DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 384 312 HE 028 425

AUTHOR McNeill, Barry W.; Bellamy, LynnTITLE Curriculum Development, Design, Specification and

Assessment and Supplemental Materials.INSTITUTION Arizona State Univ., Tempe, Coll. of Engineering and

Applied Sciences.PUB DATE 94

NOTE 394p.; For related documents, see HE 028 423-428.PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Use Instructional Materials (For

Learner) (051)

EDRS PRICE MFO1 /PC16 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS Active Learning; Cognitive Processes; CognitiveStyle; *College Instruction; *Competency BasedEducation; Curriculum Design; *CurriculumDevelopment; *Educational Objectives; *EngineeringEducation; Higher Education; Outcomes of Education;Small Group Instruction; *Student Evaluation; TeacherWorkshops; Teaching Methods; Teamwork

IDENTIFIERS Competency Matrix

ABSTRACTThis document consists of a workshop presentation on

curriculum development, design, specification, and assessment in theengineering classroom. Ten sessions focus on: (1) the format andpurpose of the workshop, which is designed to help instructorsdevelop an understanding of the basic principles of curriculum andinstruction and the ability to apply these principles to thedevelopment, design, specification, and assessment of a curriculum orcourse; (2) cognitive aspects of learning science; (3) the state ofinstruction in the engineering sciences and definitions of learning;(4) the elements of learning systems, learning styles, and taxonomiesof learning; (5) educational states evaluation exercises; (6)

educational goals and competencies; (7) past, present, and futureclassroom structures; (8) the classification of outcomes andcompetencies, as well as curriculum and course design; (9) the

transformation of goals and outcomes into competencies; and (10)sequen-..ing competencies. An appendix contains outlines of variouscognitive models. A supplementary volume contains sample competencymatrices, a guide to self-evaluation and documentation of educationalstates, a guide to the documentation of technical work, learningstructures for students, excerpts from "Cognitive Aspects of LearningScience" (Jose Mestre), a collection of information on change ineducation, and four papers on intellectual development and studentassessment. (MDM)

***********************************************************************

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

***********************************************************************

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62-89

Curriculum Development, Design, Specification and Assessment

Session 0. ( 10 minutes / 10 minutes total )

Getting Started

Forming GroupsFocus on Facilitator SignalIssue BinReflection (the Academic Journal)Code of Cooperation

Session 1. ( 30 minutes / 40 minutes total )

A Private Universe ( video tape )

Question: Determine at least TWO issues illustrated in the tapewhich are relevant to your Engineering classroom?

Active Learning Delivery: Formulate-Share-Listen-Create (Think-Pair-Share)

Session 2. ( 5 minutes / 45 minutes total )

Why are we (me and my absent team member) here?How did we get here?Cognition DefinedCognitive Science Domains

Session 3. ( 10 minutes / 65 minutes total )

Learning Systems ElementsLearning StylesBlooms Taxonomy ( Cognitive and Affective )

6

Session 4. ( 100 minutes / 165 minutes total )

Educational States Evaluation

Active Learning Delivery: Jigsaw

BREAK ( 60 to 90 minutes but the next day is better )

Session 5. ( 60 minutes / 60 minutes total )

Educational Goals, Curriculum Outcomes and Competencies

Developing an Assessment Instrument

Session 6. ( 10 minutes / 70 minutes total )

Classroom Structures ( Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow )

Session 7. ( 20 minutes / 90 minutes total )

Classifying Outcomes, CompetenciesCurriculum (Course) Development ModelCompetencies versus Level of Learning and Degree of InternalizationThe Competency Matrix

Session 8. ( 25 minutes / 115 minutes total )

Transforming Goals Into Competencies; Building the Tree ( Part I )

Session 9. ( 40 minutes / 155 minutes total )

Sequencing the Tree

Competencies,Levels of Learning,Degrees of Internalization

8

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jour

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pra

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incl

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lass

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our

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xtra

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t to

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e. U

se y

our

jour

nal t

o re

cord

per

sona

l rea

ctio

ns to

cla

ss, t

opic

s, s

tude

nts,

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hers

. Mak

e no

tes

to y

ours

elf a

bout

idea

s, th

eorie

s, c

once

pts,

pro

blem

s. R

ecor

d yo

urth

ough

ts, f

eelin

gs, m

oods

, exp

erie

nces

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you

r jo

urna

l to

argu

e w

ith th

e id

eas

and

read

ings

in th

e co

urse

and

to a

rgue

with

me,

exp

ress

con

fusi

on, a

nd e

xplo

re p

ossi

ble

appr

oach

es to

pro

blem

s in

the

cour

se.

Whe

n to

Writ

e. T

ry to

writ

e in

you

r jo

urna

l at l

east

thre

e or

four

tim

es a

wee

k (a

side

from

your

cla

ssro

om e

ntrie

s). I

t is

impo

rtan

t to

deve

lop

the

habi

t of u

sing

you

r jo

urna

l eve

n w

hen

you

are

not i

n an

aca

dem

ic e

nviro

nmen

t. G

ood

idea

s, q

uest

ions

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. don

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way

s w

ait f

orco

nven

ient

tim

es fo

r yo

u to

rec

ord

them

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to W

rite.

You

sho

uld

writ

e ho

wev

er y

ou fe

el li

ke w

ritin

g. T

he p

oint

is to

thin

k on

pap

erw

ithou

t wor

ryin

g ab

out t

he m

echa

nics

of w

ritin

g. T

he q

uant

ity y

ou w

rite

is a

s im

port

ant a

sth

e qu

ality

. Use

lang

uage

that

exp

ress

es y

our

pers

onal

voi

cela

ngua

ge th

at c

omes

nat

ural

to y

ou.

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on't

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long

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deve

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thou

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as

fully

as

poss

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se a

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both

"ac

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sona

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trie

s; m

ixed

or

sepa

rate

as

you

like.

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ract

ion

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rofe

ssor

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ask

to s

ee y

our

jour

nal a

t lea

st tw

ice

durin

g th

e te

rm; I

'll r

ead

sele

cted

ent

ries

and,

upo

n oc

casi

on, a

rgue

with

you

or

com

men

t on

your

com

men

ts. M

ark

any

entr

y th

at y

ou d

on't

wan

t me

to r

ead

and

I'll h

onor

you

r pr

ivac

y. N

one

of th

e di

alog

ue w

ithyo

u w

ill a

ffect

how

muc

h yo

ur jo

urna

l is

"wor

th."

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ood

jour

nal w

ill b

e fu

ll of

lots

of l

ong

entr

ies

and

refle

ct a

ctiv

e, r

egul

ar u

se.

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ract

ion

-- C

ores

pond

ent.

Cho

ose

a co

lleag

ue (

a fe

llow

stu

dent

in y

our

base

gro

up, f

orex

ampl

e) to

rea

d an

d re

spon

d to

you

r jo

urna

l ent

ries.

Ada

pted

by

Kar

l Sm

ith fr

om F

ulw

iler,

T.

Tea

chin

g w

ith w

ritin

g. P

orts

mou

th, N

H; B

oynt

on/C

ook,

198

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mem

ber

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espo

nsib

le fo

r th

e te

am's

pro

d es

s an

d su

cces

s.2.

Atte

nd a

ll te

am m

eetin

gs a

nd b

e on

tim

e.3.

Com

e pr

epar

ed.

4.C

arry

out

ass

ignm

ents

on

sche

dule

.5.

List

en to

and

sho

w r

espe

ct fo

r th

e co

ntrib

utio

ns o

f oth

er m

embe

rs; b

e an

activ

e lis

tene

r.6.

CO

NS

TR

UC

TIV

ELY

crit

iciz

e id

eas,

not

per

sons

.7.

Res

olve

con

flict

s co

nstr

uctiv

ely.

8.P

ay a

ttent

ion,

avo

id d

isru

ptiv

e be

havi

or.

9.A

void

dis

rupt

ive

side

con

vers

at;o

ns.

10.

Onl

y on

e pe

rson

spe

aks

at a

tim

e.11

.E

very

one

part

icip

ates

, no

one

dom

inat

es.

12.

Be

succ

inct

, avo

id lo

ng a

necd

otes

and

exa

mpl

es.

13.

No

rank

in th

e ro

om.

14.

Mai

ntai

n co

nfid

entia

lity;

who

say

s w

hat s

tays

in th

e te

am r

oom

;m

inut

es, r

esul

ts, r

epor

ts, e

tc. a

re s

hare

d w

ith a

ppro

pria

te in

divi

dual

s.15

.A

sk q

uest

ions

whe

n yo

u do

not

und

erst

and.

16.

Atte

nd to

you

r pe

rson

al c

omfo

rt n

eeds

at a

ny ti

me

but m

inim

ize

team

dis

rupt

ion.

17.

HA

VE

FU

N !!

!18

.?

adap

ted

from

the

Boe

ing

Airp

lane

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up te

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ual

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The

vid

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Priv

ate

Uni

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e, w

illbe

vie

wed

for

appr

oxim

atel

y 18

min

utes

.T

he ta

pe a

nd it

s' im

plic

atio

ns fo

r hi

gher

educ

atio

n ar

edi

scus

sed

at le

ngth

in a

pap

er b

y M

estr

e, J

ose

P.,

`Cog

nitiv

e A

spec

ts o

f Lea

rnin

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d T

each

ing

Sci

ence

'P

re-C

olle

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each

er E

nhan

cem

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n S

cien

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ndM

athe

mat

ics:

Sta

tus,

Issu

es a

nd P

robl

ems

(bot

h a

final

pape

r an

d an

earli

er D

RA

FT

are

ava

ilabl

e).

At t

he e

nd o

f the

tape

, the

re w

ill b

e a

For

mul

ate-

Sha

re-L

iste

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reat

e ex

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d an

indi

vidu

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eac

h gr

oup

of 2

will

be

sele

cted

at

rand

om to

pre

sent

the

grou

p's

resu

lts to

the

wor

ksho

p.2

287

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Det

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WO

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lust

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the

tape

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re r

elev

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assr

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.

1. F

orm

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ur a

nsw

er to

the

ques

tion

(indi

vidu

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)

2. T

urn

to th

e pe

rson

nex

t to

you

(fin

d a

part

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Sha

reyo

uran

swer

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are

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?

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ilmon

says

Slid

e 12

To

be s

ucce

ssfu

l in

life

requ

ires

that

a pe

rson

kno

w o

nly

one

thin

g;

You

mus

t kno

w w

hat y

oudo

n't k

now

!

3132

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read

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ngin

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duca

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Wor

king

Pap

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n M

ajor

Issu

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Eng

inee

ring

Edu

catio

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ectio

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nder

grad

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inee

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Exp

erie

nce,

Issu

e #2

- A

re T

each

ing

met

hods

app

ropr

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?,O

ptio

ns fo

r A

ctio

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ssue

#2)

,O

ptio

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" : I

ncre

ase

facu

lty a

war

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cog

nitiv

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sear

ch,

and

deci

ded

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o so

met

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abo

ut fi

ndin

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t wha

t we

don'

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w.

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Wis

h it

had

Hap

pene

d

(1)

The

Way

itS

houl

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ave

Hap

pene

d

Slid

e 13

The

Way

itR

eally

Hap

pene

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(2)

How

sho

uld

it ha

ve h

appe

ned

in a

wel

l run

inst

itutio

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hig

her

educ

atio

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(3)

In a

sta

te o

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pair

and

desp

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abou

t our

faile

d at

tem

pts

at im

prov

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stud

ent p

erfo

rman

ce in

our

cou

rses

, we

wer

e ch

asin

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yan

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bits

,po

ssum

s an

d ra

ccoo

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hen

we

fell

quite

by

acci

dent

into

the

swam

p of

cogn

itive

sci

ence

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re w

e st

ill la

ngui

sh k

now

ing

we

don'

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w a

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ide

14

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culty

by w

hich

kno

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cqui

red

and

proc

esse

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ncod

ed, i

nter

pret

ed, l

abel

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+ T

hat w

hich

com

es to

be k

now

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thro

ugh

perc

eptio

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easo

ning

,or

intu

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men

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luat

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, agg

rega

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sses

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arni

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onte

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, in

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nitiv

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chom

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Stu

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radi

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Lear

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Sty

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4 '

Cur

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peci

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Lear

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Leve

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Deg

ree

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tern

aliz

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42

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GO

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ES

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LIN

GU

IST

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EA

RN

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writ

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orie

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lace

s,da

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triv

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hear

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draw

, bui

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thin

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am

look

at p

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slid

esw

atch

mov

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play

with

mac

hine

s

imag

inin

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ings

sens

ing

chan

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maz

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uzzl

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read

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map

s, c

hart

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SIC

AL

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ER

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Mus

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over

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sing

, hum

tune

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to m

usic

play

an

inst

rum

ent

resp

ond

to m

usic

pick

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up s

ound

sre

mem

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elod

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INE

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mov

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phys

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iviti

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port

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actin

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ing

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ract

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with

spa

cepr

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kno

wle

dge

thro

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bodi

ly s

ensa

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INT

ER

PE

RS

ON

AL

LEA

RN

ER

"The

Soc

ializ

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have

lots

of f

riend

sta

lk to

peo

ple

loin

gro

ups

unde

rsta

ndin

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ople

lead

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othe

rsor

gani

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com

mun

icat

ing

man

ipul

atin

gm

edia

ting

conf

licts

shar

ing

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parin

gre

latin

gco

oper

atin

gIn

terv

iew

ing

INT

RA

PE

RS

ON

AL

LEA

RN

ER

"The

Indi

vidu

al"

wor

k al

one

purs

ue o

wn

inte

rest

s

unde

rsta

ndin

g se

lffo

cusi

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war

d on

feel

ings

/ dr

eam

sfo

llow

ing

Inst

inct

spu

rsui

ng In

tere

sts

/goa

lsbe

ing

orig

inal

wor

king

alo

nein

divi

dual

ized

pro

ject

sse

lf-pa

ced

inst

ruct

ion

havi

ng o

wn

spac

e

Bas

edon

mat

eria

l pre

sent

ed in

How

ard

Gar

dner

's T

he U

nsch

oole

d M

ind;

How

Chi

ldre

n T

hink

and

How

Scho

ols

Shou

ld T

each

. Bas

ic B

ooks

, 199

1.

(4 0

1 0

44

Slide 19

r Learning Styles 9

Sensing / T

Goo at working withan rnemebering details

Abilities by Style

ble to speak and writedirectly to the point

Approaches task in anorganized and sequential manner

ng, 35%

Spontaneous and o toimpulse, does what feels ood

Takes tme toplan and contemplate

consequences of actions

Able to organize ands thesize information

Weights th evidence and risksjudgement used on logic

Able to expresspersonal feelings

1.

Aware of others' feelings andmakes judgements based

on personal likes and dislikes

Intuiting / Feeling, 10%

GoJd at intepretingfacts and details tosee

the broader picture

Able to express ideas /in new and unusual w fi s

Approaches sksin a varign if ways

or in ark- -I-Oratory manner

Hanson, Silver, Strong and Associates,'The Thoughtful Education People',34 Washington Road , Princeton Jct. , NJ 08550(609) 799-6300 Phone (609) 799-6301 FAX

4 5

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VS

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tuiti

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VS

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educ

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Glo

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met

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s.4

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Slid

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4 9

1.

's Taxonomyitive Domain (1950)

Slide 22

Knowledge of :1.1 Specifics1.2 Ways & Means of Dealing with Specifics

2. Comprehension2.1 Translation2.2 Interpretation2.3 Extrapolation

3. Application (Out of Context)4. Analysis of :

4.1 Elements4.2 Relationships4.3 Organizational Principles

5. Synthesis5.1 Production of a Unique Communication5.2 Production of a Plan,

or Proposed set of Operations5.3 Derivation of a set of Abstract Relations

6. Evaluation ... Judgment in Terms of :6.1 Internal Evidence6.2 External Criteria

Bio m's TaxonomyAffe > tive Domain (1964)

1. Receiving (Attending)1.1 Awareness1.2 Willingness to Receive1.3 Controlled or Selected Attention

2. Responding2.1 Acquiescence in Responding2.2 Willingness to Respond2.3 Satisfaction in Response

3. Valuing3.1 Acceptance of a Value3.2 Preference for a Value3.3 Commitment

4. Organization4.1 Conceptualization of a Value4.2 Organization of a Value System

5. Characterization by a Valueor Value Complex

5.1 Generalized Set5.2 Characterization

Slide 23

blooms

51

1

1

1

0zq

niC.)U.1

CC

r AWARENESS, Slide 24

csi WILLINGNESS TO RECEIVE

VI CONTROLLED OR SELECTED,..: ATTENTION I

0o Zoi 0

a.N

ACQUIESCENCE INRESPONDING

WILLINGNESS TO RESPOND

01 SATISFACTION IN RESPONSE

C5zo 5ei

ACCEPTANCE OF A VALUE

PREFERENCE FOR A VALUE

COMMITMENT

z2

0

-J

z0Tz.

c! tgit

0cc0

CONCEPTUALIZATION OF AVALUE

-4

a ORGANIZATION OF A VALUESYSTEM

z0P ul

.9 no-

tn t7. ....

LI -'.CC ). 0CC CO<I0

GENERALIZED SET

CHARACTERIZATION

The range of meaning typical of commonly used affective terms measured against the Taxonomy continuum.

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Slid

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Lear

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Out

com

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rans

late

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to C

ompe

tenc

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set b

y co

urse

inst

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orst

atem

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cove

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Leve

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char

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for

the

lear

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com

esde

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the

activ

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don

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stu

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and

teac

her

Kno

wle

dge,

Com

preh

ensi

on, A

pplic

atio

n,A

naly

sis,

Syn

thes

is, a

nd E

valu

atio

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or e

xam

ple)

Com

pete

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Mat

rixsh

ows

rela

tions

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com

es a

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vels

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earn

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inte

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izat

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58

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stru

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in th

e m

atrix

Slid

e 28

a. F

or e

ach

com

pete

ncy

area

dar

ken

the

row

up

to a

nd in

clud

ing

the

colu

mn

whi

ch in

dica

tes

your

cur

rent

leve

lof

lear

ning

for

the

com

pete

ncy.

You

can

ref

er to

the

follo

win

g pa

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to a

ssis

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it u

nder

stan

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the

mea

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b. If

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not k

now

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reco

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ncy

area

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you

onl

y bl

ank

the

first

col

umn

(Bef

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Kno

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c. E

ach

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valu

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sta

te o

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if y

our

leve

l of l

earn

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has

incr

ease

dth

en m

ove

the

bar

fart

her

to th

e rig

ht u

sing

a d

iffer

ent c

olor

or

patte

rn to

fill

in th

e co

lum

n(s)

.

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pete

ncy

Cat

egor

yC

ompe

tenc

ies

Bef

ore

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wle

dge

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preh

ensi

onA

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atio

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valu

atio

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pera

tive

Lear

ning

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e of

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pera

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Fac

e to

Fac

e In

tera

ctio

nIn

divi

dual

Acc

ount

abili

tyJi

gsaw

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uctu

re B

efor

e T

ask

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uctu

red

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trov

ersy

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ms

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ekee

per

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rmin

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eam

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ersi

tyT

eam

Mem

ber

Ass

essm

ent

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pete

ncy

Mat

rixG

rade

sK

now

ledg

eK

now

-How

Sta

ges

of L

earn

ing

59

NM

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ssro

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Inst

ruct

ions

for

Jigs

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Slid

e 29

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xper

tC

lass

Tea

ms

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ups

\1.

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nt o

ff2.

Loc

ate

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ert t

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ber

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m th

eE

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ups

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roup

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arn

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irM

ater

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ssem

ble

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cate

the

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-exp

erts

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re &

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e R

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t

40

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roup

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heir

3M

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e T

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ial

1. C

ount

off

2. L

ocat

e Ji

gsaw

tabl

efo

r yo

ur n

umbe

r

62

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ing

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ert G

roup

s

+ C

ount

off

with

in r

oom

Dep

endi

ng o

n yo

ur n

umbe

r yo

u w

ill r

ead

the

mat

eria

l in

the

App

endi

x1'

s re

ad a

bout

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wle

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-2'

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ad a

bout

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preh

ensi

on3'

s re

ad a

bout

App

licat

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-4'

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ad a

bout

Ana

lysi

s-

5's

read

abo

ut S

ynth

esis

-6'

s re

ad a

bout

Eva

luat

ion

Slid

e 30

Look

aro

und

the

room

unt

il yo

u se

ew

here

the

num

bere

d ex

pert

tabl

es a

re lo

cate

d

All

the

1's

will

get

up

and

mov

e to

Tab

le 1

;al

l the

2's

will

get

up

and

mov

e to

Tab

le 2

; etc

.6:

164

MI O

a IN

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ert

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min

utes

)

Det

erm

ine

wha

t Lev

el o

f Lea

rnin

g yo

ur ta

ble

has

been

assi

gned

.

Rea

d th

e m

ater

ial i

n th

e A

ppen

dix

whi

chre

late

s to

you

rgr

oups

' ass

igne

d Le

vel o

f Lea

rnin

g.

Dis

cuss

the

read

ing

with

you

r 'e

xper

t' te

am m

embe

rs to

reac

h co

nsen

sus

on m

eani

ng a

nd im

port

ance

of th

eva

rious

idea

s.

Dev

elop

a c

lass

ass

ignm

ent f

orfo

rK

now

ledg

e, C

ompr

ehen

sion

, and

App

licat

ion

or fo

rfo

r A

naly

sis,

Syn

thes

is, a

nd E

valu

atio

n.

As

a te

am, d

evel

op a

thre

e m

inut

e tu

toria

lwhi

ch y

ou c

anus

e to

teac

h ot

her

mem

bers

of t

he c

lass

abo

ut y

our

leve

l.65

6 6

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ill M

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ION

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MI

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N®

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Slid

e 32

ing

Jigs

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roup

s (3

min

utes

)

+ C

ount

off

with

in e

xper

t gro

ups

star

ting

at 1

+ L

ook

arou

nd th

e ro

om u

ntil

you

see

whe

re th

e va

rious

num

bere

d ta

bles

are

loca

ted

.

+ A

ll th

e 1'

s w

ill g

et u

p an

d m

ove

to T

able

1;

all t

he 2

's w

ill g

et u

p an

d m

ove

to T

able

2; e

tc.

+ If

ther

e is

no

tabl

e fo

r yo

ur n

umbe

rle

t the

cou

rse

faci

litat

or k

now

and

she

will

ass

ign

you

to a

jigs

aw g

roup

676S

ISM

1011

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OE

OM

IN

NM

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Slid

e 33

Pre

ent

ing

the

Tut

oria

l (25

min

utes

)

+ S

tart

ing

at th

e lo

wes

t lev

el o

f lea

rnin

g an

dm

ovin

g se

quen

tially

to th

e hi

ghes

t lev

el,

each

exp

ert s

houl

d ta

ke th

ree

min

utes

to d

eliv

er h

er/h

is tu

toria

lto

the

othe

r jig

saw

team

mem

bers

(18

min

utes

)

It is

a g

ood

idea

to c

heck

eac

h ot

her

to e

nsur

eth

at e

very

one

is le

arni

ng th

e m

ater

ial t

o at

leas

tth

e C

ompr

ehen

sion

leve

l of l

earn

ing

Afte

r al

l tut

oria

ls h

ave

been

del

iver

edsp

end

a fe

w m

omen

ts in

cla

rific

atio

n (7

min

utes

)

G)

VM

S M

I MIN

1111

11.

