 is shown above in which it clearly shows that it could

take a total turnaround time of 51.4 minutes for these models. The forward container

loading and unloading process consumes more time which takes up to 15 to 25 minutes and

the bulk cargo loading and unloading takes up to 20 minutes long. The fuelling process for

these takes up to 25 minutes approximately.


72

7. ANALYSIS OF A300 SERIES

The A300 series are wide-bodied aircrafts. It was the world's first twin engine whole body

aircraft. It was firstly launched by Air France in 1974. The airlines like UPS, Fed Ex etc. are

still using the A 300 series. The A 300 family includes models like -

A 300B1 series

A 300 B2 series

A 300 B4 series

A 300-600 series

Out of these above mentioned series the freighter models like the A 300 C4, A 300-600RF

were popular in the freighter category.

7.1 General Airplane Characteristics of Model A300 C4-200, A300 F4-200

Figure 36: General Airplane Characteristics of Model A300 C4-200, A300 F4-200

Source:http://www.airbus.com/fileadmin/media_gallery/files/tech_data/AC/AC_A300_200

91201.pdf

http://www.airbus.com/fileadmin/media_gallery/files/tech_data/AC/AC_A300_20091201.pdf


73

The above given table shows the general characteristics of A300 C4-200, A300 F4-200. The

maximum landing weight and the maximum take-off weight for both the A300 C4-200 and

A300 F4-200 are the same. But the operating empty weight for the A300 C4-200 is higher

than that of the other. The maximum design zero fuel weight for the A300 C4-200 basic

model is lesser than the other two. The maximum usable fuel capacity for both of all are

same with 62,000 L. The maximum payload of the A300 F4-200 is 42,000 kg which is higher

than that of the others. When comparing the usable cargo compartment volume, it is clear

that all the models in this category have the same volume of 158 m3.

7.1.1 General Airplane Characteristics of Model A300 F4-600 R (A 300-600 freighter)

Figure 37: General Airplane Characteristics of Model A300 F4-600 R (A 300-600 freighter)

Source: http://www.airbus.com/fileadmin/media_gallery/files/tech_data/AC/AC_A300-

600_20091201.pdf

The above given table shows the general characteristics of A300 F4-600 R which has three

variants. The highest maximum landing weight is for the basic model and the highest

maximum take-off weight is for the basic model. But the operating empty weight for all of

them are the same with 82,046 kg (180,880 LB). The maximum design zero fuel weight for

http://www.airbus.com/fileadmin/media_gallery/files/tech_data/AC/AC_A300-600_20091201.pdf


74

all of them have only minor differences between each other and the highest is 136,500 kg

and the lowest is for the basic model with 130,000 kg. The maximum usable fuel capacity for

all are same with 68,160 L. The highest maximum payload is 54,793 kg (120,797 LB). When

comparing the usable cargo compartment volume, it is clear that all the models in this

category have the same volume of 158 m3 which is also same as that of the A300 C4-200,

A300 F4-200.

7.2 Basic Upper Deck Configuration of C4

Figure 38: Basic Upper Deck Configuration of C4

Source:

http://www.airbus.com/fileadmin/media_gallery/files/tech_data/AC/AC_A300_20091201.p

df



75

Interior optional upper deck configuration is shown above. The model C4 basically is able to

carry 13 to 14 pallets all totally. Then, there are 3 different types of interior arrangement

configurations of model C4 are also shown even with mixed passenger/cargo arrangements.

7.2.1 Basic Upper Deck Configuration of Model A300-600 F

Figure 39: Basic Upper Deck Configuration of Model A300-600 F


600_20091201.pdf

There are 3 different types of interior arrangement configurations of model A300-600 F are

shown in the above figure in which it is able to accommodate.



76

7.3 Turnaround Time of Model C4 Freighter

Figure 40: Turnaround Time of Model C4 Freighter

Source:

http://www.airbus.com/fileadmin/media_gallery/files/tech_data/AC/AC_A300_20091201.p

df

The turnaround time for the model C4 freighter version is shown above in which it clearly

shows that it could take a total turnaround time of 30 minutes for these models. The cargo

movement takes up to 25 minutes along with that the refuelling as well as the walk around

check also takes more than 25 minutes.