IMO

UM

Mill

MN

1111

11O

M IN

NM

IMI

INN

111

MN

MS

Int U

M M

I

rtin

gO

ut(3

0 m

inut

es)

Slid

e 34

Usi

ng th

e ex

ampl

es g

ener

ated

in th

e E

xper

t Gro

ups

asst

artin

g po

ints

, dev

elop

an

inte

grat

ed,

cons

iste

ntex

ampl

e sh

owin

gho

w th

e va

rious

lear

ning

leve

ls c

ould

be d

emon

stra

ted

(20

min

utes

)

+O

utlin

e th

e ex

ampl

e on

the

over

head

slid

es p

rovi

ded

+ O

negr

oup,

sele

cted

at r

ando

m (

the

pres

ente

r al

sose

lect

ed a

t ran

dom

) w

ill p

rese

nt th

eir

exam

ple

as a

basi

s fo

r di

scus

sion

(10

min

utes

)

+ T

urn

in tr

ansp

aren

cies

use

din

rep

ort s

o co

pies

for

the

wor

ksho

p ca

nbe

mad

e.72

71

NM

I MN

NM

INS

NIN

Nal

MN

MN

NO

NM

MI N

S M

N IN

N M

N N

M N

M M

N M

N

Slid

e 35

sfor

min

gE

duca

tiona

l Goa

lsin

to C

urric

ulum

Out

com

es

Rev

iew

a T

axon

omy,

or

hier

arch

ical

cla

ssifi

catio

n sy

stem

,

whi

chm

aybe

use

ful i

n tr

ansl

atin

g br

oad,

educ

atio

nal g

oals

into

mea

ning

ful l

earn

er o

utco

mes

,or

com

pete

ncie

s,

whi

ch c

an th

en b

e qu

antit

ativ

ely

asse

ssed

in te

rms

of s

tude

nt b

ehav

iors

.

Use

the

Tax

onom

y to

dev

elop

, tes

t and

eva

luat

e a

proc

ess

for

gene

ratin

gco

mpe

tenc

ym

atric

es w

hich

repr

esen

tthe

se b

road

edu

catio

nal g

oals

.

7473

NO

NIN

MN

NM

NO

IN

NIN

Nili

NI

INN

NM

IN

EI

INN

EN

NE

I N

M O

NG

INN

NB

-

Slid

e 36

Sou

ce

of E

duca

tiona

l Goa

lsfo

r E

ngin

eern

g G

radu

ates

:* E

mpl

oyer

s

Gra

duat

e S

choo

ls

Oth

er E

duca

tiona

l Ins

titut

ions

Fed

eral

, Sta

te a

nd L

ocal

Gov

ernm

ent

Soc

iety

(Le

., its

rep

rese

ntat

ives

)

Pro

fess

iona

l Soc

ietie

s

Par

ents

, Spo

uses

Stu

dent

s76

WW

1W

WI

WW

1M

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OM

B M

N W

MB

WW

IU

MW

MO

IMO

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WW

IIM

OIIM

IIM

OW

IM

77

Slid

e 37

ceof

Com

pete

ncie

s an

d Le

vels

egre

esfo

r Eng

inee

ring

Cou

rses

.

4.4.

Eng

inee

ring

Fac

ulty

+ E

ngin

eerin

g A

dmin

istr

atio

n

Oth

er A

cade

mic

Fac

ulty

+ A

cade

mic

Adm

inis

trat

ion

78

OM

ION

NM

MO

EN

IMO

NM

MI_

NM

I NM

EN

NO

INN

NM

NM

INN

ON

Slid

e 38

umen

tatio

n-

Pro

cess

& P

rodu

ct

Pro

duct

Doc

umen

tatio

ned

ucat

iona

l goa

ls o

r ou

tcom

esco

mpe

tenc

y m

atric

es fo

r th

ese

goal

s or

out

com

esP

roce

ss D

ocum

enta

tion

each

of y

ou s

houl

d jo

urna

l (re

flect

on

proc

ess)

inyo

ur b

lue

book

s --

try

to u

se th

e te

rms

whi

ch y

ou w

illbe

lear

ning

abo

ut d

urin

g th

is w

orks

hop

refle

ctio

n ca

n be

don

e an

ytim

e up

to 2

4 ho

urs

afte

rth

e pr

oces

s ha

s be

en c

ompl

eted

if yo

u co

mpl

ete

your

jour

nal b

efor

e yo

u le

ave

turn

them

in, o

ther

wis

e, tu

rn th

em in

to th

e D

ean'

s O

ffice

.T

hey

will

tran

scrib

e th

em a

nd r

etur

n th

em.

S7)

OIN

IIII

IIII

IIM

IIIM

IIIM

UN

I111

1111

1111

1111

1111

1111

1111

1110

1111

3111

1111

1110

1111

1

Slid

e 39

Wou

ld Y

ou K

now

?

+ G

oal solv

e a

non

linea

r al

gebr

aic

equa

tion

be a

life

long

lear

ner

+ H

ow w

ould

you

kno

w if

a p

erso

n m

etth

is g

oal?

Dis

cuss

s in

you

r te

am

Cre

ate

an a

sses

smen

t ins

trum

ent i

n so

me

form

;

i.e.,

writ

ten,

ora

l, pa

inte

d, s

ung,

tum

bled

, dra

wn,

perf

orm

ed in

any

way

, etc

.9

whi

ch c

ould

be

used

to d

eter

min

eif

a pe

rson

met

the

goal

82

MO

NM

IM

EI

1111

111

1011

1111

Mil

NM

EM

I M

I N

MI

NM

IIM

O =

I IM

ON

MI

INN

Slid

e 40

ctio

n &

Rep

ortin

g

+ R

efle

ctio

n (1

5 m

inut

es)

prod

uct

why

doe

s yo

urin

stru

men

tde

mon

stra

te a

chie

vem

ent o

f the

goa

l?

proc

ess

did

you

have

a p

roce

ss?

wha

t cha

nges

to th

e pr

oces

s w

ould

you

sug

gest

?w

hy w

asth

epr

oces

sdi

fficu

lt?

Rep

ortin

g (1

0 m

inut

es)

the

team

rec

orde

r is

to p

rese

nt a

two

min

ute

pres

enta

tion

of th

e re

sults

of t

he te

am's

ref

lect

ions

+ C

larif

icat

ion

(5 m

inut

es)

84

INN

MN

Mill

1111

1 E

N N

M N

M N

EIN

INN

EI

EN

ON

MN

IN

NIN

INN

EI

NU

N N

W

('--Y

eser

day'

sC

lass

room

prer

equi

site

s

clas

s

text

book

mee

ting re

quire

ds

Ilabu

skn

owle

d e

clas

sroo

m(li

st o

fsk

ills

topi

cs)

abili

ties

hom

ewor

k ex

ams

proj

ects

85

Slid

e 41

86

MI E

MI O

M i

NIB

OM

ON

I11

1111

1IR

A M

E IN

N O

M =

I11

1111

1

Slid

e 42

erda

y's

& T

oday

s' C

lass

room

prer

equi

site

s

s Ila

bus

(list

of

topi

cs)

cl :s

s

text

book

mee

ting

clas

sroo

m

hom

ewor

k ex

ams

proj

ects

requ

ired

know

led

esk

ills

abili

ties sy

llabu

s(li

st o

fto

pics

)

clas

sroo

mas

sess

men

t

stud

ent

lear

ning

inpu

tst

yles

beha

vior

clas

sroo

mre

quire

dkn

owle

d e

skill

sab

ilitie

s

clas

sroo

mm

anag

emen

t 8 8

MR

NM

IN

UM

NM

I OM

Nal

EM

IIN

N M

I MO

NM

IM

IMI

NM

IS

IMI

NM

Iit

MI

MIM

I

sylla

bus

(list

of

topi

cs) S!)

Slid

e 43

y's

& T

omor

row

'sC

lass

room

stud

ent

lear

ning

inpu

tst

yles

beha

vior

clas

sroo

m

requ

ired

know

led

esk

ills

abili

ties

stud

ent

asse

ssm

ent

clas

sroo

min

put

tech

nolo

gym

anag

emen

tbe

havi

or

desi

red

outc

omes

(mat

rices

)

lear

ning

styl

es

clas

sroo

m

clas

sroo

mas

sess

men

t

actu

albe

havi

ors

tcla

ssro

omm

anag

emen

t

tech

nolo

gy

tran

sfor

m

final

asse

ssm

entac

tual

*-ou

tcom

es

MI

MI

NM

MN

ME

IM

EIM

OIN

II11

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1E

llIM

O

Slid

e 44

sify

ing

Out

com

es G

ranu

larit

y

Tra

dito

n et

al.(

5000

BC

to 1

980'

s)m

ostly

topi

cs e

xcep

t for

Pla

to's

men

tal p

roce

sses

and

rea

lity

men

tal p

roce

sses

: im

agin

atio

n, o

pini

on, r

easo

ning

, und

erst

andi

ng

real

ity :

imag

es, s

ense

obj

ects

, mat

h re

aliti

es &

sci

ence

, for

ms

& d

iale

ctic

Blo

om e

t al.

(195

0's)

for

EA

CH

TO

PIC

!co

gniti

ve d

omai

naf

fect

ive

dom

ain

psyc

hom

otor

dom

ain

Myr

on T

ribus

(19

80's

& 1

990'

s)ac

adem

iCS

, doI

NG

tech

nolo

gy,

func

TIO

NS

of s

ocie

tykn

owle

dge

(fun

dam

enta

ls),

kno

w-h

ow (

tech

niqu

es),

wis

dom

(de

cisi

ons

and

setti

ng p

riorit

ies)

, and

cha

ract

er (

self-

este

em, h

ones

ty, e

tc. f

rom

Cov

ey)

Ale

xand

er a

nd J

udy

(198

8) :

NS

F/A

&M

Cor

ede

clar

ativ

e (f

unda

men

tals

), p

roce

dura

l (m

etho

ds),

con

ditio

nVde

cisi

ons)

91

1Clas ifying Outcomes

I- Taxonomies

+ Bloom et al (1948 - 1964) for EACH TOPIC

t.

Slide 45

6 Levels of Learningknowledge, comprehension,application, analysis, synthesis,evaluation

5 Degrees of Internalizaion (intrinsicmotivation in Quality)

receiving, responding, valuing,organization, characterization

+ Canelos & Catchen (1989)fractal learning, concept learning, rulelearning, problem solving

Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1983)novice, advanced beginner, competentperformer, proficient performer, expert

Merrill's (1983) for constructivist learningenvironmentsGagne's (1987) for constructivist learningenvironments

93

ME

I =I N

MI

=II

INN

NM

IM

B=

II N

M N

MI

Slid

e 46

icul

um (

Cou

rse)

Dev

elop

men

tan

d D

eliv

ery

Mod

eled

ucat

iona

l goa

lsst

uden

t inp

ut b

ehav

ior

clar

ifica

tion

(item

s)

defin

ition

(leve

l or

degr

ee)

94

crea

tion

(mat

rices

)

Vde

sire

d ou

tcom

es (

mat

rices

)

stud

ent

inpu

tle

arni

ngbe

havi

orst

yles

TT

1T

clas

sroo

m

clas

sroo

mas

sess

men

t

cour

se

pack

agin

g

actu

albe

havi

ors

clas

sroo

mm

anag

emen

t

tech

nolo

gy

map

ping

final

asse

ssm

ent

95

actu

alou

tcom

es

EM

IE

llM

INM

N O

M I

NII

INN

MI

MN

IN

Nal

l OM

I111

IMO

NM

I U

MII

111

Slid

e 47

Ref

ctio

ns o

n Com

pete

ncie

s vs

Lev

el4.

Ver

y sp

ecif

ic s

orts

of

thin

gs te

nd to

be

amen

able

to th

elo

wer

leve

ls o

f le

arni

ng b

ut n

ot to

the

high

er le

vels

The

mor

e ge

nera

l (ab

stra

ct)

goal

s te

nd to

be

amen

able

toth

e hi

gher

leve

ls o

f le

arni

ng b

ut n

ot to

the

low

er le

vels

App

licat

ion

is v

ery

diff

icul

t to

asse

ss

Aff

ectiv

e be

havi

ors

seem

to b

eat

trib

utes

asso

ciat

ed w

ith c

ogni

tive

beha

vior

The

con

nect

ivity

of

the

affe

ctiv

e be

havi

or d

evel

opm

ent i

sno

t as

obvi

ous

as f

or th

e co

gniti

ve b

ehav

iors

9 7

9 6

INS

EM

Iill

=N

MI

MI

MN

NM

E®

NM

! M

I11

1=M

INI

INN

MIN

pete

ncy

Mat

rix

e.g.

, Affi

nity

head

ers

may

go

here

Slid

e 48

I

oK

CA

pA

nSy

Ev

uco

mpe

tenc

y1

t c o m e

com

ete

nc2

com

pete

ncy

3

o u t c 0 m e

com

pete

ncy

7

com

pete

ncy

8

com

pete

ncy

10

com

pete

ncy

11

9 8

99

OM

WIN

111

=I N

MI

NM

MN

0111

1111

011

MO

MI M

I

Slid

e 49

Lean

dD

egre

e vs

Yea

r in

Sch

ool

10(1

Affe

ctiv

e an

d C

ogni

tive

beha

vior

sch

ange

with

lear

ning

, goi

ngup

the

scal

e

Bar

oldo

's H

ypot

hesi

s on

Lev

els

(p. 4

9, K

rath

woh

l)se

nior

wor

k: e

valu

atio

n an

d ap

plic

atio

n le

vel

juni

or w

ork:

ana

lysi

s, s

ynth

esis

,ev

alua

tion

leve

l

soph

omor

e w

ork:

kno

wle

dge,

com

preh

ensi

on(a

ka k

now

-how

),an

d an

alys

is le

vel

fres

hman

wor

k: k

now

ledg

e, c

ompr

ehen

sion

leve

lB

arol

do's

Hyp

othe

sis

on D

egre

es (

p. 4

9, K

rath

woh

l)se

nior

wor

k: v

alui

ng -

pre

fere

nce

juni

or w

ork:

val

uing

- a

ccep

tanc

eso

phom

ore

wor

k: r

espo

ndin

g -

satis

fact

ion

fres

hman

wor

k: r

ecei

ving

- c

ontr

olle

d at

tent

ion

101

MN

MI i

n E

MI

81.1

11.1

NM

I MI r

NM

NM

III1

11M

IM

IMI M

I11

1111

1

Stu

dent

Beh

avio

r Le

vels

and

Yea

r in

Sch

ool

Whe

re d

o st

uden

ts E

NT

ER

and

EX

IT o

n th

e m

atrix

?

Wha

t str

uctu

re, i

f any

, fits

wha

t stu

dent

s at

wha

t lev

el?

Con

cret

e to

Abs

trac

t ?vs

.A

bstr

act t

o C

oncr

ete

?

Sim

ple

to C

ompl

ex ?

vs.

Com

plex

to S

impl

e ?

Deg

ree

of In

tern

aliz

atio

n

Slid

e 50

w a) a)

Cu

O

C O RS

c.

C

co)

N .c C cn

5.20

Cha

r -t

teriz

atio

n5.

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enel

aliz

ed S

et5.

00 C

hara

cter

izat

ion

by a

Val

ue o

r V

alue

Com

plex

4.20

Org

aniz

atio

n of

a V

alue

Sys

tem

4.10

Con

cept

ualiz

atio

n of

a V

alue

4.00

Org

aniz

atio

n3.

30C

omm

itmen

t3.

20P

refe

renc

e fo

r a

Val

ue3.

10A

ccep

tanc

e of

a V

alue

3.00

Val

uing

2.30

Sat

isfa

ctio

n in

Res

pons

e2.

20W

illin

gnes

s to

Res

pond

2.10

Acq

uies

cenc

e in

Res

pond

ing

2.00

Res

pond

ing

1.30

Con

trol

led

or S

elec

ted

Atte

ntio

n1.

20W

illin

gnes

s to

Rec

eive

1.10

Aw

aren

ess

1.00

Rec

eivi

ng

102

103

MIN

I U

M N

MI

NM

MN

1111

1111

111

EN

NM

IN

S M

E N

M E

N W

M N

M N

M I

NN

INN

INN

Bui

l s in

g th

e T

ree

(Par

t 1)

Slid

e 51

inyo

ur te

am,

spec

ify o

ne o

r m

ore

educ

atio

nal g

oals

that

are

rel

evan

t to

your

team

and

this

wor

ksho

p

brea

k it

dow

n in

to it

s pa

rts

show

the

part

s as

'chi

ldre

n'

keep

gen

erat

ing

'chi

ldre

n' u

ntil

you

reac

h 're

cogn

izab

le' o

utco

mes

repe

atth

ispr

oces

sfo

ryo

ur g

oals

until

tim

e ex

pire

s

104

105

, MN

ION

MN

MN

INN

Eli

INN

INN

MIN

MI M

NIII

II

Dia

gram

s,A

n E

xam

ple

0--

Eng

inee

ring

Sci

ence

s

1,0F

)

The

rmal

Flu

ids

Mec

hani

cs

Slid

e 52

Sta

tics

Ele

ctric

alS

cien

ces

Mat

eria

lsS

cien

ce

Mat

eria

lB

alan

ces

Dyn

amic

s.0

Def

orm

able

Sol

ids

-.0

107

imilm

omm

oim

mam

irm

olom

m.

UM

all

NM

IN

MI

MS

OM

BM

IN O

M N

M M

EI

MN

1111

1111

EM

I M

N W

M N

MI

INN

NM

IIN

N

Slid

e 53

Tre

Dia

gram

s,A

nE

xam

ple

(con

t.)

Sta

tics

Fra

mes

Tru

sses

Met

iod

ofS

ectio

ns

Oth

erS

truc

ture

s

Atta

chm

ents

,C

onne

ctio

ns

Rag

es,

Pul

leys

Met

hod

ofM

embe

rs

Met

hod

ofJo

ints

109

NM

NM

IN

MI

MN

NIN

INN

NM

I N

M M

N M

N N

MI

EN

MN

Slid

e 54

'mcf

Tre

Dia

gram

s, C

onve

ntio

ns

***

Eac

h ite

m p

lace

d on

the

tree

has

, for

exa

mpl

e, a

dire

ct c

ause

-an

d-ef

fect

rel

atio

nshi

p w

ith th

e ite

m to

the

left

of it

, i.e

., th

ese

cond

leve

l of d

etai

l dire

ctly

cau

ses

the

first

leve

lof d

etai

l to

happ

en.

Eac

h le

vel o

f det

ail,

for

exam

ple,

ans

wer

s th

equ

estio

n, 'H

oww

ill th

is b

e ac

com

plis

hed'

?A

s yo

u go

from

left

to r

ight

, the

leve

l of d

etai

l get

sfin

er.

If th

e ite

ms

at th

e lo

wes

t lev

el o

f det

ail a

re're

cogn

izab

le'

mod

ules

that

can

be

impl

emen

ted

(e.g

., ca

n be

ass

igne

dto

som

eone

els

e to

acco

mpl

ish)

, the

tree

is c

ompl

ete.

Ask

the

follo

win

g qu

estio

ns fo

r ex

ampl

e:G

oing

from

rig

ht to

left:

'Will

thes

e ac

tions

rea

llyac

com

plis

h th

e ne

xt h

ighe

r le

vel o

f the

task

?'G

oing

from

left

to r

ight

: 'If

I wan

t to

acco

mpl

ish

this

, do

I1

0re

ally

nee

d to

do

all o

f the

se lo

wer

leve

ls o

f det

ail?

'

MN

IM

O M

N I

NN

MIN

IMO

MIN

1111

1al

lIN

S11

111

ME

IO

ilM

INE

MI

1111

1111

1111

Slid

e 55

stor

min

g an

d A

ffini

ty P

roce

ssT

oan

ize

a la

rge

set o

f ite

ms

into

asm

alle

r se

t of

rela

ted

item

s.

Gui

delin

es:

The

rul

es o

f br

ains

torm

ing

are

follo

wed

but e

ach

idea

is w

ritte

n (i

n 7

wor

ds o

rle

ss, i

nclu

ding

a n

oun

and

a ve

rb)

on a

self

-adh

esiv

e Po

st-i

t not

e or

car

dT

eam

mem

bers

sile

ntly

mov

e th

e Po

st-i

tca

rds

arou

nd to

for

m c

lose

ly-r

elat

edid

ea g

roup

s40

.*If

dis

agre

emen

t exi

sts

whe

n gr

oupi

ng,

mak

e co

pies

of

the

cont

este

d ca

rd a

ndpl

ace

in m

ore

than

one

gro

upL

abel

eac

h gr

oup

with

a h

eade

r ca

rdw

hich

cle

arly

iden

tifie

s an

d re

flec

ts th

eth

eme

of th

e ca

rds

If th

ere

are

sing

le id

ea c

ards

that

don

'tfi

t wel

l with

the

othe

r id

eas,

hav

e th

ete

am d

ecid

e if

they

sho

uld

be k

ept (

they

may

be

exce

llent

idea

s th

ough

t of

only

by

one

pers

on)

112

Post

-its

Aff

inity

Bra

inst

orm

ing

Hea

der

Car

dsG

roup

ed

113

Ma

NM

IN

MI

INN

ME

MS

ME

MI

NM

I N

M M

EI

Mill

NM

IIM

OII

ON

IM

E M

EI

EM

I

Slid

e 56

Seq

, enc

ing

the

Tre

e(P

art I

I)

+ S

eque

ncin

g C

ompe

tenc

ies

and

Elim

inat

ing

Dup

licat

es

Ass

igni

ng L

evel

s an

d D

egre

es(i.

e., c

onve

rtin

g O

utco

mes

into

Beh

avio

rs)

proc

ess

of s

eque

ncin

g th

e tr

ee

prec

eden

ce m

ust b

e fo

llow

ed

(i.e.

, kno

wle

dge

befo

re c

ompr

ehen

sion

,re

ceiv

ing

befo

re r

espo

ndin

g, e

tc.)

114

115

MN

MN

MN

MN

IIII

III

RIM

NM

IN

MI

MI

MIN

MIN

NO

MN

MI

MIN

NM

I M

N -

NM

ME

Slid

e 57

Dia

gram

s, A

n E

xam

ple

(con

t.)

Olim

imm

sM

echa

nics

Sta

tics

Def

orm

able

Sol

ids

Dyn

amic

s-o

Def

orm

able

Sol

ids

-o

Sta

tics

117

NE

NE

NW

EN

1110

1M

a N

B N

W M

N N

MI

NO

NN

NE

I IN

EN

IIN

I

Slid

e 58

Le r

ning

Exp

erie

nces

Def

ined

...N

OT

the

sam

e as

the

cont

ent w

ith w

hich

a c

ours

ede

als

NO

R th

e ac

tiviti

es p

erfo

rmed

by

the

teac

her

Lear

ning

take

s pl

ace

thro

ugh

the

activ

e be

havi

or o

fth

e st

uden

t; it

is w

hat t

he s

tude

nt d

oes

that

the

stud

ent l

earn

s, N

OT

wha

t the

teac

her

does

.

Thi

s m

eans

that

the

teac

her

mus

t hav

e so

me

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

kind

s of

inte

rest

s an

dba

ckgr

ound

the

stud

ents

hav

e so

that

she

can

mak

eso

me

pred

ictio

n as

toth

e lik

elih

ood

that

a g

iven

situ

atio

n w

ill b

ring

abou

t a r

eact

ion

from

the

stud

ent;

and,

furt

herm

ore,

will

brin

gab

out t

he k

ind

of r

eact

ion

whi

ch is

ess

entia

l to

the

lear

ning

des

ired.

119

118

NM

I MI N

MI

ME

I11

MN

MI M

N N

M M

OM

a N

M O

M M

N M

S N

MI M

N

Slid

e 59

aniz

ing

Lear

ning

Exp

erie

nces

Lea

rnin

g ex

peri

ence

sm

ust b

e or

rniz

ed to

rei

nfor

ceea

chot

her.

The

ir r

elat

ions

hip

over

tim

e an

d fr

om o

ne a

rea

toan

othe

r m

ust b

e co

nsid

ered

; oft

en r

efer

red

to a

sve

rtic

alan

d ho

rizo

ntal

rel

atio

nshi

ps.

+ C

ON

TIN

UIT

Yth

e ve

rtic

al r

eite

ratio

n or

rec

urrin

g em

phas

isof

maj

orcu

rric

ulum

ele

men

ts, t

hem

es o

r or

gani

zing

thre

ads

SE

QU

EN

CE

incr

easi

ngth

e br

eadt

h an

d de

pth

of v

ertic

alre

itera

tion

INT

EG

RA

TIO

Nth

e ho

rizon

tal r

elat

ions

hip

of c

urric

ulum

exp

erie

nces

(i.e.

,w

ith th

e ob

ject

ive

of a

llow

ing

the

stud

ent t

ode

velo

p a

unifi

ed v

iew

)12

1

MIS

IMO

all

all W

M W

O N

Mal

lliIII

III11

116

MI N

IB M

S M

I11

1111

Gen

eral

Prin

cipl

esin

Sel

ectin

g Le

arni

ng E

xper

ienc

es

Slid

e 60

the

lear

ning

exp

erie

nce

mus

t pro

vide

the

stud

ent w

ithan

opp

ortu

nity

topr

actic

e th

e ki

nd o

f beh

avio

r im

plie

dby

the

obje

ctiv

e+

the

stud

ent m

ust d

eriv

e so

me

satis

fact

ion

from

exhi

bitin

g th

e ki

nd o

f beh

avio

r im

plie

d by

the

obje

ctiv

es4.

the

lear

ning

exp

erie

nce

mus

t be

with

in th

e ra

nge

ofpo

ssib

ility

for

the

stud

ents

invo

lved

+ th

ere

are

man

y pa

rtic

ular

exp

erie

nces

that

can

be

used

to a

ttain

the

sam

e ed

ucat

iona

l obj

ectiv

es+

the

sam

e le

arni

ng e

xper

ienc

e w

ill u

sual

ly b

ring

abou

tse

vera

l out

com

es12

312

2

INN

IINM

IMI O

N N

MI N

M N

O M

N M

I Mil

all N

M IN

NN

MI

MIR

NM

IN

MI O

M

ctio

n &

Rev

isio

n

Ref

lect

ion

1 0

Slid

e 61

each

team

pre

sent

s th

e re

sults

of t

heir

wor

kfr

om th

e pr

evio

us s

essi

ons

if th

e te

am u

sed

a m

odifi

ed o

r di

ffere

ntpr

oces

sto

gen

erat

e th

e tr

ee (

outc

omes

),th

epr

oces

ssh

ould

be

pres

ente

d

disc

uss

the

proc

ess

used

to e

stab

lish

leve

ls a

nd d

egre

es

wor

k is

crit

ique

d by

the

othe

r te

ams

125

NM

I M

E N

MI

MI

1111

111

MI

MI

IMO

MI

MI

NIS

NM

elle

ME

IN

NIN

SIM

O

App

ndi

xS

lide

62

Slid

es

Par

tial B

iblio

grap

hy63

-64

Lang

ford

/ M

cNei

ll Le

vels

of L

earn

ing

65-

71

Blo

om's

Cog

nitiv

e D

omai

n (C

onde

nsed

Ver

sion

)9

pps.

Kra

thw

ohl's

Affe

ctiv

e D

omai

n (C

onde

nsed

Ver

sion

)9

pps.

Som

e R

espo

nses

to F

orm

ulat

-Sha

re-L

iste

n-C

reat

e3

pps.

126

127

NM

NM

OM

MI I

liM

IMI

IMO

MIN

MN

Ili

MI I

IIO

N M

I MI

IIIII

INN

Slid

e 63

Par

tB

iblio

grap

hyt4

1 C

ulve

r, R

icha

rd S

. , In

corp

orat

ing

Ass

essm

ent I

nto

the

Cla

ssro

om A

ctiv

ities

, 199

2,A

SE

E A

nnua

l Con

fere

nce

Pro

ceed

ings

, p. 7

902

Cul

ver,

Ric

hard

S. ,

Edu

catin

g fo

r M

atur

ity: P

erry

's M

odel

for

Inte

llect

ual

Dev

elop

men

t, In

tern

atio

nal J

ourn

al o

f App

lied

Eng

inee

ring

Edu

catio

n,19

87,

Vol

. 3,

No.

5, p

p. 4

57-4

633

Sm

ith, K

arl A

. , E

duca

tion

Eng

inee

ring:

Heu

ristic

s fo

rIm

prov

ing

Lear

ning

Effe

ctiv

enes

s an

d E

ffici

ency

, Int

erna

tiona

l Jou

rnal

of A

pplie

d E

ngin

eerin

gE

duca

tion,

198

7, V

ol. 3

, No.

4, p

p. 3

65 -

372

4 J.

Can

elos

and

G. C

atch

en ,

Tes

ting

Inte

llect

ual S

kills

in E

ngin

eerin

g; T

est D

esig

nM

etho

ds fo

r Le

arni

ng, I

nter

natio

nal J

ourn

al o

f App

lied

Eng

inee

ring

Edu

catio

n, 1

989,

Vol

. 5, N

o. 1

, pp.

3 -

12

5 Jo

nass

en, D

avid

H. (

Con

trib

utin

g E

dito

r), E

valu

atin

gC

onst

ruct

ivis

t Lea

rnin

g,E

duca

tiona

l Tec

hnol

ogy,

199

1, S

epte

mbe

r, p

p. 2

8 -

336

Lang

ford

, Dav

id L

. , T

otal

Qua

lity

Lear

ning

Han

dboo

k,La

ngfo

rd Q

ualit

y E

duca

tion.

7 T

ribus

, Myr

on C

. , Q

ualit

y M

anag

emen

t in

Edu

catio

n, 1

993

8 T

ribus

, Myr

on C

. , T

otal

Qua

lity

Man

agem

ent i

n S

choo

ls o

fE

ngin

eerin

g an

d of

Bus

ines

s9

Han

son,

J. R

ober

t, U

sing

Aut

hent

ic A

sses

smen

t to

Mee

t Per

form

ance

Sta

ndar

ds,

1994

, Jan

uary

28

- 29

, Pho

enix

, Ariz

ona

10 P

udlo

wsk

i, Z

. J. ,

An

Inte

grat

ed A

ppro

ach

to C

urric

ulum

Des

ign

for

Eng

inee

ring

Edu

catio

n, In

tern

atio

nal J

ourn

al o

f App

lied

Eng

inee

ring

Edu

catio

n, 1

987,

Vol

. 3, N

o.1,

pp.

11

- 26

129

12

MI N

MN

M In

MI M

I MI I

N M

I o 1

1111

1N

M N

M M

I

al B

iblio

grap

hy (

cont

inue

d)Sl

ide

64

11 P

irsig

, Rob

ert M

.,Z

en &

The

Art

of M

otor

cycl

e M

aint

enan

ce :

An

Inqu

iry In

toV

alue

s, 1

974,

Will

iam

Mor

row

, N.Y

.12

Tyl

er, R

alph

W.,

Bas

ic P

rinci

ples

of C

urric

ulum

and

Inst

ruct

ion,

1949

, Uni

vers

ity o

fC

hica

go P

ress

, Chi

cago

13 H

ughe

s-H

alle

tt, D

ebor

ah,et

. al.

,C

alcu

lus,

199

4, J

ohn

Wile

y &

Son

s, In

c. ,

New

Yor

k

14 F

elde

r, R

.. M

. and

L. K

. Silv

erm

an L

earn

ing

and

Tea

chin

g S

tyle

s in

Eng

inee

ring

Edu

catio

n, E

ngin

eerin

g E

duca

tion,

1988

, Apr

il, p

p. 6

74-6

8115

Pre

get,

Ric

hard

,C

hart

ing

You

r C

ours

e: H

ow to

Pre

pare

to T

each

Mor

e E

ffect

ivel

y,19

94, M

agna

Pub

licat

ions

, Mad

ison

, Wis

cons

in16

Mes

tre,

Jos

e P

., C

ogni

tive

Asp

ects

of L

earn

ing

and

Tea

chin

g S

cien

ce, P

re-C

olle

geT

each

er E

nhan

cem

ent i

n S

cien

ce a

nd M

athe

mat

ics:

Sta

tus,

Issu

es &

Pro

blem

s,19

94, N

atio

nal S

cien

ce F

ound

atio

n, W

ashi

ngto

n, D

.C.

17 G

ardn

er, H

owar

d, T

he U

nsch

oole

d M

ind;

How

Chi

ldre

n T

hink

and

How

Sch

ools

Sho

uld

Tea

ch, 1

991,

Bas

ic B

ooks

131

130

NM

OW

MI M

I11

1N

MI M

I NM

IN

MI

MIN

NM

,111

1111

1N

MI

Kno

w e

dge

(Inf

orm

atio

n)

Slid

e 65

Pro

cess

ver

bs:

defin

em

emor

ize

reco

rdla

bel

nam

ere

late

list

read

repe

atlis

ten

reca

llvi

ew

How

do

I kno

w I

have

rea

ched

this

leve

l?I r

ecal

l inf

orm

atio

n?I b

ring

to m

ind

the

appr

opria

te m

ater

ial a

t the

app

ropr

iate

tim

e?I h

ave

been

exp

osed

to

the

info

rmat

ion

and

I can

res

pond

to q

uest

ions

, tas

ks, e

tc.

Wha

t do

I do

at th

is le

vel?

I rea

d m

ater

ial,

liste

n to

lect

ures

, wat

ch v

ideo

s, ta

ke n

otes

and

I am

able

to p

ass

a te

st o

f kno

wle

dge

on th

e

subj

ect a

rea.

I lea

rn th

e vo

cabu

lary

of t

he c

ompe

tenc

y ar

ea, i

.e.,

the

term

inol

ogy.

I lea

rn th

e co

nven

tions

use

d.

How

will

the

teac

her

know

I am

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r w

ill p

rovi

de o

ppor

tuni

ties

(eith

er o

rally

or

in w

ritte

n te

sts)

,re

gard

less

of c

ompl

exity

, tha

t can

be

answ

ered

thro

ugh

sim

ple

reca

ll of

pre

viou

sly

lear

ned

mat

eria

l.

Wha

t doe

s th

e te

ache

r do

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r di

rect

s, te

lls, s

how

s, id

entif

ies,

exa

min

es th

e in

form

atio

n ne

cess

ary

atth

is le

vel.

Wha

t are

typi

cal w

ays

I can

dem

onst

rate

my

know

ledg

e?1.

Def

ine

tech

nica

l ter

ms

by g

ivin

g th

eir

attr

ibut

es, p

rope

rtie

s or

rel

atio

ns.

2. R

ecal

l the

maj

or fa

cts

abou

t a p

artic

ular

sub

ject

.3.

Lis

t the

cha

ract

eris

tic w

ays

of tr

eatin

g an

d pr

esen

ting

idea

s (i.

e., l

ist

conv

entio

ns a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith th

e su

bjec

t).

4. N

ame

the

clas

ses,

set

s, d

ivis

ions

, and

arr

ange

men

tsw

hich

are

reg

arde

d as

fund

amen

tal f

or a

giv

en s

ubje

ct fi

eld

or p

robl

em.

5. L

ist t

he c

riter

ia u

sed

to ju

dge

fact

s, p

rinci

ples

, and

idea

s.6.

Des

crib

e th

e m

etho

d(s)

of i

nqui

ry o

r te

chni

ques

and

pro

cedu

res

used

in a

par

ticul

arfie

ld o

f stu

dy.

7. L

ist t

he r

elev

ant p

rinci

ples

and

gen

eral

izat

ions

.8.

Fill

in th

e bl

ank.

132

Mod

ifica

tions

by

B. M

cNei

ll of

Dav

id L

angf

ord'

s de

finiti

ons

of L

evel

s of

Lea

rnin

g In

Tot

al Q

ualit

y Le

arni

ng H

andb

ook,

Lang

ford

Qua

lity

Edu

catio

n en

d B

. Blo

om e

t al.

Tax

onom

y of

Edu

catio

nal O

bjec

tives

, Lon

gman

s, G

reen

and

Co.

195

6.

133

MIM

I MB

NM

MB

MN

MM

IN

M S

W N

M N

MI

Inn

MIM

IIII

IIIM

IN M

I

Com

pehe

nsio

n / U

nder

stan

ding

Slid

e 66

Pro

cess

ver

bs:

desc

ribe

iden

tify

repo

rtte

llex

plai

nlo

cate

rest

ate

wor

kex

pres

sre

cogn

ize

revi

ew

How

do

I kno

w I

have

rea

ched

this

leve

l?I c

ompr

ehen

d an

d un

ders

tand

wha

t is

bein

g co

mm

unic

ated

E n

d m

ake

use

of th

e id

eas

but w

ithou

tre

latin

g th

em to

oth

er id

eas

orm

ater

ial.

I may

not

yet

und

erst

and

the

fulle

st m

eani

ng. I

und

erst

and

wha

t oth

ers

are

disc

ussi

ng c

once

rnin

gth

is id

ea. T

his

leve

lre

quire

s K

now

ledg

e.

Wha

t do

I do

at th

is le

vel?

I suc

cess

fully

wor

k as

sign

men

ts in

whi

ch th

e ap

prop

riate

app

roac

h is

evi

dent

eith

er b

ecau

se o

fm

ater

ial i

n th

e pr

oble

mst

atem

ent o

r be

caus

e of

the

prob

lem

's r

elat

ive

loca

tion

in th

e bo

ok to

the

appr

opria

te m

etho

d.I t

rans

late

info

rmat

ion

into

my

own

wor

ds (

tran

slat

ion

from

one

leve

l of a

bstr

actio

n to

ano

ther

. Itr

ansl

ate

sym

bolic

info

rmat

ion

(e.g

., ta

bles

, com

mas

,di

agra

ms,

gra

phs,

mat

hem

atic

al fo

rmul

as, e

tc.)

into

ver

bal f

orm

s, a

nd v

ice

vers

a. I

inte

rpre

t or

sum

mar

ize

com

mun

icat

ions

(writ

ten/

grap

hica

l/ora

l). I

dete

rmin

e im

plic

atio

ns, c

onse

quen

ces,

cor

olla

ries

, effe

cts,

etc

. whi

ch a

re e

xten

sion

sof t

rend

s or

tend

enci

es b

eyon

d th

e gi

ven

data

.

How

will

the

teac

her

know

I am

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r w

ill o

ften

ask

ques

tions

or

give

test

s th

at c

an b

e an

swer

ed b

y m

erel

y re

stat

ing

or r

eorg

aniz

ing

mat

eria

l in

a ra

ther

liter

al (

clea

rly s

tatin

g th

e fa

cts

or p

rimar

y m

eani

ng o

f the

mat

eria

l) m

anne

r to

sho

w th

at I

unde

rsta

nc! t

he e

ssen

tialm

eani

ng, e

.g.,

give

the

idea

s in

you

r ow

n w

ords

.

Wha

t doe

s th

e te

ache

r do

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r de

mon

stra

tes,

wor

ks p

robl

ems,

list

ens,

que

stio

ns, c

ompa

res,

con

tras

ts, a

nd e

xam

ines

the

info

rmat

ion

and

your

know

ledg

e of

it.

Wha

t are

typi

cal w

ays

I can

dem

onst

rate

or

can

show

on

my

own

my

com

preh

ensi

on a

nd u

nder

stan

ding

.1.

Rea

d C

ompr

ehen

sion

leve

l pro

blem

s, k

now

wha

t is

bein

g as

ked

for,

and

suc

cess

fully

wor

k th

e pr

oble

ms.

2. C

lear

ly c

hron

icle

the

proc

ess

used

in w

orki

ng th

e pr

oble

m.

3. C

lear

ly d

escr

ibe

the

resu

lts o

f wor

king

the

prob

lem

.4.

Dra

w c

oncl

usio

ns (

inte

rpre

t tre

nds)

from

the

resu

lts o

f sul

ving

the

prob

lem

.5.

Com

pare

/con

tras

t tw

o di

ffere

nt p

robl

ems

(i.e.

, wha

t thi

ngs

are

the

sam

e? /

wha

t thi

ngs

are

diffe

rent

?)6.

Res

tate

and

idea

, the

ory,

or

prin

cipl

e in

you

r ow

n w

ords

.M

odifi

catio

ns b

y B

. McN

eill

of D

avid

Lan

gfor

d's

defin

ition

s of

Lev

els

of L

earn

ing

In T

otal

Qua

lity

Lear

ning

Han

dboo

k;

1 3

11La

ngfo

rd Q

ualit

y E

duca

tion

and

B. B

loom

of a

t. T

axon

omy

of E

duca

tiona

l Obj

ectiv

es, L

ongm

ans,

Gre

en a

nd C

o. 1

956.

135

Oil

NM

I N

M N

MI

SIM

NM

IM

ININ

S11

111

INN

=I

1111

11E

llN

MI

SIM

ME

IM

IN

App

liIat

ion

(Thi

nkin

g)

Slid

e 67

P-

cess

ver

bs:

appl

yill

ustr

ate

prac

tice

dem

onst

rate

inte

rpre

tre

cogn

ize

empl

oyop

erat

e

How

do

I kno

w I

have

rea

ched

this

leve

l?I h

ave

the

abili

ty to

rec

ogni

ze th

e ne

ed to

use

an

idea

, met

hod,

con

cept

, prin

cipl

e, o

r th

eory

with

out b

eing

told

to

use

it, i.

e., I

hav

e th

eab

ility

to u

se id

eas,

met

hods

, con

cept

s, p

rinci

ples

and

theo

ries

in n

ew s

ituat

ions

.I k

now

and

com

preh

end

the

info

rmat

ion

and

can

appl

y it

to a

new

situ

atio

n.I a

lso

have

the

abili

ty to

rec

ogni

ze w

hen

a

cert

ain

task

, pro

ject

, the

ory

or c

once

pt is

beyo

nd m

y cu

rren

t com

pete

ncy.

App

licat

ion

requ

ires

havi

ng

Kno

wle

dge

and

Com

preh

ensi

on.

Wha

t do

I do

at th

is le

vel?

I wor

k pr

oble

ms

for

whi

ch th

e so

lutio

n m

etho

dis

not

imm

edia

tely

evi

dent

or

obvi

ous.

I ta

kekn

owle

dge

that

has

been

lear

ned

at th

e K

now

ledg

e an

d C

ompr

ehen

sion

leve

ls o

f lea

rnin

g an

d ap

ply

it to

new

situ

atio

n.I s

olve

prob

lem

s on

my

own

and

mak

e us

e of

oth

erte

chni

ques

. Thi

s re

quire

s no

t onl

y kn

owin

g an

dco

mpr

ehen

ding

info

rmat

ion,

but

dee

p th

inki

ng a

bout

the

usef

ulne

ssof

this

info

rmat

ion

and

how

it c

an b

e us

ed to

solv

e ne

w

prob

lem

s th

at I

crea

te o

r id

entif

y.

How

will

the

teac

her

know

I am

at t

his

leve

l?I w

ill s

how

the

teac

her

thro

ugh

my

wor

kth

at I

am in

volv

ed in

pro

blem

sol

ving

in n

ewsi

tuat

ions

with

min

imal

iden

tific

atio

n or

pro

mpt

ing

of th

e ap

prop

riate

rul

es,

prin

cipl

es, o

r co

ncep

ts b

y th

e te

ache

r. T

he te

ache

rwill

be

able

to a

sk g

ener

al q

uest

ions

like

, How

muc

hpr

otec

tion

from

the

sun

is e

noug

h? a

nd I

will

kno

who

w to

atta

ck

the

prob

lem

.

Wha

t are

the

typi

cal w

ays

I can

dem

onst

rate

or

show

, on

my

own,

my

appl

icat

ion

of K

now

ledg

e an

d C

ompr

ehen

sion

?1.

Sol

ve p

robl

ems

whi

ch r

equi

re r

ecog

nitio

nof

the

appr

opria

te c

once

pts,

theo

ries,

sol

utio

nte

chni

ques

, etc

.

2. A

pply

the

law

s of

mat

hem

atic

s, c

hem

istr

y,ph

ysic

s, a

nd e

ngin

eerin

g to

pra

ctic

al s

ituat

ions

.3.

Wor

k pr

ojec

t typ

e pr

oble

ms.

131

Mod

ifica

tions

by

B. M

cNei

ll of

Dav

id L

angf

ord'

s de

finiti

ons

of L

evel

s of

Lea

rnin

g In

Tot

al Q

ualit

y Le

arni

ng H

andb

ook,

Lang

ford

Dua

lity

Edu

catio

n an

d B

. Blo

om a

t el.

Tax

onom

y of

Edu

catio

nal O

bjec

tives

,Lon

gman

s, G

reen

and

Co.

195

6.13

7

Min

1111

11M

INal

al S

O I

NN

MU

MIN

V N

I M

S M

N N

MI

ell

EM

I11

E11

NIP

IMO

IIII

II

Ifsis

(T

hink

ing)

Slid

e 68

Pro

cess

ver

bs:

brea

k ap

art

exam

ine

brea

k do

wn

expl

ain

How

do

I kno

w I

have

rea

ched

this

leve

l?I c

an e

xpla

in w

hy. I

can

exa

min

e, m

etho

dica

lly, i

deas

, con

cept

s, w

ritin

g et

c. a

nd s

epar

ate

into

par

ts o

r ba

sic

prin

cipl

es.

I hav

e th

e ab

ility

to b

reak

dow

n in

form

atio

n in

to c

ompo

nent

par

ts in

ord

er to

mak

e or

gani

zatio

n of

the

who

le c

lear

. Wor

k at

this

leve

l req

uire

s ha

ving

Kno

wle

dge

and

Com

preh

ensi

on le

vels

of l

earn

ing

(app

licat

ion

is n

ot r

equi

red)

.

Wha

t do

I do

at th

is le

vel?

I ana

lyze

res

uEts

by

brea

king

con

cept

s, id

eas,

theo

ries,

equ

atio

ns, e

tc. a

part

.I c

an e

xpla

in th

e lo

gica

lin

terc

onne

ctio

ns o

f the

par

ts a

nd c

an d

evel

op d

etai

led

caus

e an

d ef

fect

cha

ins.