77

7.3.1 Turnaround Time of Model A300-600 F

Figure 41: Turnaround Time of Model A300-600 F


600_20091201.pdf

The turnaround time for the model A300-600 F version is shown above, in which it clearly

shows that it could take a total turnaround time of 35 minutes for these models. The

baggage and cargo movement takes up to 25 to 30 minutes while the refuelling takes up to

27 minutes and the walk around check also takes more than 25 minutes.



78

7.4 Payload-Range Capability for A300-600F

Figure 42 Payload-Range Capability for A300-600F

Source: http://www.brinkley.cc/AC/ab36f.htm

From the above figure we can understand that the maximum range of A300-600 F lies

between 5,000 and 5,500 NMI. The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 130,000 kg

(286,600 LB). The fuel capacity is 68,135 L. The maximum take-off weight for A300-600 F is

170,505 kg (375,900) which is slightly higher than the MD 11 Freighters.

http://www.brinkley.cc/AC/ab36f.htm

79

8. A BRIEF ANALYSIS OF FUTURE FREIGHTER AIRCRAFT DESIGN CONCEPTS AND

POSSIBILITY

The freighter aircraft designs have been basically derived from the military as well as the

passenger aircraft models. The factors such as fuel price, climate change etc. have to be

taken into account during the designing newer aircrafts. The future freighter aircrafts should

be highly fuel efficient and also less noise. According to Morell (2011) there are three

approaches which are possible in the future designing of freighter aircrafts. They are –

Developing existing fixed wing types

Airships

Ground effect aircrafts.

8.1 Developing the conventional aircraft designs

As the world air cargo traffic is increasing, the future aircrafts will have to be able to carry a

higher amount of payload and therefore it should also be more fuel efficient. There are the

super transporter freighter aircrafts such as the Airbus Beluga and also the Boeing

Dreamlifter. These aircrafts are known for its ability to carry huge amount of payloads and

these are used to carry the equipment, aircraft parts etc. The future aircrafts should be able

to make faster loading and unloading of cargo and also have good overall economics.

According to the CEO of FedEx to make the aircraft more fuel efficient, the blended wing

body design would be of a better choice along with the pilotless flying technology for the

aircraft.

8.2 Airships

The method of transporting cargo by airships are another possibility. The airships are the

light weight aircrafts which use gases such as hydrogen, helium or propane to achieve lift.

There were models like CL 75 which was also known as ‘Aircrane’ and another vessel known

as the CT7 -8L with turbo-prop engines which were designed to carry up to 160 tonnes of

payload with a range of up to 10,000 km. The problem with these airships are the lower

speed and also the fuel efficiency. The UK airship industries developed smaller airships with

50 knots along with Porsche engines. Then there was the millennium Airship INC in US with

its ‘sky freighter. Another from Dutch company known as the Rigid Airship design which

proposed the model RA-180 which could carry a payload of up to 35 tonnes suitable for

carrying payloads like flowers and even passengers on short hauls. Bad weather and also the

possibility of the gases used for lift to burst are some of the threats of airships.

8.3 Ground effect aircrafts

The ground effect aircrafts are the aircrafts which takes off and lands in water with high

speeds and in order to utilise the ground effect, they cruise close to the water.

8.4 Unmanned aircrafts

The unmanned or the pilotless aircrafts for freight transportation are another kind of future

design concept.

80

9. CONCLUSION

The air cargo is one of the most popular way of shipping because of its ability to save time

when compared to the other modes of freight transportation like shipping by sea, rail and

road. Initially the air cargo was introduced for the purpose of delivering mails and later on it

was developed to transfer goods other than mails. It was only after the Second World War,

that the air cargo industry became more advanced. The aircraft design used during the very

early stages were either derived from the military aircrafts as well passenger aircrafts and

then it was further developed and designed into aircrafts with freighter specifications. There

are basically three types of freighter aircraft designs such as the all freighter versions, quick-

change aircraft versions and then the convertible freighter/passenger aircrafts. The all

freighter aircrafts were purely used for the transportation of goods whereas the convertible

aircrafts were able to carry both passengers and cargo simultaneously. The quick-change

aircrafts were the aircrafts which were able to convert into full freighter mode as well as

passenger modes within a short period of time. The introduction of unit load devices such as

containers and pallets brought about a vast change in the cargo transportation system. It

helped to provide more security to the products that are shipped and also it helped to

utilise the space available in the aircraft. The information and technology systems such as

the IATA e-freight, C2K and the Air way bill systems helped to reduce the amount of

documentation works done manually and it also helped to reduce the work load for the

employees. These systems also helped to reduce errors during the cargo transportation. The

factors affecting the flying time of air cargo aircrafts are mainly the physical limitations,

security of products, reliability, and quality of service, frequency and delivery time.