Wha

t doe

s th

e te

ache

r do

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r pr

obes

, gui

des,

obs

erve

s, a

nd a

cts

as a

res

ourc

e.

Wha

t are

typi

cal q

uest

ions

I ca

n po

se fo

r m

ysel

f to

answ

er w

hich

will

dem

onst

rate

or

show

my

Ana

lysi

s le

vel o

f lea

rnin

g?1.

Why

did

this

(re

sult)

hap

pen?

2. W

hat r

easo

ns d

oes

she

give

for

her

conc

lusi

ons?

3. D

oes

the

evid

ence

giv

en s

uppo

rt th

e hy

poth

esis

, the

con

clus

ion?

4. A

re th

e co

nclu

sion

s su

ppor

ted

by fa

cts,

opi

nion

s, o

r an

alys

is o

f the

res

ults

?5.

Wha

t are

the

caus

al r

elat

ions

hips

bet

wee

n th

e re

sults

for

the

who

le a

nd th

e pa

rts?

6. W

hat a

re th

e un

stat

ed a

ssum

ptio

ns?

138

Mod

ifica

tions

by

B. M

cNei

ll of

Dav

id L

angt

ord'

s de

finiti

ons

of L

evel

s of

Lea

rnin

g in

Tot

al Q

ualit

y Le

arni

ng H

andb

ook,

Lang

ford

Qua

lity

Edu

catio

n an

d B

. Blo

om e

t al.

Tax

onom

y of

Edu

catio

nal O

bjec

tives

, Lon

gman

a, G

reen

and

Co.

195

6.13

9

NM

VIII

IMO

MN

INN

NM

I11

1111

MN

Mill

O®

INN

lm M

N IN

Na

1111

111

Syn

thsi

s (T

hink

ing)

Slid

e 69

Pro

cess

ver

bs:

arra

nge

cons

truc

tm

anag

epr

opos

eas

sem

ble

crea

teor

gani

zese

t up

colle

ctde

sign

plan

writ

eco

mpo

sefo

rmul

ate

prep

are

How

do

I kno

w U

hav

e re

ache

d th

is le

vel?

I hav

e th

e ab

ility

to p

ut to

geth

er p

arts

and

ele

men

ts in

to a

uni

fied

orga

niza

tion

or w

hole

whi

ch r

equi

res

orig

inal

, cre

ativ

e th

inki

ng. I

rec

ogni

ze n

ew p

robl

ems

and

deve

lop

new

tool

s to

sol

ve th

em. I

cre

ate

my

own

plan

s, m

odel

s, a

nd/o

r hy

poth

eses

for

findi

ng s

olut

ions

to p

robl

ems.

Thi

s le

vel o

f lea

rnin

g re

quire

sK

now

ledg

e, C

ompr

ehen

sion

, App

licat

ion

and

Ana

lysi

s le

vels

of l

earn

ing.

Wha

t do

I do

at th

is le

vel?

put i

deas

toge

ther

to c

reat

e so

met

hing

. Thi

s co

uld

be a

phy

sica

l obj

ect,

a pr

oces

s, a

des

ign

met

hod,

aco

mm

unic

atio

n, o

r ev

en a

set

of a

bstr

act r

elat

ions

(i.e

., m

athe

mat

ical

mod

els)

. I p

rodu

ce r

epor

ts,

(writ

ten/

oral

) w

hich

cre

ate

a de

sire

d ef

fect

(e.

g., i

nfor

mat

ion

acqu

isiti

on, a

ccep

tanc

e of

a p

oint

of v

iew

,co

ntin

ued

supp

ort,

etc.

) in

the

read

er (

liste

ner)

.I g

ener

ate

proj

ect p

lans

, I p

ropo

se d

esig

ns, I

form

ulat

ehy

poth

eses

bas

ed o

n th

e an

alys

is o

f per

tinen

t fac

tors

.I a

m a

ble

to g

ener

aliz

e fr

om a

set

of a

xiom

s,pr

inci

ples

.

How

will

the

teac

her

know

I am

at t

his

leve

l?I s

how

that

I ca

n co

mbi

ne id

eas

into

a s

tate

men

t, pl

an, p

rodu

ct, e

tc.,

that

is n

ew fo

r m

e; e

.g.,

I can

dev

elop

a pr

ogra

m th

at in

clud

es th

e be

st p

arts

of e

ach

of th

ose

idea

s

Wha

t doe

s th

e te

ache

r do

as

this

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r re

flect

s, e

xten

ds, a

naly

ses,

and

eva

lur

Wha

t are

the

typi

cal q

uest

ions

I ca

n an

swer

whi

ch w

ill d

emon

stra

te o

r sh

ow m

y S

ynth

esis

?1.

Can

I cr

eate

a p

roje

ct p

lan?

2. C

an I

deve

lop

a m

odel

?3.

Can

I pr

opos

e a

desi

gn?

1 1

oM

odifi

catio

ns b

y B

. McN

eill

of D

avid

Lan

gfor

d's

defin

ition

s of

Lev

els

of L

earn

ing

In T

otal

Qua

lity

Lear

ning

Han

dboo

k,La

ngfo

rd Q

ualit

y E

duca

tion

and

B. B

loom

et a

l. T

axon

omy

of E

duca

tiona

l Obj

ectiv

es, L

ongm

ans,

Gre

en a

nd C

o. 1

956.

I'1

IMO

1111

1111

1.1

Me

INN

1111

11N

11ga

l MN

MN

IN M

N11

111

MB

Mil

NO

App

re ia

tion

/ Eva

luat

ion

(Wis

dom

)

Slid

e 70

Pro

cess

ver

bs:

appr

aise

choo

seco

mpa

rees

timat

e (q

ualit

y)ev

alua

te

judg

epr

edic

t (qu

ality

)ra

te v

alue

sele

ct

How

do

I kno

w I

have

rea

ched

this

leve

l?I h

ave

the

abili

ty to

judg

e an

d ap

prec

iate

the

valu

e of

idea

s, p

roce

dure

s an

d m

etho

ds u

sing

app

ropr

iate

crite

ria. T

o w

ork

at th

is le

vel r

equi

res

havi

ng a

chie

ved

Kno

wle

dge,

Com

preh

ensi

on, A

pplic

atio

n,A

naly

sis

and

Syn

thes

isle

vels

of l

earn

ing.

Wha

t do

I do

at th

is le

vel?

I mak

e va

lue

judg

men

ts b

ased

on

cert

ain

cons

ider

atio

ns s

uch

as u

sefu

lnes

s, e

ffect

iven

ess,

and

so

on. B

ased

on

info

rmat

ion

gain

ed th

roug

h ap

plic

atio

n, a

naly

sis

,and

synt

hesi

s I c

an r

atio

nally

sel

ect a

pro

cess

, a m

etho

d,a

mod

el, a

des

ign,

etc

. fro

m a

mon

g a

set o

f pos

sibl

e pr

oces

ses,

met

hods

, mod

els,

desi

gns,

etc

.I e

valu

ate

com

petin

gpl

ans

of a

ctio

n be

fore

act

ually

sta

rtin

g th

e pl

anne

d w

ork.

I ev

alua

te w

ork

base

d on

inte

rnal

sta

ndar

ds o

f con

sist

ency

,lo

gica

l acc

urac

y an

d th

e ab

senc

e of

inte

rnal

flaw

s (e

.g.,

I can

cer

tify

if de

sign

feas

ibili

ty h

as b

een

dem

onst

rate

d in

are

port

).I e

valu

ate

wor

k ba

sed

on e

xter

nal s

tand

ards

of e

ffici

ency

, cos

t, ut

ility

to m

eet p

artic

ular

end

s (e

.g.,

I can

cer

tify

that

des

ign

qual

ity h

as b

een

dem

onst

rate

d in

a r

epor

t).

How

will

the

teac

her

know

I am

at t

his

leve

l?I c

an d

emon

stra

te th

at I

can

mak

e a

judg

men

t abo

ut s

omet

hing

usi

ng s

ome

crite

ria o

r st

anda

rd fo

r m

akin

g th

eju

dgm

ent.

Wha

t doe

s th

e te

ache

r do

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r cl

arifi

es, a

ccep

ts, h

arm

oniz

es, a

ligns

, and

gui

des.

Wha

t are

typi

cal s

tate

men

ts a

nd q

uest

ions

I ca

n re

spon

d to

whi

ch w

ill d

emon

stra

te o

r sh

ow m

yap

prec

iatio

n/ev

alua

tion?

1.I c

an e

valu

ate

an id

ea in

term

s of

...

2.F

or w

hat r

easo

ns d

o I f

avor

...3.

Whi

ch p

olic

y do

I th

ink

wou

ld r

esul

t in

the

grea

test

goo

d fo

r th

e gr

eate

st n

umbe

r?4.

Whi

ch o

f the

se m

odel

s i.e

., m

odel

ing

appr

oach

es is

the

best

for

my

curr

ent n

eeds

. How

doe

s th

is r

epor

t sho

w th

atth

e de

sign

is fe

asib

le?

How

doe

s th

is r

epor

t sho

w th

e qu

ality

of t

he d

esig

n?1

4 `i

.)14

.3

Mod

ifica

tions

by

B. M

cNei

ll of

Dav

id L

angf

ord'

s de

finiti

ons

of L

evel

s of

Lea

rnin

g In

Tot

al Q

ualit

y Le

arni

ng H

andb

ook,

Lang

ford

Qua

lity

Edu

catio

n an

d B

. Blo

om e

t al.

Tax

onom

y of

Edu

catio

nal O

bjec

tives

, Lon

gman

s, G

reen

and

Co.

195

6.

UN

NB

MU

INS

NM

MS

UN

A N

U M

U U

N11

111.

all

Sit

INS

INN

NM

IIM

O N

U11

1113

lye

(Cha

ract

er)

Tra

its

Wha

t are

som

e af

fect

ive

trai

ts?

Abi

lity

to w

ork

alon

eC

urio

sity

Inte

rest

Abi

lity

to w

ork

in te

ams

Hon

esty

Sel

f Est

eem

Atte

ntio

nIn

itiat

ive

Tru

thfu

lnes

sC

oope

rativ

enes

sIn

tegr

ity

Slid

e 71

Wha

t que

stio

ns c

an I

ask

mys

elf t

o de

term

ine

if I a

m e

xhib

iting

thes

e ch

arac

teris

tics?

1. D

o I c

ome

to c

lass

(m

eetin

gs)

prep

ared

?2.

Do

I com

e to

cla

ss (

mee

tings

) on

tim

e?3.

Do

I see

k ou

t mat

eria

l on

a su

bjec

t bey

ond

wha

t is

sugg

este

d by

the

inst

ruct

or?

4. D

o I a

dmit

whe

n I d

o no

t kno

w s

omet

hing

?5.

Do

I tal

k ab

out c

lass

sub

ject

s w

ith m

y fr

iend

s du

ring

info

rmal

gat

herin

gs.

6. D

o I h

elp

othe

rs w

hen

they

are

hav

ing

diffi

culti

es?

7. D

o I i

nves

t the

tim

e ex

pect

ed w

orki

ng o

n th

e cl

ass

(mee

tings

)?8.

Do

I do

the

wor

k I s

ay I

will

do

and

have

it d

one

whe

n I s

ay I

will

hav

e it

done

?9.

Do

I kno

w I

can

solv

e pr

oble

ms?

145

X44

A Condensed Version of the COGNITIVE Domainof the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (3)

1.00 KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge, as defined here, involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall ofmethods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting. For measurementpurposes, the recall situation involves little more than bringing to mind the appropriatematerials. Although some alteration of the material may be required, this is a relativelyminor part of the task.. The knowledge objectives emphasize most the psychologicalprocesses of remembering. The process of relating is also involved in that a knowledgetest situation requires the organization and reorganization of a problem such that it willfurnish the appropriate signals and cues for the information and knowledge the individualprocesses. To use an analogy, if one thinks of the mind as a file, the problem in aknowledge test situation is that of finding in the problem or task the appropriate signals,cues, and clues which will most effectively bring out whatever knowledge is filed or stored.

1.10 Knowledge Of Specifics

The recall of specific and isolable bits of information. The emphasis is one symbols withconcrete referents, This material, which is at a very low level of abstraction, may bethought of as the elements, from which more complex and abstract forms of knowledgeare built.

1.11 Knowledge of Terminology

Knowledge of the referents for specific symbols (verbal and nonverbal). This may includeknpwledge of the most generally accepted symbol referent, knowledge of the variety ofsymbols which may be used for single referent, or knowledge of the referent mostappropriate to a given use of a symbol.

To define technical terms by giving their attributes, properties, or relations.Familiarity with a large number of words in their common range of meanings.

146

I

1.12 Knowledge of Specific Facts

Knowledge of dates. events, persons, places, etc. This may include very precise andspecific information such as the specific day or exact magnitude of a phenomenon. It mayalso include approximate or relative information such as an approximate time period or thegeneral order of magnitude of a phenomenon.

The recall of major facts about particular cultures.The possession of a minimum knowledge about the organisms studied in thelaboratory.

1.20 Knowledge Of Ways And Means Of Dealing With Specifics

Knowledge of the ways of organizing, studying, judging, and criticizing. This includes themethods of inquiry, the chronological sequences, and the standards of judgment within afield as well as the patterns of organization through which the areas of the fieldsthemselves are determined and internally organized. This knowledge is at anintermediate level of abstraction between specific knowledge on the one hand andknowledge of universals on the other. It does not so much demand the activity of thestudent in using the materials as it does a more passive awareness of their nature.

1.21 Knowledge of Conventions

Knowledge of characteristics ways of treating and presenting ideas and phenomena. Forpurposes of communication and consistency, workers in a field employ usages, styles,practices, and forms which best suit their purposes and/or which appear to suit best thephenomena with which they deal. It should be recognized that although these forms andconventions are likely to be set up on arbitrary, accidental, or authoritative bases, they areretained because of the general agreement or concurrence of individuals concerned withthe subject, phenomena, or problem.

Familiarity with the forms and conventions of the major types of works; e.g., verse,plays, scientific papers, etc.To make pupils conscious of correct form and usage in speech and writing.

1.22 Knowledge of Trends and Sequences

Knowledge of the processes, directions, and movements of pl nomena with respect to

time.

Understanding of the continuity and development of American culture as exemplified in

American life.Knowledge of the basic trends underlying the development of public assistance

programs.

1.23 Knowledge of Classifications and Categories

Knowledge of the classes, sets, divisions, and arrangements which are regarded asfundamental for a given subject field, purpose, argument, or problem.

To recognize the area encompassed by various kinds of problems or materials.Becoming familiar with a range of types of literature.

1.24 Knowledge of Criteria

Knowledge of the criteria by which facts, principles, opinions, and conduct are tested or

judged.

Familiarity with criteria for judgment appropriate to the type of work and the purpose forwhich it is read.Knowledge of criteria for the evaluation of recreational activities,

1.25 Knowledge of Methodology

Knowledge of the methods of inquiry, techniques, and procedures employed in a particular

subject field as well as those employed in investigating particular problems andphenomena. The emphasis here is on the individual's knowledge of the method ratherthan his ability to use the method.

Knowledge of scientific methods for evaluating health concepts.

The student shall know the methods of attack relevant to the kinds of problems ofconcern to the social sciences.

148

1.30 Knowledge Of The Universals And Abstractions In A Field

Knowledge of the major schemes and patterns by which phenomena and ideas areorganized. These are the large structures, theories, and generalizations which dominate asubject field or which are quite generally used in studying phenomena or solvingproblems. These are at the highest levels of abstractions and complexity.

1.31. Knowledge of Principles and Generalizations

Knowledge of particular abstractions which summarize observations of phenomena.These are the abstractions which are of value in explaining, describing, predicting, or indetermining the most appropriate and relevant action or direction to be taken.

Knowledge if the important principles by which our experience with biologicalphenomena is summarized.The recall of major generalizations about particular cultures.

1.32 Knowledge of Theories and Structures

Knowledge of the body of principles and generalizations together with their interrelationswhich present a clear, rounded, and systematic view of a complex phenomenon, problem,or field. These are the most abstract formulation, and they can be used to show theinterrelation and organization of a great range of specifics.

The recall of major theories about particular cultures.Knowledge of a relatively complete formulation of the theory of evolution.

149

Intellectual Abilities And Skills

Abilities and skills refer to organized modes of operation and generalized techniques fordealing with materials and problems. The materials and problems may be of such anature that little or no specialized and technical information is required. Such informationas is required can be assumed to be part of the individual's general fund of knowledge.Other problems may require specialized and technical information at a rather high levelsuch that specific knowledge and skill in dealing with the problem and the materials arerequired. The abilities and skills objectives emphasize the mental processes of organizingand reorganizing material to achieve a particular purpose. The materials may be given orremembered.

2.00 COMPREHENSION

This represents the lowest level of understanding. It refers to a type of understanding orapprehension such that the individual knows what is being communicated and can makeuse of the material or idea being communicated without necessarily relating it to othermaterial or seeing its fullest implications.

2.10 Translation

Comprehension as evidenced by the care and accuracy with which the communication isparaphrased or rendered from one language or form of communication to another.Translation is judged on the basis of faithfulness and accuracy; that is, on the extent towhich the material in the original communication is preserved although the form of thecommunication has been altered.

The ability to understand non literal statements (metaphor, symbolism, irony,exaggeration).Skill in translating mathematical verbal material into symbolic statements and viceversa.

150

I

2.20 Interpretation

The explanation or summarization of a communication. Whereas translation involves anobjective part-for-part rendering of a communication, interpretation involves a reordering,rearrangement, or new view of the material.

The ability to grasp the thought of the work as a whole at any desired level ofgenerality.The ability to interpret various types of social data.

2.30 Extrapolation

The extension of trends or tendencies beyond the given data to determine implications,consequences, corollaries, effects, etc., which are in accordance with the conditionsdescribed in the original communication.

The ability to deal with the conclusion of a work in terms of the inference made fromthe explicit statements.Skill in predicting continuation of trends.

3.00 APPLICATION

The use of abstractions in particular and concrete situation. The abstractions may be inthe form of general ideas, rules of procedures, or generalized methods. The abstractionsmay also be technical principles, ideas, and theories which must be remembered andapplied.

Application to the phenomena discussed in one paper of the scientific terms orconcepts used in other papers.The ability to predict the probable effect of a change in a factor on a biological situationpreviously at equilibrium.

151

4.00 ANALYSIS

The breakdown of a communication into its constituent elements or parts such that therelative hierarchy of ides is made clear and/or the relations between the ideas expressedare made explicit. Such analyses are intended to clarify the communication, to indicatehow the communication is organized, and the way in which it manages to convey itseffects, as well as its basis and arrangement.

4.10 Analysis Of Elements

Identification of the elements included in a communication.

The ability to recognize unstated assumptions.Skill in distinguishing facts from hypotheses.

4.20 Analysis Of Relationships

The connections and interactions between elements and parts of a communication.

Ability to check the consistency of hypotheses with given information and assumption.Skill in comprehending the interrelationships among the ideas in a passage.

4.30 Analysis Of Organizational Principles

The organization, systematic arrangement, and structure which hold the communicationtogether. This includes the "explicit" as well as "implicit" structure. It includes the bases,necessary arrangement, and mechanics which make the communication a unit.

The ability to recognize form and pattern in literary or artistic works as a means ofunderstanding their meaning.Ability to recognize the general techniques used in persuasive materials, such asadvertising, propaganda, etc.

1 ,,..)r 0(..

5.00 SYNTHESIS

The putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole. This involves theprocess of working with pieces, parts, elements, etc., and arranging and combining themin such a way as to constitute a pattern or structure not clearly there before.

5.10 Production Of A Unique Communication

The development of a communication in which the writer or speaker attempts to conveyideas, feelings, and/or experiences to others.

Skill in writing, using an excellent organization of ideas and statements.Ability to tell a personal experience effectively.

5.20 Production Of A Plan, Or Proposed Set Of Operations

The development of a plan of work or the proposal of a plan of operations. The planshould satisfy requirements of the task which may be given to the student or which hemay develop for himself.

Ability to propose ways to testing hypotheses.Ability to plan a unit of instruction for a particular teaching situation.

5.30 Derivation Of A Set Of Abstract Relations

The development of a set of abstract relations either to classify or explain particular dataor phenomena, or the deduction of propositions and relations from a set of basicpropositions or symbolic representations.

Ability to formulate appropriate hypotheses based upon an analysis of factors involved,and to modify such hypotheses in the light of new factors and considerations.Ability to make mathematical discoveries and generalizations.

6.00 EVALUATION

Judgments about the value of material and methods for given purposes. Quantitative andqualitative judgments about the extent to which material and methods satisfy criteria. Useof a standard of appraisal. The criteria may be those determined by the student or thosewhich are given to him.

6.10 Judgments In Terms Of Internal Evidence

Evaluation of the accuracy of a communication from such evidence as logical accuracy,consistency, and other internal criteria.

Judging by internal standards, the ability to assess general probability of accuracy in

reporting facts from the care given to exactness of statement, documentation, proof,etc.The ability to indicate logical fallacies in arguments.

6.20 Judgments In Terms Of External Criteria

Evaluation of material with reference to selected or remembered criteria.

The comparison of major theories, generalizations, and facts about particular cultures.Judging by external standards, the ability to compare a work with the highest knownstandards in its field-especially with other works of recognized excellence.

154(1) Each sub category is followed by illustrative educational objectives siiiected from the literature.(3) Bloom, David R., et al., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Longman, 1964, p. 176 - 185.

A Condensed Version of the AFFECTIVE Domainof the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1)

1.0 RECEIVING (ATTENDING)

At this level we are concerned that the learner be sensitized to the existence of certainphenomena and stimuli; that is, that he be willing to receive or to attend to them. This isclearly the first and crucial step if the learner is to be properly oriented to learn what theteacher intends that he will. To indicate that this is the bottom rung of the ladder,however, is not at all to imply that the teacher is starting de novo. Because of previousexperience (formal or informal). the student brings to each situation a point of view or setwhich may facilitate or hinder his recognition of the phenomena to which the teacher istrying to sensitize him.

The category of Receiving has been divided into three subcategories to indicate threedifferent levels of attending to phenomena. While the division points between thesubcategories are arbitrary, the subcategories do represent a continuum. From anextremely passive position or role on the part of the learner, where the sole responsibilityfor the evocation of the behavior rests with the teacher-that is, the responsibility rests withhim for "capturing" the student's attention-the continuum extends to a point at which thelearner directs his attention, at least at a semiconscious level, toward the preferred stimuli.

1.1 Awareness

Awareness is almost a cognitive behavior. But unlike Knowledge, the lowest level of thecognitive domain, we are not so much concerned with a memory of, or ability to recall, anitem of fact as we are that, given appropriate opportunity, the learner will merely beconscious of something-that he take into account a situation, phenomena, object, or stageof affairs. Like Knowledge it does not imply an assessment of the qualities or nature ofthe stimulus, but unlike Knowledge it does not necessarily imply attention. There can besimple awareness without specific discrimination or recognition of the objectivecharacteristics of the object, even though these characteristics must be deemed to havean effect. The individual may not be able to verbalize the aspects of the stimulus whichcause the awareness.

Develops awareness of aesthetic factors in dress, furnishings, architecture, city design,good art, and the like.Develops some consciousness of color, form, arrangement, and design in the objectsand structures around him and in descriptive or symbolic representations of people,things, and situation. (2)

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1.2 Willingness to Receive

In this category we have come a step up the ladder but are still dealing with what appearsto be cognitive behavior. At a minimum level, we are here describing the behavior ofbeing willing to tolerate a given stimulus, not to avoid it. Like Awareness, it involves aneutrality or suspended judgment toward the stimulus. At this level of the continuum theteacher is not concerned that the student seek it out, nor even, perhaps, that in anenvironment crowded with many other stimuli the learner will necessarily attend in a fieldwith relatively few competing stimuli, the learner is not actively seeking to avoid it. At best,he is willing to take notice of the phenomenon and give it his attention.

Attends (carefully) when others speak-in direct conversation, on the telephone, inaudiences.Appreciation (tolerance) of cultural patterns exhibited by individuals from other groups-religious, social, political, economic, national, etc.Increase in sensitivity to human need and pressing social problems.

1.3 Controlled or Selected Attention

At a somewhat higher level we are concerned with a new phenomenon, the differentiationof a given stimulus into figure and ground at a conscious or perhaps semiconscious level-the differentiation of aspects of a stimulus which is perceived as clearly marked off fromadjacent impressions. The perception is still without tension or assessment, and thestudent may not know the technical terms or symbols with which to describe it correctly orprecisely to others. In some instances it may refer not so much to the selectivity ofattention as to the control of attention, so that when certain stimuli are present they will beattended to. There is an element of the learner's controlling the attention here, so that thefavored stimulus is selected and attended to despite competing and distracting stimuli.

Listens to music with some discrimination as to its mood and meaning and with somerecognition of the contributions of various musical elements and instruments to thetotal effect.Alertness toward human values and judgments on life as they are recorded inliterature.

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2.0 RESPONDING

At this level we are concerned with responses which go beyond merely attending to the

phenomenon. The student is sufficiently motivated that he is not just 1.2 Willing to attend,

but perhaps it is correct to say that he is actively attending. As a first stage in a "learning

by doing" process the student is committing himself in some small measure to the

phenomena involved. This is a very low level of commitment, and we would not say at this

level that this was "a value of his" or that he had "such and such an attitude." These terms

belong to the next higher level that we describe. But we could say that he is doingsomething with or about the phenomenon besides merely perceiving it, as would be true

at the next level below this of 1.2 Controlled or selected attention.

This is the category that many teachers will find best describes their "interest" objectives.

Most commonly we use the term to indicate the desire that a child become sufficientlyinvolved in or committed to a subject, phenomenon, or activity that he will seek it out andgain satisfaction from working with it or engaging in it.

2.1 Acquiescence In Responding

We might use the word "obedience" or "compliance" to describe this behavior. As both ofthese terms indicate, there is a passiveness so far as the initiation of the behavior isconcerned, and the stimulus calling for this behavior is not subtle. Compliance is perhaps

a better term than obedience, since there is more of the element of reaction to asuggestion and less of the implication of resistance or yielding unwillingly. The studentmakes the response, but he has not fully accepted the necessity for doing so.

Willingness to comply with health regulations.Obeys the playground regulation.

2.2 Willingness To Respond

The key to this level is in the term "willingness," with its implication of capacity forvoluntary activity. There is the implication that the learner is sufficiently committed toexhibiting the behavior that he does so not just because of a fear or punishment, but "onhis own" or voluntarily. It may help to note that the element of resistance or of yieldingunwillingly, which is possibly present at the previous level, is here replaced with consent orproceeding from one's own choice.

Acquaints himself with significant current issues in international, political, social, andeconomic affairs through voluntary reading and discussion.Acceptance of responsibility for his won health and for the protection of the health of

others.

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2.3 Satisfaction In Response

The additional element in the step beyond the Willingness to respond level, the consent,the assent to responding, or the voluntary response, is that the behavior is accompaniedby a feeling of satisfaction, an emotional response, generally of pleasure, zest, orenjoyment. The location of this category in the hierarchy has given is a great deal ofdifficulty. Just where in the process of internalization the attachment of an emotionalresponse, kick, or thrill to a behavior occurs has been hard to determine. For that matterthere is some uncertainty as to whether the level of internalization at which it occurs maynot depend on the particular behavior. We have even questioned whether it should be acategory. If our structure is to be a hierarchy, then each category should include thebehavior in the next level below it. The emotional component appears gradually throughthe range of internalization categories. The attempt to specify a given position in thehierarchy as the one at which the emotional component is added is doomed to failure.

The category is arbitrarily placed at this point in the hierarchy where it seems to appearmost frequently and where it is cited as or appears to be an important component of theobjectives at this level on the continuum. The category's inclusion at this point serves thepragmatic purpose of reminding us of the presence of the emotional component and itsvalue in the building of affective behaviors. But it should not be thought of as appearingand occurring at this one point in the continuum and thus destroying the hierarchy whichwe are attempting to build.

Enjoyment of self-expression in music and in arts and crafts as another means ofpersonal enrichment.Finds pleasure in reading for recreation.Takes pleasure in conversing with many different kinds of people.

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3.0 VALUING

This is the only category headed by a term which is in common use in the expression ofobjectives by teachers. Further, it is employed in its usual sense: that a thing,phenomenon, or behavior has worth. This abstract concept of worth is in part a result ofthe individual's own valuing or assessment, but it is much more a social product that hasbeen slowly internalized or accepted and has come to be used by the student as his owncriterion of worth.

Behavior categorized at this level is sufficiently consistent and stable to have taken on thecharacteristics of a belief or an attitude. The learner displays this behavior with sufficientconsistency in appropriate situations that he comes to be perceived as holding a value. Atthis level, we are not concerned with the relationships among values but rather with theinternalization of a set of specified, ideal, values. Viewed from another standpoint, theobjectives classified here are the prime stuff from which the conscience of the individual isdeveloped into active control of behavior.

This category will be found appropriate for many objectives that use the term "attitude" (aswell as, of course, "value").

An important element of behavior characterized by Valuing is that it is motivated, not bythe desire to comply or obey, but by the individual's commitment to the underlying valueguiding the behavior.

3.1 Acceptance Of A Value

At this level we are concerned with the ascribing of worth to a phenomenon, behavior,object, etc. The term "belief, which is defined as "the emotional acceptance of aproposition or doctrine upon what one implicitly considers adequate ground" (English andEnglish, 1958, p. 64), describes quite well what may be thought of as the dominantcharacteristic here. Beliefs have varying degrees of certitude. At this lowest level ofValuing we are concerned with the lowest levels of certainty; that is, there is more of areadiness to re-evaluate one's position than at the higher levels. It is a position that issomewhat tentative.

One of the distinguishing characteristics of this behavior is consistency of response to theclass of objects, phenomena, etc. with which the belief or attitude is identified. It isconsistent enough so that the person is perceived by others as holding the belief or value.At the level we are describing here, he is both sufficiently consistent that others canidentify the value, and sufficiently committed that he is willing to be so identified.

Continuing desire to develop the ability to speak and write effectively.Grows in his sense of kinship with human beings of all nations.

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The provision for this subdivision arose out of a feeling that there were objectives thatexpressed a level of internalization between the mere acceptance of a value andcommitment or conviction in the usual connotation of deep involvement in an area.Behavior at this level implies not just the acceptance of a value to the point of being willingto be identified with it, but the individual is sufficiently committed to the value to pursue it,to seek it out, to want it.

Assumes responsibility for drawing reticent members of a group into conversation.Deliberately examines a variety of viewpoints on controversial issues with a view toforming opinions about them.Actively participates in arranging for the showing of contemporary artistic efforts.

3.3 Commitment

Belief at this level involves a high degree of certainty. The ideas of "conviction" and"certainty beyond a shadow of a doubt" help to convey further the level of behaviorintended. In some instances this may border on faith, in the sense of it being a firmemotional acceptance of a belief upon admittedly non rational grounds. Loyalty to aposition, group, or cause would also be classified here.

The person who displays behavior at this level is clearly perceived as holding the value.He acts to further the thing valued in some way, to extend the possibility of his developingit, to deepen his involvement with it and with the things representing it. He tries toconvince others and seeks conv3rts to his cause. There is a tension here which needs tobe satisfied; action is the result of an aroused need or drive. There is a real motivation toact out the behavior.

Devotion to those ideas and ideals which are the foundations of democracy.Faith in the power of reason and in methods of experiment and discussion.

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4.0 ORGANIZATION

As the learner successively internalizes values, he encounters situation for which morethan one value is relevant. Thus necessity arises for (a) the organization of the valuesinto a system, (b) the determination of the interrelationships among them, and (c) theestablishment of the dominant and pervasive ones. Such a system is built gradually,subject to change as new values are incorporated. This category is intended as theproper classification for objectives which describe the beginnings of the building of a valuesystem. It is subdivided into two levels, since a prerequisite to interrelating is theconceptualization of the value in a form which permits organization. Conceptualizationforms the first subdivision in the organization process, Organization of a value system thesecond.

While the order of the two subcategories seems appropriate enough with reference to oneanother, it is not so certain that 4.1 Conceptualization of a value is properly placed as thenext level above 3.3 Commitment. Conceptualization undoubtedly begins at an earlierlevel for some objectives. Like 2.3 satisfaction in response, it is doubtful that singlecompletely satisfactory location for this category can be found. Positioning it before 4.2Organization of a value system appropriately indicates a prerequisite of such a system. Italso calls attention to a component of affective growth that occurs at least by this point onthe continuum but may begin earlier.

4.1 Conceptualization Of A Value

In the previous category, 3.0 Valuing, we noted that consistency and stability are integralcharacteristics of the particular value or belief. At this level (4.1) the quality of abstractionor conceptualization is added. This permits the individual to see how the value relates tothose that he already holds or to new ones that he is coming to hold.

Conceptualization will be abstract, and in this sense it will be symbolic. But the symbolsneed not be verbal symbols. Whether conceptualization first appears at this point on theaffective continuum is a moot point, as noted above.

Attempts to identify the characteristics of an art object which he admires.Forms judgments as to the responsibility of society for conserving human and materialresources.

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4.2 Organization Of A Value System

Objectives properly classified here are those which require the learner to bring together acomplex of values, possibly disparate values, and to bring these into an orderedrelationship with one another. Ideally, the ordered relationship will be one which isharmonious and internally consistent. This is, of course, the goal of such objectives,which seek to have the student formulate a philosophy of life. In actuality, the integrationmay be something less than entirely harmonious. More likely the relations* is betterdescribed as a kind of dynamic equilibrium which is, in part, dependent upon thoseportions of the environment which are salient at any point in time. In many instances theorganization of values may result in their synthesis into a new value or value complex of ahigher order.

Weighs alternative social policies and practices against the standards of the publicwelfare rather than the advantage of specialized and narrow interest groups.Develops a plan for regulating his rest in accordance with the demands of his activities.

5.0 CHARACTERIZATION BY A VALUE OR VALUE COMPLEX

At this level of internalization the values already have a place in the individual's valuehierarchy, are organized into some kind of internally consistent system, have controlledthe behavior of the individual for sufficient time that he has adapted to behaving this way;and an evocation of the behavior no longer arouses emotion or affect except when theindividual is threatened or challenged.

The individual acts consistently in accordance with the values he has internalized at thislevel, and our concern is to indicate two things; (a) the generalization of this control to somuch of the individual's behavior that he is described and characterized as a person bythese pervasive controlling tendencies, and (b) the integration of these beliefs, ideas, andattitudes into a total philosophy or world view. These two aspects constitute thesubcategories.

162

5.1 Generalized Set

The generalized set is that which gives an internal consistency to the system of attitudesand values at any particular moment. It is selective responding at a very high level. It is

sometimes spoken of as a determining tendency, an orientation toward phenomena, or apredisposition to act in a certain way. The generalized set is a response to highlygeneralized phenomena. It is a persistent and consistent response to a family of relatedsituation or objects. It may often be an unconscious set which guides action withoutconscious forethought. The generalized set may be thought of as closely related to theidea of an attitude cluster, where the commonality is based on behavioral characteristicsrather than the subject or object of the attitude. A generalized set is a basic orientationwhich enables the indivicival to reduce and order the complex world about him and to actconsistently and effectively in it.

Readiness to revise judgments and to change behavior in the light of evidence.Judges problems and issues in terms of situation, issues, purposes, andconsequences involved rather than in terms fixed, dogmatic precepts or emotionallywishful thinking.

5.2 Characterization

This, the peak of the internalization process, includes those objectives which are broadestwith respect both to the phenomena covered and to the range of behavior which theycomprise. Thus, here are found those objectives which concern one's view of theuniverse, one's philosophy of life, one's Weltanschauung-a value system having as its

object the whole of what is known or knowable.

Objectives categorized here are more than generalized sets in the sense that they involvea greater inclusiveness and, within the group of attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, or ideas, anemphasis on internal consistence. Though this internal consistency may not always beexhibited behaviorally by the students toward whom the objective is directed, since we arecategorizing teachers' objectives, this consistency feature will always be a component ofCharacterization objectives.

As the title of the category implies, these objectives are so encompassing that they tend tocharacterize the individual almost completely.

Develops for regulation of one's personal and civic life a code of behavior based onethical principles consistent with democratic idealsDevelops a consistent philosophy of life.

(1) Bloom, David A., et al., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Longman, 1964, p. 176 - 185.(2). Illustrative objectives selected from the literature follow the description of each sub category.

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Mathematical Models a

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Search for Betteqmethodology?) ii)

Documentation (report?) 11

Measures of Goodness for the Design 12

Robustness of the Design (sensitivity?) 13

Analysis of a Mathematical Mode Variables (all!) 14

Equations (meaning) 15

Data (nature) 16

Specifications (humans/customers 17

Parameters (shared) 18

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Remaining Unknowns 20

Design Variables 21

Constraints22

Result Variables (equations?) 23I

TK Solver Plus (v 1.1) Rules (equations) 24

Variables (alphanumeric values) 25

Unit Conversion (SI . English, CGS. etc.) 26

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Calculation units (what you get!) 28

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Conservation Concepts Total MassElemental MassTotal ChargeLinear MomentumAngular MomentumTotal EnergyEntropy (Cosmos, A)

Accounting Concepts Species Mass (A)Moles (A)Plus ChargeMinus ChargeElectrical Energy (A,D)Mechanical Energy (A,D)Mechanical Energy (Particles, A,D)Mechanical Energy (Rigid Bodies, A,D)Mechanical Energy (Fluid Flow, A, I)Entropy (System, A)Entropy (Surroundings, A)Entropy Generation (Irreversibility)Extensive PropertiesOtherIntensive PropertiesTables for Extensive PropertiesKCLKVL

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Understanding Engineering Systems Via Conservation, ECE 394 C

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Dynamic (Dry?)Known Direction (Magnitude?)Known Force (Direction?)

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Understanding Engineering Systems Via Conservation, ECE 394 C

Fluid Systems Fluid Statics/HydraulicsFluid Dynamics

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Power SourcesPumps (liquids)

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Understanding Engineering Systems Via Conservation, ECE 394 C

Thermal Systems /Thermodynamics

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A Guide

toSelf Evaluation and Documentation of Educational States

by

Barry McNeill

MAE Department

Arizona State University

©mcneill 1994

23 9Printed May 12, 1994

Self Evaluation and Documentation of Educational States

EvaluationIn today's work environment it is essential that you strive to improve processes, products

and yourself. However, before you can make suggestions for improvements, you must

know the current status of the processes, products and yourself. Evaluation allows you to

know where to make improvements, where the weak areas are which need to be improved.

When you graduate you will find that the self evaluation process presented in this guide will

be as useful as the engineering science knowledge you have gained in your course work.

Your education is the end product of an educational process and it is important to know the

status of this education (product). Traditionally the evaluation of the status of your

education has been done by course instructors who assign a grade to indicate the state of

your education. While it may be relatively easy to let instructors do this evaluation of your

work (i.e., you do the assigned work, submit the work and wait to see what the instructor

reports), in the long term you will need to be the person doing the evaluation. You cannot

continually rely on someone else to tell you how you are doing; you must learn how to

evaluate your own educational state so you can make the required improvements. You

must take responsibility for your education.

Before describing a method that can be used in self evaluation and documentation of

educational states, it is necessary to more fully define what is meant by educational states.

Educational StatesHow can educational states be defined or characterized? While there are many ways to do

this one possible way is to characterize your educational state by the activities and actions

of you and your teacher. Reflect back over your time in school; you should be able to

recognize the gross changes which have taken place in your activities. Early on you

learned facts and worked simple , single concept problems; towards the end you worked

problems which combined many different concepts and skills.

In the early 1950's a group of educational psychologists considered the problem of defining

educational and developed a taxonomy of educational objectives1 . To quote from the

Foreword of this work:

It (the taxonomy) is intended to provide for classification of the goals of oureducational system. It is expected to be of general help to all teachers,administrators, professionals specialists, and research workers who deal with

curricular and evaluation problems. It is especially intended to help them discuss

these problems with greater precision.

These psychologists divided the problem up into three behavioral domains: the cognitive,

dealing with the recall or recognition of knowledge and the development of intellectual

abilities and skills; the affective, dealing with changes in interest, attitudes, and values,

and the development of appreciation and adequate adjustment and the psychomotor,dealing with the manipulative or motor-skill area..

The taxonomy (a handbook) published in the mid 50's dealt only with the cognitive domain

(a second handbook dealing with the affective domain was published in 1964). The

1 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Bloom et al, 1956, Longmans, Green and Co.

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Self Evaluation and Documentation of Educational States

taxonomy for the cognitive domain had six major categories. In order of increasingcomplexity they were: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, andEvaluation. Each of these categories was characterized by a different set of abilities(behaviors) exhibited by a person operating in the category.

In the late 80's and early 90's David Langford, in attempting to implement an importantaspect of the quality culture (empowerment) into the classroom, recognized that thistaxonomy could be used by the students as well as the teachers to determine where theywere relative to these various objectives. Thus Langford proposed having the students usethese educational objectives to do self evaluation. Langford renamed the objectives Levelsof Learning, changed the name of Comprehension to Know - How, and developedsummaries of the types of activities a student and teacher would do when they, thestudents, were operating at these various Levels of Leaming2.

A modification to Langford's material on typical activities can be found in the first six pagesof Appendix A. This material consists of answers to a set of six standard questions. Theanswers to the questions change as the Level of Learning changes. For example, theanswer to the question of How do I know 1 have reached this level? is answered as, 1 recallinformation, at the Knowledge Level but is answered as, 1 have the ability to put togetherparts and elements into a unified organization or whole which requires original, creativethinking, at the Synthesis Level. Read these answers over carefully, paying especiallyclose attention to the first two and last two questions for each of the levels.

As the psychologists pointed out in the 50's there is a bit more to defining an educationalstate than is covered by the Levels of Learning. The Levels of Learning concern only thecognitive domain of the educational state; they do not concern the affective domain, adomain which must also be assessed. Affective behavior is indicated by your willingnessto take responsibility for your education, to put in the needed effort, to be interested in whatis being learned, to help others. Myron Tribus in several essays3 states that Character(which is in some ways a part of affective behavior) is one of the major categories of thingswhich should be cultivated in a school or university.

The last page of the material in Appendix A addresses the affective or character issue.This material is no where near as complete as the Level of Learning material, containingonly some general affective traits and a few self awareness questions.

The Self Evaluation ProcessTwo different process are used to evaluate your educational state: one for the cognitivedomain and one for the affective domain.

2 Total Quality Learning Handbook, Langford Quality Education, 1992

3 Quality Management in Education, and Total Quality Management in Schools of Business and ofEngineering, Myron Tribus, Exergy, Inc., Hayward, CA

2 Printed May 12, 1994

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Self Evaluation and Documentation of Educational States

Cognitive DomainFor the cognitive domain the self evaluation process is reasonably simple:

1. compare your current abilities or activities to a set of Abilities or ActivitiesExemplars4 , exemplars defined by a hierarchy of learning,

2. pick out the Exemplar which best fit your current abilities or activities,

3. the selected Exemplar defines your current educational state.

For this class you are to use the activities defined for the various Levels of Learning inAppendix A as the Exemplars. For example, if you are in Statics working single conceptproblems located at the end of a Section, you would be at the Know-How Level of Learning /for the current statics topic because what you are doing matches the type of activity aperson at that Level of Learning would be doing. On the other hand, if you were writingreports on the design of a bridge you would probably be at the Synthesis Level of Learningfor Statics because creation of evocative reports is an activity which is done by a person atthat Level of Learning.

Affective DomainIt is much easier to be self aware of your cognitive abilities or states than it is to be awareof your affective state. It is difficult to be an expert in your own behavior. To help bridgethis difficulty the following process is proposed:

1. Select a periodic timing sequence (e.g., each day, each week, each problem);

2. select a set of affective traits;

3. at the end of each timing sequence and for each selected affective trait askyour self whether you exhibited the characteristic during the previous timeperiod.

4. If the answer for a particular trait is consistently yes then you are exhibitingthat affective trait.

For example suppose you want to document your interest (an affective trait) in Statics.You decide to evaluate this trait once a week on Friday afternoon by asking yourself "howmany times during this last week have I discussed Statics with someone not in Statics?". Ifthe answer is consistently three or more then you could feel confident that you wereshowing interest in Statics.

Documentation of Educational States

While it may be possible for you to fairly and correctly evaluate your actual educationalstate with only internal (i.e., in your brain) evidence, that will not be acceptable for thisclass. In this class you must supply documentation that you have actually reached theeducational states you are claiming. The documentation processes you are to use aremodification of the processes suggested by Langford.

4 Exemplar - that which serves as a pattern, especially an ideal pattern

3

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Self Evaluation and Documentation of Educational States

Documentation VehiclesThe documentation process uses several different vehicles for recording and storing yourwork. You must understand what the each of these vehicles is used for and how you cangenerate and use them before you can effectively document the required documentation.

A Portfolio or Design Notebook

A portfolio is an organized collection of the personal technical work done in a class. It

contains, in some logical sequence, all homework assignments, quizzes, tests, reports,projects, i.e., everything technical done during the semester. A student's portfoliobecomes a collection of worked examples, examples the student can refer to in laterclasses (or when out of school) when he needs to review a topic done in the earlier class.

Physically, portfolios are three hole loose leaf binders although an accofdion file can alsobe used. Non loose leaf binders are not too practical because it is not easy to remove orinsert material. There are any number of ways to organize the work in the portfolio but twominimum requirements are that:

1. it must be possible to refer to any specific page or section (i.e., all pages must beuniquely numbered), and

2. if a reader opens the portfolio to a random location, it must be obvious which way shewould go to get to a specified location (i.e., W follows M or 12 comes before 34).

These two requirements can generally be met by numbering all pages with some type ofhierarchical page numbering scheme (e.g., 11.2 is page two of section 11 which comesbefore section Ill and after section I).

A design notebook is a special type of portfolio, one containing all the technical workrelated to a design project. Since design projects are often done by teams the designnotebook will include work from a variety of people.

All the technical work in the portfolio/notebook is expected to adhere to accepted standardsfor documentation of technical work (e.g., see Documentation of Technical Work - TheProcess and the Product by McNeill).