Meanwhile, the cost of an air cargo airline are basically the direct costs which includes the

cost of fuel, maintenance costs, costs of spare parts etc and the indirect costs which

includes the cost for advertising and marketing etc. As the aircraft gets older the

maintenance cost and the cost of spare parts as well as the availability of spare parts

becomes a huge problem.

The cargo aircrafts such as the B707, DC 8s, MD 11s and the A300 series are some of the

most popular ones. The B707 had a convertible freighter model known as the B707-320 C

which was able to carry both passengers as well as cargo. A total of three hundred and thirty

seven B 707-320 Cs were delivered. The B707-320Cs were having a higher cargo capacity

than that of the other B 707 aircraft models. When comparing with the other modes of B

707 the -320 C had the highest maximum payload capacity as well as a very good range. The

DC 8 freighters were another type of aircrafts which had several series and out of that the

DC 8-63 CFs were the most popular because of its ability to carry up to 18 pallets. A total of

five hundred and fifty six DC 8s were produced and out of that 53 DC 8-63 CFs were

produced. When comparing the DC 8-63 CFs with the B 707-320 Cs the -63CFs were having

more cargo volume but at the same time both of them had their range in same level. The

B707s took around one hour for its turnaround time whereas the DC 8s had an overall

turnaround time of around 45 minutes which is faster than that of the B707s. The MD 11s

are the wide-bodied aircrafts formerly produced by the Mc Donnell Douglas company and

later on taken by the Boeing. A total of 200 aircrafts were made and out of that 59 MD-11 Fs

81

were delivered. The MD 11s were more successful as freighter aircrafts than that as a

passenger aircraft because of its design which was more suitable for freight operations due

to its high cargo volume capacity with which it was able to carry up to 26 containers and

also due to its good fuel efficiency. A total turnaround time of 51.4 minutes was taken by

the wide-bodied MD 11 freighters which is even lesser when compared with the turnaround

time of the narrow - bodied B707s. The A 300 series were the aircrafts produced by the

Airbus company which were also wide-bodied aircrafts in which the model A300-600

freighters and the A 300-200 Freighters were one of the most popular aircrafts in that

family. But the A 300-600 freighters had a range which was less than that of the wide-

bodied MD 11 freighters. Even though the A 300-600s were wide-bodied aircrafts, it was

able to carry 21 containers in total which was lesser when compared with the MD 11

freighters. A total turnaround time of up to 35 minutes were taken by the A 300-600

freighter aircrafts which were faster than that of the MD 11 freighters. In the category of

wide-bodied aircrafts, both the A300 series and the MD 11s have their own advantages and

disadvantages. The overall performance of the MD 11 is that even though the turnaround

time is higher than that of the A300 series, it has more benefits than that of the A300 series

because of its high fuel efficiency and high cargo volume capacity. At present the freighter

aircrafts like the convertible models and the all freighter versions are used more. The

forecasts shows that there will a consistent growth in the cargo industry and the amount of

cargo aircrafts which are manufactured are having a robust growth when compared with

the passenger aircrafts. The competition between the air freight companies is rising and this

leads to an increase demand of wide-bodied aircraft in the market. However, the fluctuation

of fuel price may affect the airlines either in a positive or negative aspect because it is

unpredictable. This has also increased the challenge for aircraft manufacturers to deal with

technological advances in order to design fuel efficient aircraft.

Due to the demand for growth in the cargo industry and the level of increase in competition

between the air freight carrier companies, it is more prudent for the aircraft manufacturers

to design an aircraft that can provide a higher payload capacity and also an improved level

of range. In addition, the future concept of using the unmanned aircraft for cargo

transportation could be cost effective but the decision makers and the regulators are still

analysing the advantages and disadvantages this approach.

82

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