Reflection Log

The work contained in your portfolio documents all the activities you have undertakenduring the semester. Some of these activities reflect Know-How, some reflect Evaluation.As previously mentioned, traditionally it was the course instructor's task to decide whatLevel of Learning the work reflected; however, in the self analysis mode, this task ofmatching work to Levels of Learning is to be done by you. You must reflect on thetechnical work you have done, analyzing it to determine what Level of Learning isdocumented (demonstrated) by the material.

Once you've completed this reflection you must write a paragraph (or more) explaining thereasons why some set of your technical work shows you are functioning at a claimed Levelof Learning. This phase of the documentation is done using a Reflection Log (seeAppendix B for a sample log).

The log need not look like the one shown in Appendix B but it must contain the sameinformation. The log must have an identifying entry number; it must be clear whichcompetency category (see the next section on the Competency Matrix) and Level of

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Self Evaluation and Documentation of Educational States

Learning are being addressed; it must be clear where the technical work being discussedis located; and finally the log must contain the paragraphs of reflection. You will generallyfind that the reflection for the higher Levels of Learning requires more space than is givenon the form, in which case you can append the necessary additional pages to the log entry.

Physically the log must follow the Competency Matrix.

Competency Matrix

In any class the instructor has a set of knowledge and skills (e.g., Engineering DesignProcess, Second Order Differential Equations, First Law of Thermodynamics, Teaming,etc.) which she wants to have the class learn. This set of knowledge and skills are knowas the learning outcomes for the class. Learning outcomes are rather abstract and mustbe characterized by (i.e., defined in terms of) a number of more specific topics calledcompetency categories. Depending on how specific the competency categories are, it maybe possible (desirable) to further divide these competency categories.

However it is not enough to just define the learning outcomes and competency categories,the instructor must also decide what Level of Learning the students should reach for eachof these items. This crazy quilt of things to be learned and the levels they are to belearned to can be organized and presented in a Competency Matrix.

The general design of the matrix is quite simple. Along the left side of the matrix are thegeneral course Learning Outcomes along with each Outcomes' more specific CompetencyCategories (and Sub-categories if they exist). Along the top of the matrix are the variousLevels of Learning. Each cell in the matrix represents the intersection of a particularcompetency category or learning outcome and a particular Level of Learning. TheCompetency Matrix for this class is in Appendix B.

In looking at your Competency Matrix you will see black areas, gray areas, and whiteareas. The black areas reflect the Levels of Learning you are assumed to have reachedwhen you start the class. The gray areas are the Levels of Learning that you are expectedto achieve during the course of the semester. The white areas represent Levels ofLearning which you may achieve but which are not ones explicitly desired to be achieved inthe class.

As a vehicle for documenting your educational state you will find that the matrix serves twopurposes.

1. It shows the Levels of Learning you have achieved in each of the course'scompetency categories, and

2. it shows where there is documentation that you have in fact mastered the competencycategory at the Level of Learning shown.

At the start of a semester, except for the black areas, your matrix is blank. During thesemester you will make entries in each of the gray (and perhaps white) boxes in the matrix.These entries are pointers to the reflective discussion of the technical work which you feelsupports your claim of being able to operate at some Level of Learning. What is actuallyput in these boxes will be explained in the next section.

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Self Evaluation and Documentation of Educational States

The Competency Matrix belongs in the front of the portfolio followed by the ReflectionLogs, Work Logs, and Run Charts. If you are using a design notebook all of this evaluationmaterial (i.e., the matrix, logs, and run charts) belongs in a separate loose leaf bindercalled the Evaluation Notebook.

Work Logs

Work logs as the name implies, keep track of the work you have done. A sample, emptylog, is shown in Appendix B. The log contains factual information related to your work.The log tel!s you when the work was done, how much time you spent on the work, wherethe work is located, and finally a very brief description of the work.

Work logs are generally found just behind the Reflection Logs in your Evaluation Notebook.

Run Charts

It is often necessary to keep track of a quantity whose value changes with time; it is alsooften necessary to keep track of the time averaged value of this quantity . The timeaveraged value is known as the running average for the quantity. While this data can belogged in tables, trends are hard to see in tables and, thus, this data is generally alsoshown on a graph. Such graphs are called Run Charts.

A sample Run Chart for class attendance is shown in Appendix B. The chart shows timealong the horizontal axis (i.e., class number) and the value of attendance along the verticalaxes (yes = 1, no = 0). The data for each class is shown by the height of the bar while therunning average is shown by the line. In the example shown the person missed class onthe 3rd, 5th, and 11th day (bar has zero height). For the third class the running averagedropped from 1 (perfect attendance) to 0.67 (attendance for two of three classes). Therunning average drops for each class not attended and slowly rises when classes areattended. You can see that the running average after twenty classes is about .86.

The Documentation Process - Cognitive Domain

The basic documentation process is a three step process. However, once you get the feelfor this basic process you will most likely want to consider adding a fourth step (step 0)which is discussed at the end of this section.

the basic process

The following three steps should be completed for each class assignment.

step 1

Read the assigned problem and decide what work must be done. Work the problem. Besure to follow accepted standards for the documentation of technical work, (i.e., explain theprocess you followed or used, show the results of following the process, and discuss theresults of the process). Once the work is done and documented, place the work in anappropriate location in the portfolio or design notebook.

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Self Evaluation and Documentation of Educational States

step 2

Reflect on the work just completed:

a) decide what course competency categories are involved in the work (look atthe matrix to see the list of competency categories), and

b) decide what Levels of Learning have been demonstrated (documented) in thework.

Once this reflection is complete, go to your Reflection Log and make a new entry orentriesfor the work you just entered into your portfolio. You must make separate log entries foreach competency category / Level of Learning pair (i.e., for each box in the CompetencyMatrix). The one exception is when a piece of work covers a number of competencycategories, all at the same Level of Learning in which case you may use a single log entryfor all the categories. You may never use a single log entry when different Levels ofLearning are being claimed, even when there is only one competency category.

step 3

Every competency category / Level of Learning pair in the Reflection Log corresponds to abox in the Competency Matrix. Starting with the first new log entry enter its Log EntryNumber in the appropriate Competency Matrix box. Repeat this process until all of the newReflection Log entries you just made in step 2 have been processed (i.e., logged in on thematrix).

a sample

For example, suppose you have been assigned to work problem 2.2 in Statics, whichinvolves determining an unknown force acting on a simple beam. You work the problem(including all required documentation) and put it in your Design Notebook at pages 2.5-2.6.Upon reflection you decide that the work shows that you have Know-How in thecompetency categories of free body diagrams and equilibrium. You go to your ReflectionLog and find that the next entry will be number 12 and so you fill out the log (Log EntryNumber: 12; Competency Category(s): free body diagram, equilibrium; Level of Learning:Know How, Location in Design Notebook: pages 2.5 & 2.6; Reflection: Problem 2.2requested a free body diagram and told me to use the idea of equilibrium of forces todetermine the unknown force. Since the problem pretty much told me what to do and I wasable to do it this is evidence of Know-How but not Application L of L. The documentationprocess is finished by going to your Competency Matrix and putting 12 (the log entrynumber) in the box for (free body diagram,Know-How) and (equilibrium,Know-How).

an enhanced documentation process

As mentioned at the beginning of this section there is probably a fourth, initial, step whichyou will want to add to this process once you begin to see how the basic process works.

As currently proposed the documentation process has you work the problem beforereflecting on what Levels of Learning have been demonstrated. Would it not make senseto think about the Levels of Learning before actually doing the work? if you did thiswouldn't you produce technical work which more clearly showed evidence of the Level ofLearning claimed? If the answers to these questions are yes then you will want to addStep 0 to your process.

7 Printed May 12, 1994

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Self Evaluation and Documentation of Educational States

Istep 0

Read the problem and look at your Competency Matrix. Based on the problem and onIwhat competency categories have not yet been addressed in the matrix (i.e., which grayboxes are still empty) decide what competency category / Level of Learning pairs could beaddressed by the problem. Before going to Step 1 consider how you can best show the

1 Levels of Learning you are hoping to demonstrate with the completion of the assignment.

The Documentation Process - Affective Domain

IYou can document your affective traits as follows:

step 1

I For each assignment or class related outside of class activity make an entry in your WorkLog.

I step 2

At the start of each class notes down (yes or no) whether you were on time, were at class,had done the assigned reading, and had done the assigned homework.

IIstep 3

Each Sunday evening, using the data collected at the start of each class and the data in

I your Work Log update the following Run Charts:

1. Class Attendance

I 2. On Time to Class

3. Cass Preparation (Reading)

4. Class Assignments

I5. Average Hours per Week Outside of Class Spent on Class

I When Can You Claim Mastery?

How many problems do you have to work to show you are at the Analysis Level ofLearning; how many for Know-How? What value for the running averages on the Run

I Charts shows you consistently demonstrate the affective trait? When can you claimmastery?

The question of mastery has not been addressed up to this point but it is an important

1 element in this evaluation process. Mastery means that not only have you reached aneducational state for some competency category but that you will be able to operate at thislevel indefinitely (i.e., you will not slip back to some lower level). Mastery at the Application

ILevel of Learning for Differential Calculus means that you routinely recognize whenDifferential Calculus is required in solving problems.

Mastery does not mean that you have instant recall or the ability to instantly solve theproblem at the Level of Learning claimed. No one has everything they have masteredavailable instantaneously. Mastery does mean that you can, relatively easily, retrieve the

I necessary information (e.g., from your Portfolio) to solve the problem at the specified Levelof Learning.

I8 Printed May 12, 1994

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Self Evaluation and Documentation of Educational States

Further, mastery does not mean that you must be aware of what you are doing. Mr. Houseof Hewlett Packard Co. has suggested that as you gain mastery of a skill or subject areayou pass through four stages of awareness: unconscious incompetent (you don't knowthat you don't know), conscious incompetent (you know that you don't know), consciouscompetent (you know that you know), and unconscious competent (you don't know thatyou know). You would like to get to the fourth state (i.e., be able to solve problems withoutthinking about how you are solving problems) but the third state is perfectly acceptable.

There is no pat or definitive answer to the questions posed in the first paragraph. In factthe answer generally changes from subject to subject. For this class the table belowshows how many problems must be worked to demonstrate mastery.

Mastery Minimums

Educational State Mastery Minimum Requirements

Knowledge 100 % correct on a quiz of at least three questions

Know-How one example

Application three examples

Analysis two examples which between them cover all the competencyareas covered by the Learning Outcome

Synthesis same as Analysis

Evaluation same as Analysis

Run Charts (except forhours per week)

the running average should be at or above 0.9

Run Chart (hours perweek)

the running average should be at or above nine hours

If these minimums are followed then your matrix will show mastery of a category when thematrix box has one log entry for Knowledge, or Know-How; two log entries for Analysis,Synthesis, and Evaluation; three log entries for Application and your Run Charts show yourrunning averages to be at or above 0.9 (9 hours for work per week).

Acknowledgments

The material presented in the Guide is a compilation of the thoughts and experiences ofDrs. Lynn Bellamy, Don Evans, Mark Henderson, Darwyn Linder, Barry McNeill, JackPfster and Greg Raupp as they attempted to utilize the idea of a competency matrix in theevaluation of student performance in their classes during the last year and a half.

9

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I

APPENDIX A

Activities at Various Levels of Learningand

Affective Domain Traits

249Printed May 12, 1994

APPENDIX B

Competency Matrix,Reflection Log,Work Log, and

Run Charts

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An Alternative Way to Fill Out Matrix

A number of you seem to be having difficulty in adding the discussion which explainswhy a certain piece of work documents some level of learning -- it does not seem to bea natural piece of the work. With this in mind let me suggest an alternative method offilling out the matrix.

step 1

Read the problem and decide what competency areas could be addressed by theproblem and determine what level of learning is possible. Work the problem in amanner which shows you have mastered the competency area(s) at the level decidedupon. Be sure to completely document the work, i.e., explain the process you followed,show the results of following the process, and discuss the results of the process (allthree parts are required). Once the work is done and documented place it at someappropriate location in your portfolio.

step 2

Go to your list of work, a set of blank pages located just behind your matrix, and add anentry to this list of work, using the next consecutive number. The entry must include thefollowing:

a) name of assignment just completedb) page number in portfolio where assignment can be foundc) competency area(s) addressed along with level of learning claimedd) a paragraph explaining why the work is proof of achieving the level of learning

claimedstep 3

On you matrix, at the appropriate location(s) (competency area and level of learning)put the list number you used in step 2.

For example, if you did some work which you felt proved Know-How for j, you would putthe work in your portfolio (say at page 45). Next you would update your list of work byadding a new entry. If the last entry were item 32 then this new entry would be item 33.You would enter in the required information and then go to the matrix and enter in 33 atall the places you have claimed by the work.

This indirect indexing scheme has the advantage of removing the discussion of why thework proves a certain level of learning from the work and concentrating all this materialjust behind the matrix.

If you remove an item from the list of work just remove it and its number; there is noneed to change any of the following numbers.

printed 5/12/94 1

dr) t 7 . I-54 (

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on P

lann

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443

Dat

e:Le

arni

ng T

opic

: Cou

rse

Mec

hani

csLe

arni

ng S

essi

on L

engt

h (m

inut

es):

25

min

.

Lear

ning

Obj

ectiv

e(s)

:

Kno

wle

dge

Leve

l Mat

eria

l

Kno

w-H

ow L

evel

Mat

eria

l

App

licat

ion

Leve

l Mat

eria

l

Ana

lysi

s / S

ynth

esis

Lev

el M

ater

ial

Eva

luat

ion

Leve

l Mat

eria

l

Affe

ctiv

e O

bjec

tives

cour

se m

echa

nics

and

sch

edul

e, te

amin

g, p

roce

ss im

prov

emen

t, w

eekl

y de

sign

revi

ew,

mee

tings

, pro

ject

mile

ston

es, g

roup

s (a

ll, a

, b, a

ny),

cod

e of

coo

pera

tion

inte

rest

in c

lass

Cla

ssro

om O

rgan

izat

ion

& E

quip

men

t

Tab

le A

rran

gem

ent

Aud

io -

Vis

ual E

quip

men

t:

Com

pute

r E

quip

men

t

Oth

er C

lass

Roo

m E

quip

men

t

Cla

ssro

om M

anag

emen

t

all t

able

s fa

cing

forw

ard

over

head

none

cour

se s

ylla

bus

and

docu

men

tatio

n m

ater

ial,

code

of c

oope

ratio

n

Lear

ning

Gro

up S

ize

Lear

ning

Del

iver

y M

etho

d

Dis

cuss

ion

Too

l(s)

entir

e cl

ass

lect

ure

and

ques

tion

Afte

r C

lass

Ref

lect

ion

Thi

s se

emed

to g

o ok

. The

tim

ing

was

fine

. The

re n

ot r

eally

a lo

t tha

t mak

es m

uch

sens

e he

re. T

he c

lass

nee

ds to

take

the

mat

eria

l and

rea

d it

and

then

ask

que

sito

ns.

I for

got t

o pu

t the

req

uire

d bo

ok o

n th

e ha

ndou

t mat

eria

l.

258

page

'2

5 T

inte

d M

ay 1

2, 1

994

MI O

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M S

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443

Dat

e:Le

arni

ng T

opic

: Cou

rse

Eva

luat

ion

Lear

ning

Ses

sion

Len

gth

(min

utes

): 6

0 m

in

Lear

ning

Obj

ectiv

e(s)

:

Kno

wle

dge

Leve

l Mat

eria

l

Kno

w-H

ow L

evel

Mat

eria

l

App

licat

ion

Leve

l Mat

eria

l

Ana

lysi

s / S

ynth

esis

Lev

el M

ater

ial

Eva

luat

ion

Leve

l Mat

eria

l

Affe

ctiv

e O

bjec

tives

leve

ls o

f lea

rnin

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appr

ecia

te th

e ev

alua

tion

exem

plar

s

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ssro

om O

rgan

izat

ion

& E

quip

men

t

Tab

le A

rran

gem

ent

Aud

io -

Vis

ual E

quip

men

t:

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pute

r E

quip

men

t

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er C

lass

Roo

m E

quip

men

t

Cla

ssro

om M

anag

emen

t

tabl

es fo

r gr

oups

of a

bout

6

over

head

none

guid

e to

sel

f eva

luat

ion

Lear

ning

Gro

up S

ize

Lear

ning

Del

iver

y M

etho

d

Dis

cuss

ion

Too

l(s)

6 ex

pert

gro

ups

of a

bout

6 (

may

be 7

) w

ith 6

lear

ning

gro

ups

of a

bout

6 o

r 7

Jigs

aw

Afte

r C

lass

Ref

lect

ion

All

the

grou

ps s

eem

ed to

kee

p w

orki

ng. T

here

was

littl

e va

ryin

g of

f tas

k. T

his

mea

ns w

eha

d th

e ,,,

xerc

ise

timed

out

fairl

y w

ell.

I am

not

sur

e ho

w

wel

l it w

orke

d in

get

ting

them

to h

ave

a be

tter

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

leve

ls D

o su

gges

ted

that

WP

:,,se

an

exam

ple

whi

ch th

ey a

re m

ore

fam

ilar

with

, for

exa

mpl

e ha

ve th

em w

ork

with

a le

arni

ng o

utco

me

of d

rivin

g an

d a

cate

gory

of s

hifti

ng g

ears

or

may

be b

raki

ng. T

hey

mig

ht b

e ab

le to

com

e up

with

exa

mpl

es o

f act

ivite

s w

hich

rel

ectt

he v

ario

us le

vels

of l

earn

ing

for

this

cat

egor

y w

here

as

they

see

m to

hav

e so

me

diffi

culty

with

the

dyna

mic

s su

gges

tion.

Nee

d to

mak

e su

re th

ey fo

cus

on th

e ac

tvity

whi

ch s

how

s th

e le

vel

of le

arni

ng, i

.e.,

for

the

exam

ple

they

are

wor

king

with

wha

t act

ivity

wou

ld s

how

the

vario

us le

vels

.

page

-2

GI

Prin

ted

May

12,

199

4

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443

Dat

e:Le

arni

ng T

opic

: Pro

ject

Sel

ectio

n C

riter

iaLe

arni

ng S

essi

on L

engt

h (m

inut

es):

60

min

Lear

ning

Obj

ectiv

e(s)

:

Kno

wle

dge

Leve

l Mat

eria

l

Kno

w-H

ow L

evel

Mat

eria

l

App

licat

ion

Leve

l Mat

eria

l

Ana

lysi

s / S

ynth

esis

Lev

el M

ater

ial

Eva

luat

ion

Leve

l Mat

eria

l

Affe

ctiv

e O

bjec

tives

com

paris

on m

atrix

, crit

erio

n, N

GT

set r

elat

ive

wei

ghts

, red

uce

num

ber

of o

ptio

ns

inte

rest

in g

roup

val

ues

of w

hat m

akes

pro

ject

s in

tere

stin

g

Cla

ssro

om O

rgan

izat

ion

& E

quip

men

t

Tab

le A

rran

gem

ent

Aud

io -

Vis

ual E

quip

men

t:

Com

pute

r E

quip

men

t

Oth

er C

lass

Roo

m E

quip

men

t

Cla

ssro

om M

anag

emen

t

tabl

es fo

r gr

oups

of 4

or

5

over

head

none

larg

e sh

eets

of p

aper

, col

ored

dot

s

Lear

ning

Gro

up S

ize

Lear

ning

Del

iver

y M

etho

d

Dis

cuss

ion

Too

l(s)

grou

ps o

f 4 a

nd 5

grou

p pr

actic

e

NG

T, c

ompa

rison

mat

rix

Afte

r C

lass

Ref

lect

ion

The

cla

ss d

id n

ot h

ave

a go

od s

ense

of w

hat t

he c

riter

ia w

ere.

Man

y gr

oups

gene

rate

d cr

iteria

whi

ch w

ere

mor

e co

nstr

iant

bas

ed, e

.g.,

spor

tsfla

vor

or th

erm

al s

yste

m o

r au

tom

obile

. We

did

not d

o an

ade

quat

e jo

b of

sho

win

g th

emth

e ty

pes

of c

ritei

a w

hich

wou

ld b

e us

eful

(in

tere

stin

g,

whi

ch w

ould

incl

ude

thes

e sp

ecifi

c so

rts

of th

ings

).I t

hink

we

shou

ld p

roba

ly w

ork

out a

ver

y si

mep

l exa

mpl

e. T

hey

did

not s

eem

to b

e ab

le to

com

e up

with

gen

eric

crit

eria

whi

ch c

ould

be

used

toev

alua

te a

num

ber

of p

roje

cts.

May

be if

we

aske

d th

em w

hat t

ype

of p

roje

ct th

ey w

ould

like

and

then

had

them

gen

erat

e cr

iteria

to e

valu

ate

proj

ects

whi

ch e

ither

all

pass

ed o

rall

faile

d th

ere

go n

o-go

sw

itch.

Nee

d to

get

them

focu

sed

on

the

idea

of s

elec

tion

amon

g ac

cept

able

alte

rnat

ives

, wha

t is

impo

rtan

t whe

n th

e m

osti

mpo

rtar

;eat

ure

(i.e.

, pro

ject

type

) is

ok.

2 G

2pa

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ti 3

Prin

ted

May

12,

199

4

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OM

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1,

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ticip

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Pur

pose

Cog

nitiv

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Affe

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Dis

cuss

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Too

ls o

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ctiv

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Req

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rP

repa

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ual/A

udio

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ids/

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ipm

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eetin

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catio

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ime

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per

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evil'

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ate

revi

sed

3/7/

94M

cNei

ll

265

264

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IMO

all M

B IM

OIN

NO

MB

MI N

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1111

MI

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edge

(In

form

atio

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erbs

:de

fine

mem

oriz

ere

cord

labe

lna

me

rela

telis

tre

adre

peat

liste

nre

call

view

How

do

I kno

w I

have

rea

ched

this

leve

l?I r

ecal

l inf

orm

atio

n?I b

ring

to m

ind

the

appr

opria

te m

ater

ial a

t the

app

ropr

iate

tim

e?I h

ave

been

exp

osed

to

the

info

rmat

ion

and

I can

res

pond

to q

uest

ions

. tas

ks, e

tc.

Wha

t do

I do

at th

is le

vel?

I rea

d m

ater

ial,

liste

n to

lect

ures

, wat

ch v

ideo

s, ta

ke n

otes

and

I am

abl

e to

pas

s a

test

of k

now

ledg

e on

the

subj

ect a

rea.

I lea

rn th

e vo

cabu

lary

of t

he c

ompe

tenc

y ar

ea, i

.e.,

the

term

inol

ogy.

I lea

rn th

e co

nven

tions

use

d.

How

will

the

teac

her

know

I am

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r w

ill p

rovi

de o

ppor

tuni

ties

(eith

er o

rally

or

inw

ritte

n te

sts)

, reg

ardl

ess

of c

ompl

exity

, tha

t can

be

answ

ered

thro

ugh

sim

ple

reca

ll of

pre

viou

sly

lear

ned

mat

eria

l.

Wha

t doe

s th

e te

ache

r do

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r di

rect

s, te

lls, s

how

s, id

entif

ies,

exa

min

es th

ein

form

atio

n ne

cess

ary

at th

is le

vel.

Wha

t are

typi

cal w

ays

I can

dem

onst

rate

my

know

ledg

e?1.

Def

ine

tech

nica

l ter

ms

by g

ivin

g th

eir

attr

ibut

es,

prop

ertie

s or

rel

atio

ns.

2. R

ecal

l the

maj

or fa

cts

abou

t a p

artic

ular

sub

ject

.3.

Lis

t the

cha

ract

eris

tic w

ays

of tr

eatin

g an

d pr

esen

ting

idea

s (i.

e., l

ist c

onve

ntio

ns a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith th

e su

bjec

t).

4. N

ame

the

clas

ses,

set

s, d

ivis

ions

, and

arr

ange

men

tsw

hich

are

reg

arde

d as

fund

amen

tal f

or a

giv

en s

ubje

ct fi

eld

or p

robl

em.

5. L

ist t

he c

riter

ia u

sed

to ju

dge

fact

s, p

rinci

ples

, and

idea

s.6.

Des

crib

e th

e m

etho

d(s)

of i

nqui

ry o

r te

chni

ques

and

proc

edur

es u

sed

in a

par

ticul

ar fi

eld

of s

tudy

.

7. L

ist t

he r

elev

ant p

rinci

ples

and

gen

eral

izat

ions

.8.

Fill

in th

e bl

ank.

Mod

ifica

tions

by

B. M

cNei

ll of

Dav

id L

angf

ord'

s de

finiti

ons

of L

evel

s of

Lea

rnin

g in

Tot

al Q

ualit

y Le

arni

ngH

andb

ook,

Lang

ford

Qua

lity

Edu

catio

n an

d B

. Blo

om a

t al.

Tax

onom

y of

Edu

catio

nal O

bjec

tives

, Lon

gman

s, G

reen

and

Co.

195

6.

'67

1111

1111

ON

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NM

I11

11/

ON

NM

an

1111

1IN

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I11

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1111

1111

111

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11

rehe

nsio

n / U

nder

stan

ding

Pro

cess

ver

bs:

desc

ribe

iden

tify

repo

rtte

llex

plai

nlo

cate

rest

ate

wor

kex

pres

sre

cogn

ize

revi

ew

How

do

I kno

w I

have

rea

ched

this

leve

l?I c

ompr

ehen

d an

d un

ders

tand

wha

t is

bein

g co

mm

unic

ated

and

mak

e us

e of

the

idea

s bu

t with

out r

elat

ing

them

to o

ther

idea

s or

mat

eria

l. I m

ay n

ot y

et u

nder

stan

d th

e fu

llest

mea

ning

. I u

nder

stan

d w

hat o

ther

s ar

edi

scus

sing

con

cern

ing

this

idea

. Thi

s le

vel

requ

ires

Kno

wle

dge.

Wha

t do

I do

at th

is le

vel?

I suc

cess

fully

wor

k as

sign

men

ts in

whi

ch th

e ap

prop

riate

app

roac

h is

evi

dent

eith

er b

ecau

se o

f mat

eria

l in

the

prob

lem

stat

emen

t or

beca

use

of th

e pr

oble

m's

rel

ativ

e lo

catio

n in

the

book

to th

eap

prop

riate

met

hod.

I tr

ansl

ate

info

rmat

ion

into

my

own

wor

ds (

tran

slat

ion

from

one

leve

l ofa

bstr

actio

n to

ano

ther

. I tr

ansl

ate

sym

bolic

info

rmat

ion

(e.g

., ta

bles

, com

mas

,di

agra

ms,

gra

phs,

mat

hem

atic

al fo

rmul

as, e

tc.)

into

ver

bal f

orm

s, a

nd v

ice

vers

a. I

inte

rpre

t or

sum

mar

ize

com

mun

icat

ions

(writ

ten/

grap

hica

l/ora

l). I

dete

rmin

e im

plic

atio

ns, c

onse

quen

ces,

cor

olla

ries

, effe

cts,

etc

. whi

ch a

reex

tens

ions

of t

rend

s or

tend

enci

es b

eyon

d th

e gi

ven

data

.

How

will

the

teac

her

know

I am

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r w

ill o

ften

ask

ques

tions

or

give

test

s th

at c

an b

e an

swer

ed b

y m

erel

yre

stat

ing

or r

eorg

aniz

ing

mat

eria

l in

a ra

ther

liter

al (

clea

rly s

tatin

g th

e fa

cts

or p

rimar

y m

eani

ng o

f the

mat

eria

l) m

anne

r to

sho

w th

at I

unde

rsta

nd th

e es

sent

ial m

eani

ng, e

.g.,

give

the

idea

s in

you

r ow

n w

ords

.

Wha

t doe

s th

e te

ache

r do

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r de

mon

stra

tes,

wor

ks p

robl

ems,

list

ens,

que

stio

ns, c

ompa

res,

con

tras

ts, a

ndex

amin

es th

e in

form

atio

n an

d yo

urkn

owle

dge

of it

.

Wha

t are

typi

cal w

ays

I can

dem

onst

rate

or

can

show

on

my

own

my

com

preh

ensi

on a

ndun

ders

tand

ing.

1. R

ead

Com

preh

ensi

on le

vel p

robl

ems,

kno

w w

hat i

s be

ing

aske

d fo

r, a

nd s

ucce

ssfu

llyw

ork

the

prob

lem

s.2.

Cle

arly

chr

onic

le th

e pr

oces

s us

ed in

wor

king

the

prob

lem

.3.

Cle

arly

des

crib

e th

e re

sults

of w

orki

ng th

e pr

oble

m.

4. D

raw

con

clus

ions

(in

terp

ret t

rend

s) fr

om th

e re

sults

of s

olvi

ng th

e pr

oble

m.

5. C

ompa

re/c

ontr

ast t

wo

diffe

rent

pro

blem

s (i.

e., w

hat t

hing

s ar

e th

e sa

me?

/ w

hatt

hing

s ar

e di

ffere

nt?)

6. R

esta

te a

nd id

ea, t

heor

y, o

r pr

inci

ple

in y

our

own

wor

ds.

Mod

ifica

tions

by

B. M

cNei

ll of

Dav

id L

angf

ord'

s de

finiti

ons

of L

evel

s of

Lea

rnin

g In

Tot

al Q

ualit

y Le

arni

ng H

andb

ook,

Lang

ford

Qua

lity

Edu

catio

n an

d B

. Blo

om a

t al.

Tax

onom

y of

Edu

catio

nal O

bjec

tives

, Lon

gman

s, G

reen

and

Co.

195

6.

2GS

289

NM

I UM

Mlle

(111

1111

NM

NM

IM

INI

Mal

IIIIII

IN

M81

1111

1M

N N

M E

liIII

IIII

atio

n (T

hink

ing)

Pro

cess

ver

bs:

appl

yill

ustr

ate

prac

tice

dem

onst

rate

inte

rpre

tre

cogn

ize

empl

oyop

erat

e

How

do

I kno

w I

have

rea

ched

this

leve

l?I h

ave

the

abili

ty to

rec

ogni

ze th

e ne

ed to

use

an

idea

, met

hod,

con

cept

, prin

cipl

e, o

r th

eory

with

out b

eing

told

tous

e it,

i.e.

, I h

ave

the

abili

ty to

use

idea

s, m

etho

ds, c

once

pts,

prin

cipl

es a

nd th

eorie

s in

new

situ

atio

ns.

I kno

wan

d co

mpr

ehen

d th

e in

form

atio

n an

d ca

n ap

ply

it to

a n

ew s

ituat

ion.

I al

so h

ave

the

abili

ty to

rec

ogni

ze w

hen

ace

rtai

n ta

sk, p

roje

ct, t

heor

y or

con

cept

is b

eyon

d m

y cu

rren

t com

pete

ncy.

App

licat

ion

requ

ires

havi

ngK

now

ledg

e an

d C

ompr

ehen

sion

.

Wha

t do

I do

at th

is le

vel?

I wor

k pr

oble

ms

for

whi

ch th

e so

lutio

n m

etho

d is

not

imm

edia

tely

evi

dent

or

obvi

ous.

I ta

ke k

now

ledg

e th

at h

asbe

en le

arne

d at

the

Kno

wle

dge

and

Com

preh

ensi

on le

vels

of l

earn

ing

and

appl

y it

to n

ew s

ituat

ion.

I sol

vepr

oble

ms

on m

y ow

n an

d m

ake

use

of o

ther

tech

niqu

es. T

his

requ

ires

not o

nly

know

ing

and

com

preh

endi

ngin

form

atio

n, b

ut d

eep

thin

king

abo

ut th

e us

eful

ness

of t

his

info

rmat

ion

and

how

it c

an b

e us

ed to

sol

ve n

ewpr

oble

ms

that

I cr

eate

or

iden

tify.

How

will

the

teac

her

know

I am

at t

his

leve

l?I w

ill s

how

the

teac

her

thro

ugh

my

wor

k th

at I

am in

volv

ed in

pro

blem

sol

ving

in n

ew s

ituat

ions

with

min

imal

iden

tific

atio

n or

pro

mpt

ing

of th

e ap

prop

riate

rul

es, p

rinci

ples

, or

conc

epts

by

the

teac

her.

The

teac

her

will

be

able

to a

sk g

ener

al q

uest

ions

like

, How

muc

h pr

otec

tion

from

the

sun

is e

noug

h? a

nd I

will

kno

w h

ow to

atta

ckth

e pr

oble

m.

Wha

t are

the

typi

cal w

ays

I can

dem

onst

rate

or

show

, on

my

own.

my

appl

icat

ion

of K

now

ledg

e an

d C

ompr

ehen

sion

?1.

Sol

ve p

robl

ems

whi

ch r

equi

re r

ecog

nitio

n of

the

appr

opria

te c

once

pts,

theo

ries,

sol

utio

n te

chni

ques

, etc

.2.

App

ly th

e la

ws

of m

athe

mat

ics,

che

mis

try,

phy

sics

, and

eng

inee

ring

to p

ract

ical

situ

atio

ns.

3. W

ork

proj

ect t

ype

prob

lem

s.

Mod

ifica

tions

by

B. M

cNei

ll of

Dav

id L

angf

ord'

s de

finiti

ons

of L

evel

s of

Lea

rnin

g In

Tot

al Q

ualit

y Le

arni

ng H

andb

ook,

Lang

ford

Qua

lity

Edu

catio

n an

d B

. Blo

om a

t al.

Tax

onom

y of

Edu

catio

nal O

bjec

tives

, Lon

gman

s, G

reen

and

Co.

195

6.

271

ON

NM

I N

I N

B N

MI

anN

M U

M E

aN

M I

n N

MI

INN

MN

Mil

MI

MI

sis

(Thi

nkin

g)P

roce

ss v

erbs

:br

eak

apar

tex

amin

ebr

eak

dow

nex

plai

n

How

do

I kno

w I

have

rea

ched

this

leve

l?I c

an e

xpla

in w

hy. I

can

exa

min

e, m

etho

dica

lly, i

deas

, con

cept

s, w

ritin

g et

c.an

d se

para

te in

to p

arts

or

basi

cpr

inci

ples

.I h

ave

the

abili

ty to

bre

ak d

own

info

rmat

ion

into

com

pone

nt p

arts

in o

rder

tom

ake

orga

niza

tion

ofth

e w

hole

cle

ar. W

ork

at th

is le

vel r

equi

res

havi

ng -

Kno

wle

dge

and

Com

preh

ensi

on le

vels

of l

earn

ing

(app

licat

ion

is n

ot r

equi

red)

.

Wha

t do

I do

at th

is le

vel?

I ana

lyze

res

ults

by

brea

king

con

cept

s, id

eas,

theo

ries,

equ

atio

ns, e

tc. a

part

.I c

an e

xpla

in th

e lo

gica

lin

terc

onne

ctio

ns o

f the

par

ts a

nd c

an d

evel

op d

etai

led

caus

e an

d ef

fect

cha

ins.

Wha

t doe

s th

e te

ache

r do

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r pr

obes

, gui

des,

obs

erve

s, a

nd a

cts

as a

res

ourc

e.

Wha

t are

typi

cal q

uest

ions

I ca

n po

se fo

r m

ysel

f to

answ

er w

hich

will

dem

onst

rate

or

show

my

Ana

lysi

s le

vel o

f lea

rnin

g?1.

Why

did

this

(re

sult)

hap

pen?

2. W

hat r

easo

ns d

oes

she

give

for

her

conc

lusi

ons?

3. D

oes

the

evid

ence

giv

en s

uppo

rt th

e hy

poth

esis

, the

con

clus

ion?

4. A

re th

e co

nclu

sion

s su

ppor

ted

by fa

cts,

opi

nion

s, o

r an

alys

isof

the

resu

lts?

5. W

hat a

re th

e ca

usal

rel

atio

nshi

ps b

etw

een

the

resu

lts fo

rthe

who

le a

nd th

e pa

rts?

6. W

hat a

re th

e un

stat

ed a

ssum

ptio

ns?

P-1

0

Mod

ifica

tions

by

B. M

cNei

l of D

avid

Lan

gfor

d's

defin

ition

s of

Lev

els

of L

earn

ing

In T

otal

Qua

lity

Lear

ning

Han

dboo

k,La

ngfo

rd Q

ualit

y E

duca

tion

and

B. B

loom

at a

l. T

axon

omy

of E

duca

tiona

l Obj

ectiv

es, L

ongm

ans,

Gre

en a

nd C

o. 1

956.

MO

MM

EM

INIL

OM

OM

1111

11N

S IM

O M

I WIN

till

Mil

NW

1111

111

MO

MN

MIN

SIM

1111

11M

I IO

W M

B

esis

(T

hink

ing)

Pro

cess

ver

bs:

arra

nge

cons

truc

tm

anag

epr

opos

eas

sem

ble

crea

teor

gani

zese

t up

colle

ctde

sign

plan

writ

eco

mpo

sefo

rmul

ate

prep

are

How

do

I kno

w I

have

rea

ched

this

leve

l?I h

ave

the

abili

ty to

put

toge

ther

par

ts a

nd e

lem

ents

into

a u

nifie

d or

gani

zatio

n or

who

le w

hich

req

uire

sor

igin

al, c

reat

ive

thin

king

. I r

ecog

nize

new

pro

blem

s an

d de

velo

p ne

w to

ols

toso

lve

them

. I c

reat

e m

yow

n pl

ans,

mod

els,

and

/or

hypo

thes

es fo

rfin

ding

sol

utio

ns to

pro

blem

s. T

his

leve

l of l

earn

ing

requ

ires

Kno

wle

dge,

Com

preh

ensi

on, A

pplic

atio

n an

d A

naly

sis

leve

ls o

f lea

rnin

g.

Wha

t do

I do

at th

is le

vel?

put i

deas

toge

ther

to c

reat

e so

met

hing

. Thi

s co

uld

be a

phy

sica

lobj

ect,

a pr

oces

s, a

des

ign

met

hod,

aco

mm

unic

atio

n, o

r ev

en a

set

of a

bstr

act r

elat

ions

(i.e

., m

athe

mat

ical

mod

els)

. Ipr

oduc

e re

port

s,(w

ritte

n/or

al)

whi

ch c

reat

e a

desi

red

effe

ct (

e.g.

, inf

orm

atio

n ac

quis

ition

, acc

epta

nce

of a

poin

t of v

iew

,co

ntin

ued

supp

ort,

etc.

) in

the

read

er (

liste

ner)

.I g

ener

ate

proj

ect p

lans

, I p

ropo

se d

esig

ns, I

form

ulat

ehy

poth

eses

bas

ed o

n th

e an

alys

is o

f per

tinen

t fac

tors

. I a

m a

ble

to g

ener

aliz

e fr

om a

set

of a

xiom

s,pr

inci

ples

.

How

will

the

teac

her

know

I am

at t

his

leve

l?I s

how

that

I ca

n co

mbi

ne id

eas

into

a s

tate

men

t, pl

an, p

rodu

ct, e

tc.,

that

is n

ew fo

r m

e; e

.g.,

I can

dev

elop

a pr

ogra

m th

at in

clud

es th

e be

st p

arts

of e

ach

of th

ose

idea

s

Wha

t doe

s th

e te

ache

r do

as

this

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r re

flect

s, e

xten

ds, a

naly

ses,

and

eva

luat

es.

Wha

t are

the

typi

cal q

uest

ions

I ca

n an

swer

whi

ch w

ill d

emon

stra

te o

r sh

ow m

yS

ynth

esis

?1.

Can

I cr

eate

a p

roje

ct p

lan?

2. C

an I

deve

lop

a m

odel

?3.

Can

I pr

opos

e a

desi

gn?

A. I

Mod

ifica

tions

by

B. M

cNei

ll of

Dav

id L

angf

ord'

s de

finiti

ons

of L

evel

s of

Lea

rnin

g In

Tot

al Q

ualit

y Le

arni

ng H

andb

ook,

Lang

ford

Qua

lity

Edu

catio

n an

d B

. Blo

om a

t al.

Tax

onom

y of

Edu

catio

nal O

bjec

tives

, Lon

gman

s, G

reen

and

Co.

195

6.

)

ILI

VM

S M

I all

ill N

M M

IN N

M E

llV

III N

D M

I all

MI a

llN

IS11

1111

NIS

ciat

ion

/ Eva

luat

ion

(Wis

do)

Pro

cess

ver

bs:

appr

aise

choo

seco

mpa

rees

timat

e (q

ualit

y)ev

alua

te

judg

epr

edic

t (qu

ality

)ra

te v

alue

sele

ct

How

do

I kno

w I

have

rea

ched

this

leve

l?I h

ave

the

abili

ty to

judg

e an

d ap

prec

iate

the

valu

e of

idea

s, p

roce

dure

s an

d m

etho

ds u

sing

app

ropr

iate

crite

ria. T

o w

ork

at th

is le

vel r

equi

res

havi

ng a

chie

ved

Kno

wle

dge,

Com

preh

ensi

on, A

pplic

atio

n, A

naly

sis

and

Syn

thes

is

leve

ls o

f lea

rnin

g.

Wha

t do

I do

atth

is le

vel?

I mak

e va

lue

judg

men

ts b

ased

on

cert

ain

cons

ider

atio

ns s

uch

as u

sefu

lnes

s, e

ffect

iven

ess,

and

so

on. B

ased

on

info

rmat

ion

gain

ed th

roug

h ap

plic

atio

n, a

naly

sis

,and

syn

thes

isI c

an r

atio

nally

sel

ect a

pro

cess

, a m

etho

d,

a m

odel

, a d

esig

n, e

tc.f

rom

am

ong

a se

t of p

ossi

ble

proc

esse

s, m

etho

ds,

mod

els,

des

igns

, etc

. I e

valu

ate

com

petin

g

plan

s of

act

ion

befo

re a

ctua

lly s

tart

ing

the

plan

ned

wor

k. I

eval

uate

wor

k ba

sed

on in

tern

al s

tand

ards

of c

onsi

zten

cy,

logi

cal a

ccur

acy

and

the

abse

nce

of in

tern

al fl

aws

(e.g

., I c

an c

ertif

y if

desi

gn fe

asib

ility

has

bee

n de

mon

stra

ted

in a

repo

rt).

I ev

alua

te w

ork

base

d on

ext

erna

l sta

ndar

dsof

effi

cien

cy, c

ost,

utili

ty to

mee

t par

ticul

ar e

nds

(e.g

., I c

an c

ertif

y

that

des

ign

qual

ity h

as b

een

dem

onst

rate

d in

are

port

).

How

will

the

teac

her

know

I am

at t

his

leve

l?I c

an d

emon

stra

te th

at I

can

mak

e a

judg

men

tabo

ut s

omet

hing

usi

ng s

ome

crite

ria o

r st

anda

rd fo

rm

akin

g th

e

judg

men

t.

Wha

t doe

s th

e te

ache

r do

at t

his

leve

l?T

he te

ache

r cl

arifi

es, a

ccep

ts, h

arm

oniz

es,a

ligns

, and

gui

des.

Wha

t are

typi

cal s

tate

men

ts a

nd q

uest

ions

I ca

nre

spon

d to

whi

ch w

ill d

emon

stra

te o

r sh

ow m

yap

prec

iatio

n/ev

alua

tion?

1.I c

an e

valu

ate

an id

ea in

term

s of

...

2. F

or w

hat r

easo

ns d

o I f

avor

...3.

Whi

ch p

olic

y do

I th

ink

wou

ld r

esul

tin

the

grea

test

goo

d fo

r th

e gr

eate

st n

umbe

r?4.

Whi

ch o

f the

se m

odel

s i.e

., m

odel

ing

appr

oach

es is

the

best

for

my

curr

ent n

eeds

. How

doe

s th

is r

epor

tsh

ow th

at

the

desi

gn is

feas

ible

? H

ow d

oes

this

rep

orts

how

the

qual

ity o

f the

des

ign?

2,71

3

Mod

ifica

tions

by

B. M

cNei

ll of

Dav

id L

angf

ord'

s de

finiti

ons

of L

evel

s of

Lea

rnin

g in

Tot

alQ

ualit

y Le

arni

ng H

andb

ook,

Lang

ford

Qua

lity

Edu

catio

n an

d B

. Blo

om a

t al.

Tax

onom

y of

Edu

catio

nal O

bjec

tives

,Lo

ngm

ans,

Gre

en a

nd C

o. 1

956.

277

ON

NM

I US

WI O

M M

IMI M

SM

I MO

B N

M IN

N O

M N

M U

M M

EM

I

ye(C

hara

cter

) T

raits

Wha

t are

som

e af

fect

ive

trai

ts?

Abi

lity

to w

ork

alon

eC

urio

sity

Inte

rest

Abi

lity

to w

ork

in te

ams

Hon

esty

Sel

f Est

eem

Atte

ntio

nIn

itiat

ive

Tru

thfu

lnes

s

Coo

pera

tiven

ess

Inte

grity

Wha

t que

stio

ns c

an I

ask

mys

elf t

o de

term

ine

if I a

m e

xhib

iting

thes

ech

arac

teris

tics?

1. D

o I c

ome

to c

lass

(m

eetin

gs)

prep

ared

?2.

Do

I com

e to

cla

ss (

mee

tings

) on

tim

e?3.

Do

I see

k ou

t mat

eria

l on

a su

bjec

t bey

ond

wha

t is

sugg

este

d by

the

inst

ruct

or?

4. D

o I a

dmit

whe

n I d

o no

t kno

w s

omet

hing

?5.

Do

I tal

k ab

out c

lass

sub

ject

s w

ith m

y fr

iend

s du

ring

info

rmal

gat

herin

gs.

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Documentation of Technical Work - The Process andthe Product

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who is the reader? 5

documentation goals for analytical model development 5

documentation goals for computer models 6

high level languages 6

formula solvers 6spreadsheets 7

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Engineering vs. Homework Documentation

Technical Work - General Commentstraits of good documentationgraphical material presentation

Technical Work - The Modeling Tasks

displaying the resultsdiscussing the results

Technical Work - An Entire Project

the design notebookdesign notebook organization

the design sectiondocumenting project product and process

Reports of Technical Work

before writing your reportknow your audienceknow your purpose

design briefsdesign proposal

design proposal format - senior design projectsfinal design report

define your audiencestate your purpose - select a themefinal design report format - senior design projects

oral reports

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Documentation The material presented here has been developed overthe last seventeen years at Arizona State University in the cou

The goal of any documentation effort is to present the work that has been done in a

form that makes it clearly understandable to other people. As an engineer, you spendmany hours growing the design. Concepts are developed and compared, models arecreated and run, information is sought out from various resources, etc. All of this workneeds to be recorded in a way that will permit you, or any technically competent person,

to recreate the process that was followed or understand why the design is as it is. Youwill want to document both the process as well as the product (i.e., the design).

Without adequate documentation it is difficult to:

1. make the design,2. convince other people that the design is worthwhile or will work,

3. explain what it is you plan or hope to do,

4. recreate the design process used when it is necessary to determine why thedesign does not work,

5. use a successful design process as the starting point for a new design,

6. have someone else pickup and continue the project.

Documentation, as a task, consumes much of an engineer's time. Documentation isnot limited to design drawings but also includes written work, graphical work, computercodes, and oral presentations, as well as much of the effort spent on modeldevelopment. While each of these areas requires its own special approach, thecommon thread is the desire to present the information in a form that is understandableto the reader.

After a brief discussion of the differences between engineering and classroomdocumentation needs, this material discusses general documentation requirements,then addresses the documentation needs of modeling and finishes with some materialrelated to preparing reports. The material should provide you with some generalattitudes and strategies as well as some specific methods you can use. While there areno universally agreed-upon "correct" formats for documentation, the formats suggestedhere can be used as starting points and are acceptable for the work done in yourdesign courses.

1 The material presented here has been developed over the last seventeen years at Arizona StateUniversity in the course of teaching senior capstone classes, MAE 443, thermal system classes, MAE446, the principles of design classes, MAE 441, and the introduction to engineering class, ECE 106. Theideas and formats are a blend of the opinions and thoughts of the class faculty which includeprs. NeilCooperrider, Bob Fries, David Laananen, Mark Henderson, E. Dan Hirleman, Barry McNeill, Jami Shah,

Joe Davidson, Jim Blechschmidt, and Don Evans.

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Engineering vs. Homework Documentation

It is not as if you have had no experience in documenting your work. During your yearsin high school and the engineering program you have learned how to document (i.e.,write up) homework problems and by the time you graduate you will have become quiteproficient at homework documentation. Unfortunately, what you will soon discover aftergraduation is that the documentation effort which was adequate for homework problemsis seldom adequate for engineering work. There are several reasons why moreextensive documentation is needed for engineering problems.

First, work and school environments are significantly different, particularly in terms ofwhat information is known and need not be stated and what information is not knownand must be stated. For example, in homework problems most of the informationcontained in the problem itself (i.e., Problem Definition sort of material) need not beexplicitly stated as part of the homework write up. Your instructor knows what problemsshe has assigned. Even material related to the method of modeling would generally notappear in your homework write up; the method is assumed to be some derivative of thematerial presented in the text or given in class. In an engineering work environment,however, you rarely have this built-in pre-knowledge about the problem and, unless it isprovided in the documentation, it remains unknown to the reader.

Second, the reasons for doing the work differ significantly in the two environments. Inschool the reason for doing the work is implicitly clear and need not be addressed, i.e.,the reason for the work is to demonstrate the expertise needed to solve the problem. Inan engineering environment the reasons for doing the work may or may not be clear.What is obvious to you may not be obvious to the reader. Unless you provide thisinformation (i.e., context) in the documentation, the reasons for doing the work are lost.

Finally, for homework problems there are generally no consequences or follow-up workrequired once an answer has been determined. The answer is boxed and turned in;just doing the problem is the end unto itself. This is clearly not the case for in anengineering environment. Merely doing the task is not sufficient unto itself. The resultsyou obtain influence what you do next and this must be covered (explained) in thedocumentation.

The sooner you recognize the differences between adequate homework documentationand adequate engineering problem documentation, the sooner you will startdocumenting your engineering design work well.

Technical Work - General Comments

Any work that is undertaken as part of the design process is classified as technicalwork. Work related to Problem Definition, Conceptual Design, "research", as well asModel Development and Use, all fall under the category of technical work. Buried, buthopefully not hidden, in this mass of technical work are the reasons why the designdeveloped as it did. If the documentation effort is successful, then these reasons willnot be hidden. This Section discusses general traits of good documentation and thenaddresses a number of specific documentation requirements.

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traits of good documentationWhile specific methods of documentation vary depending on what sort of task you are

documenting, there are some general, philosophical guidelines, which can help you

achieve good documentation. When documenting your work, you should strive to do

the following:

1. impart a sense of organizationYou should clearly show how the current work is related to the other tasks that

are being or will be done; this ties the work together. You should strive to

make it very clear where information comes from and where the reader canfind information about other related tasks. It should be possible to quicklylocate any desired task or piece of information contained within a task. Forextensive work the use of page numbers and table and plot numbers helps addto an overall sense of organization.

2. explain what is going onYou should attempt to let the reader know, at all times, what is going on. Thismeans explaining what is being attempted, why it is being attempted, and whatmethod is going to be used. This also means that at the conclusion of a taskyou explain what you are going to do next as a consequence of the work justcompleted.

3. make it readableAnything you can do to make the work easier to read will help improve thedocumentation. Imparting a sense of organization and explaining what is going

on are two ways to improve readability. Other traits include doing neat work,having clean sketches, having the material bound so that it does not fall apartand yet is easy to access, etc.

4. make it clear whose work it isIt should always be clear who did the work and when the work was done. Thisis usually done by dating and initialing each sheet of work done.

You need to strive to incorporate all of the above guidelines into your documentationeffort; failure to include one of the characteristics reduces your chance of having

adequate documentation.

graphical material presentationMuch information is contained in pictures and hence your work will contain significantamounts of graphic information. This graphic material is generally either pictures of thedesign or plots showing the relationship between a performance variable and one or

more design variables. Because pictures concisely contain so much information, i.e.,pictures capture the essence of the material, graphic material is frequently copied anddistributed, often without the accompanying text. Since this practice is so ubiquitous, itis critical, when preparing graphic material, that you

1. add enough annotation to the material that the picture makes sense standingalone,

2. make the pictures with pencils or pens on paper that permits the making ofgood looking copies.

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The first of these items means you put titles and labels on all your graphic materialwhile the second item means that you do not put your drawings on green grid graphpaper using a number 3 pencil.There are some standards for the presentation of plots that you should be aware of.

1. Both axes must be labeled, including units when appropriate.

2. The plot must have a descriptive title

3. The dependent variable is always plotted on the vertical (y) axis.

4. A concise legend must be added if the plot has more than one independentvariable.

5. Data points used in generating the plot are generally shown.

6. Smooth curves are generally drawn through or near the data points to showthe trend.

The above standards are true for any plot, whether it is hand or computer drawn. Youmay find that computer drawn plots do not meet some of these annotation standards.In such cases it is entirely permissible to add the annotation after the plot has beengenerated. Whether you choose to add it by hand or with a typewriter or transfersdepends on who is likely to see the work. The greater the chance that the work, ormore likely a copy of the work, will be viewed by your supervisor or someone higherthan your supervisor, the nicer you want the plot to look.

Technical Work - The Modeling TasksWhile the complete collection of technical work covers a number of different tasks,much of the technical work is concerned with developing and using models. Not onlydo the general requirements listed above apply to modeling, but there are someadditional or more specific documentation requirements. The next three sectionsaddress the additional documentation needs for model development, computer models,and model use.

who is the reader?How you document your technical work is heavily influenced by who is expected to bethe reader. For these modeling tasks there are two potential readers and you must aimfor the lowest common denominator when preparing the documentation. The primaryreader will be you. You will need and want to refer to what you have done. The secondreader will be a technically competent peer who may be expected to review thetechnical merits of the work or even be asked to take up the project and continue onfrom where you have stopped.

documentation goals for analytical model developmentModel development work covers all aspects of assembling the set of equations whichcan be used to predict the performance of the design. The documentation of this task,i.e., the way you present the work, comes very close to how you have been doinghomework preparation. After reading the model development material, if the material iswell documented, the reader will have a sense that the work is complete and correct.This sense can be generated, if during the development, you are careful to:

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1. Define the Model Limitations,

2. Define the Model Variables,

3. Establish the Correctness of the Model.

The first two items are requirements you've addressed in every homework assignmentyou've ever had. You are continually reminded to list all assumptions and to show allyour variables on a sketch. There should never be a question as to what a modelvariable represents. Defining the modeling variables includes defining the unitsassociated with the variable.

The third item is one that is often not explicitly part of your homework documentation.The correctness of the modeling method is generally implied and no real effort isneeded to prove this. This is not the case for model development. As part of anengineering task you will need to impart a sense of correctness. There are severalthings you can do to demonstrate model correctness ranging from citing references,starting from a set of fundamental principles and logically developing the model,running a test case for which the answer is known, to proving that the assumptionsused are reasonable. You may do all of these things. It is up to you to make sure thatthe reader comes away with a sense that the model and modeling method are correct.If you fail to do this, the reader will have grave doubts about the correctness of anydecisions related to the use of the model.

documentation goals for computer modelsThe above discussion applies to any model that is developed, independent of themethod or tools used in running the model. When developing computer models thereare yet some additional documentation requirements which help assure that thecomputer model is understandable and correct.

high level languages

If the model is developed using a high level language such as FORTRAN or C, thecomputer code must include comments and a variable dictionary. A listing of theprogram must be included with the work. The listing should be in an appendix likelocation and should beeasy to read (i.e., not bound into the documentation in such amanner as to make reading impossible). Any model which exceeds several hundredlines of code should be broken up into a set of smaller subroutines or procedures.

formula solvers

If the model is developed using a formula solving program such as TK!SOLVER2 thenthe documentation must include a completed Variable Sheet3 including the Units andComments Columns. The Variable Sheet must show a consistent set of values for allvariables. You must also supply a copy of the Rule (Equation) Sheet. The Rule Sheetshould contain some general comments to tie major sets of equations together. If themodel uses any special user defined functions these should also be included in the

2 TK!SOLVER is a registered trademark of Universal Technical Systems, Inc., Rockford Illinois

3 Equation solving programs have a variety of input and output screens which they call sheets. Some ofthese programs can solve multiple cases by running in what is called List Solving.

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material submitted. User functions should be documented in the same fashion as the

equations on the Rule Sheet.

spreadsheets

Documenting a model when a spreadsheet is used is a bit more difficult than when highlevel languages or formula solvers are used because spreadsheet equations use celladdresses rather than variable names. About the best thing you can do whenspreadsheets are used to make sure each column and row of the sheet has a clearlydefined title or heading. If the sheet's equations are not intuitively obvious then you willprobably have to append a report which explains what calculation is being done in each

cell.

documenting the use of modelsUsing a model implies running the model for a variety of different cases, in someinstances a very large number of cases. It is easy to be overwhelmed by the enormityof data that can be generated with a model, and the documentation of this work needs

careful consideration.

displaying the results

The important results of any case, such as those used to substantiate a conclusion, carebe displayed using plots and or tables. Tables are required for any plot shown but thereis no need to generate plots for all the tabular data, only the most importantrelationships need to be plotted. Each plot and table must have a figure or tablenumber, e.g., Figure 1 or Table IV. The data from all cases which are run using thesame model (i.e., the equations are not changed from run to run; only the input data arechanged) should be grouped together in chronological order.

It is very important that for each case run, the values of the variables which wereconstant as well as the values of the variables which changed be known. Theconstants can be shown by including a complete Variable Sheet or table of values. Foreach case that you run you will generate a set of lists, probablycollected into a table,showing how the other variables changed. For each case, you must annotate the lists(tables) with information explaining what has changed from the previous case. If you douse a general table with numerous variables, only some of which are of interest foreach case, you must mark the variables of interest. This can be done using ahighlighting marker.

One last point, you should not include results from runs made but not discussed (i.e.,not used). Filling a report or homework assignment with pages and pages of tables andplots, none of which are discussed (used), is not conducive to a good documentationeffort. Work filled with such material, suggests an unorganized, haphazard approach tothe problem, i.e., run a bunch of cases and hope something turns up.

discussing the results

When you present the results of your work you always want to discuss the results (i.e.,you never just submit a plot or a table without some discussion of the table or plot).Look at the data and tell the reader what YOU, the writer, want the reader to notice; donot make the reader figure out what is important or interesting about the data. Explainwhat decisions you have made or will make based on the data. Try to explain why the

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presented plot looks like it does (i.e., try to explain the fundamental laws and theorieswhich are at work). If the data has any anomalies do not just ignore them; eitherattempt to explain why they are there or admit that after consideration you cannot reallyexplain the unusual (unexpected) shape. The discussion must refer to the plots andtables by their names or numbers, e.g., Figure 1.

Technical Work - An Entire ProjectThe material up to this point has addressed the documentation requirements forindividual models and not an entire project. The documentation for the entire projectrequires collecting and organizing all the individual tasks in one central location - thedesign notebook.

the design notebookThe design notebook is the complete record of the work done by your team on theproject. The notebook is the source of all documentation required to establish that yourdesign is feasible, that you considered a reasonable number of alternatives, thatsystem optimization was done, etc. It includes the early high level of abstractionconcepts as well as the final low level of abstraction variables.

design notebook organizationThere are two important guiding principles you want to keep in mind as you developand create your notebook.

1. It must be easy to find work in the notebook. The page numbering scheme youuse must make it easy to find work referenced to or to find material related totopics of interest (i.e., if suspension systems are part of the project, it must beeasy to find the technical work related to suspension systems).

2. It must be easy to insert new material into the notebook. By easy I mean thatwhen pages are added to existing work you do not have to spend hoursrenumbering the notebook and revising all the internal references.

There are several ways to accomplish these goals but most methods boil down todividing the notebook up into a large set of technical sections which page numbersstarting from 1 in each section. For example, if the third section concerns heatexchanger work, the tenth page of this work would be 3.10. You could have taskswithin sections have sequential numbering (e.g., A, B) and the work of each task start atpage 1. Thus for example in the previous case a page number of 3.B.2 would indicatethat the heat exchanger work (i.e., 3) was in the second task (i.e., B) and on page 2 ofthat task. (note: organizing a notebook according to who has done the work isgenerally not a good practice, focus on the tasks not the people)

the design section

While each notebook will be unique in terms of what technical sections are present,each notebook will not be unique in the sense that all notebooks must have a designsection. The design section of the notebook contains the latest version of the team'sdesign. It will be an ever changing section, growing during the semester as more andmore information about the design is known. An important point about the design

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section: The design section of a notebook contains only the design (i.e., thedescription) and not any justification of the design.

product and process

Remember, one of the goals of technical documentation is to document the process aswell as the product. This means that the notebook must do both and cannot be just a

record of the current work or thinking. The only section of the notebook which isrevised to show only current thinking is the design section. All other sections mustclearly show process and product. Successful execution of this goal requires somethought about overall and section organization.

The overall organization of the notebook generally includes: a Table of Contents upfront, an Introduction to the project, the design section and all the technical sections.The organization of the material within each technical section needs to be such that it is

easy for the notebook reader to tell what is going on, what the current state of the

design process is and what are you currently working on (i.e., product and process).

Reports of Technical WorkWhile the documentation of your technical work is critical if you or anyone else is goingto understand exactly what was done and why, th:4 people who generally makedecisions about whether the project should be continued are not going to spend thetime (do not have the time to spend) reading all this technical documentation. Insteadyou must prepare reports which serve the purpose of summarizing all your work andpresenting the results in a format which is persuasive and able to convince a reader ofthe merits of the work. The ability to write and/or give good reports is critical if you wantpeople to respond favorably to your efforts.

There are a vast variety of report types, ranging from short memo-type progress

reports, up to extensive multi-volume reports. Many of the required reports are oral,with only limited written material to accompany the presentations. There are progressreports, conceptual design reports, final design reports, and documents (proposals)requesting money. At some time in your career you will have to prepare all or portionsof all of these reports.

before writing your reportGood reports do not just spring into existence; good reports take a conscious effort.Writing a report is a process just as creating a design is a process and there is no one,

correct way to do this process. Each person eventually determines which process bestsuits them. But as with the design process there are some guidelines which will help

you learn to develop a report writing process you feel comfortable with. Following aresome general tips which should ameliorate learning this process.

know your audence

You must determine who you are writing the report for. Is it for your technical peers,your parents, your technically wise supervisor, the vice-president of research, thenightly news, your prime contractor, a sub-contractor, a vendor, etc. As is the case indesign you must know who your customer is, i.e., who is going to read the material or

listen to the talk.

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Once you know your customer you then know what level of detail must be included inthe report. You know what vocabulary you can use. You know what ideas needexplanation and what ideas the reader already understands. You don't want to wastethe reader's time by telling her stuff she already knows but you also don't want to loosethe reader because they haven't a clue as to what is going on.

know your purpose

You must know explicitly the reason for the report. What do you hope will happen afterthe customer has read the report? When you know this then you know exactly whatthings to put in the report (things which will make the desired result happen) and whatthings to leave out (things which either have no bearing on the desired outcome orworse yet will cause the customer to not perform the desired outcome).

design briefsDesign briefs, as the name implies, are relatively short documents which are meant toinitiate some work. While a brief can be written during every stage of the designprocess, all design briefs contain three common elements. The brief must contain thegoal(s), constraints, and measures of merit (quality, goodness) which are appropriatefor the task at hand. Writing a good brief takes some effort; it is a balancing act. Thebrief must be as detailed and specific as possible so that the work and potential solutionmatch your desires while at the same time the brief must not be too restrictive (i.e.,implied solutions, solutions which you are not wedded to) or you run the risk of undulybiasing or limiting the person who is to do the work. Within this balancing act the briefshould be as quantitative as possible (e.g., last at least five years rather than have along life if in fact you really desire a five year life). You should try to clearly defineconcepts which may have alternate or multiple meanings (e.g., low specific fuelconsumption or time to process rather than high efficiency). A well written design briefwould be one where you gave it to the person to do the work, left for a month, andcame back to find the task done to your satisfaction (i.e., no surprises).

design proposalA Design Proposal presents a proposed solution (i.e., a possible concept) along withdetails of how the design will be developed. The purpose of a Design Proposal is toconvince decision makers, i.e., the people who are responsible for deciding whether theproject should proceed, that you understand the nature of the problem and know how tosolve it. It is often the only document read by these decision makers and thus it mustbe very persuasive. If the project proceeds, the Design Proposal becomes a contract,defining what will be done and what will be supplied when the work is finished.Depending on who the decision maker is (i.e., is he/she your immediate supervisor or aperson outside your company), Design Proposals can range from short memos toextensive reports. A written Design Proposal should always be developed, even if theinitial approval is the result of conversations or a meeting.

A Design Proposal can only be written after some significant preliminaiy work has beendone. Only after the problem has been defined, only after significant numbers of highlevel of abstraction design alternatives have been developed and evaluated, and onlyafter a detailed plan of attack (i.e., a detailed design strategy) has been developed is it

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possible to write a Design Proposal. Only then can you expect to be able to develop adocument which will be convincing.

Without a significant effort spent on problem definition, you cannot expect to convincethe reader that you are working on the correct problem and that you are considering allthe important, and not just the "obvious," aspects to the problem. Without a seriouseffort spent in conceptual design, you cannot expect to propose a solution that seemspromising. Without quantitative based decisions for selection of the proposedalternative you cannot expect the reader to appreciate your technical skills. And finally,without a well defined design process you cannot expect to convince the decisionmakers that you can successfully accomplish the complex task.

design proposal format - senior design projects

There are many formats possible for a Design Proposal and you will need to determinethe correct format. The following format is the one to be used for the senior designproject classes (i.e., MAE 443/468). The proposal has several required major writtensections which are discussed below.

1. Title PageEach Design Proposal must have a Title Page. This page must include theproject title, the team number, the date the Design Proposal is submitted, theteam members' names, and the names of the course faculty. Leave a blank,signature line to the right of each name.

2. IntroductionThis material sets the context and helps to define the boundaries of theproblem. Who is the customer; why is your team working on this project? Thecontext portion of this material will require a little imagination on your part.Since this problem is an assigned class problem there is no clearly definedcontext, i.e., work environr,,ent. It is up to the team to define a context (i.e.,work environment within which the proposed project makes sense). Definingthis context helps define the boundaries of the problem; it establishes whatthings will be fixed and cannot change, e.g., environmental and systemparameters, and what things can and will be varied, e.g., design and systemvariables. The team must define how their work fits into the larger problemsolving process.

3. Problem DefinitionThis material defines and explains the design objectives and all the relevantperformance requirements, other constraints, and goals (i.e., discuss all thefactors which must be considered in establishing design feasibility and quality).Any known restrictions on design variables must be explained. This section ofthe report will be used by the course faculty in deciding whether the team isplaning to consider all the important performance and failure mechanisms intheir up coming work. The Design Proposal will not be signed until this sectionis deemed reasonable.

4. Concept Generation and SelectionThis section needs to give a sense of what alternative concepts wereconsidered and how these alternatives were winnowed down to the final

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concept to be developed during the semester. All the important, high level ofabstraction alternatives should be described. The decision process should be,

as much as possible, based on sound technical (i.e., read hard quantitative)reasons rather than intuitive (i.e., read soft qualitative) reasons. It is notnecessary to develop (i.e., describe) all the alternatives in equal detail; it isimportant that the concept of choice be fully, at the level of abstractionappropriate, described.

5. Design ProcessThis can be a very important section of the proposal. This section can conveymastery of the design strategy generation and show how the team mightmonitor and control the design process. It is here that the global approach isexplained. A context for the work has been defined in an earlier section as hasa possible design. The design process has proceeded to the point where thedesign contains some generic components, defined by some initial geometricand materials information for the various components Given this scenario andassuming that each team member will be assigned a certain set of thecomponents to work on, this section describes the design process to be usedby your team to work on this problem. Develop the process in enough detailthat each member of your team understands her role within both the team andthe company (context consistency) and knows what the appropriate set ofdesign variables would be. Try to use the terminology used throughout yoursystem design class (e.g., design variables, system parameters, systemvariables, components, design space, etc.) in defining and describing theproposed design process. Feel free to define the role of the team within theentire project; just make sure this role is clearly explained to your teammembers and that the role is consistent with the general role outlined in theIntroduction.

This section lets the team define the system aspects of the proposed artifact(solution). The specific technical models and methods are defined in theStatement of Work section, assuming this section is part of the report. In thissection a picture i; painted showing how all the work blends together into anorganized coherent approach.

6. Statement of WorkIt is here that the technical details or the proposed plan of attack are given anddiscussed. Based on how the team has broken the problem down there will bea number of components that must be developed where the development willrequire the execution of a variety of tasks (e.g., predict component/systemperformance). This section of the report defines all these tasks which must bedone. The more detail that is included in this section , i.e., the more tasks thatare included, the better the chances are of convincing the reader that the teamhas a complete, technically sound plan. For example, in the design of anairplane, a team could include a task called "Design of the Wing;" or they couldrather break the task down into a number of tasks ( e.g., "Aerodynamic WingLoads", "Wing Material Selection", "Wing Structural Stresses", etc.).

Each proposed task should be a separate paragraph and should address:

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1. the goal or purpose of the task,

2. how the task will be done, i.e., describe what modelling techniques will beused, what generic models will be used (e.g., Bernoulli, FEM), whatresources used, etc.,

3. who is going to do the work.

7. DeliverablesThis is the section of the report which is primarily used to judge whether theproposed level of effort is reasonable. This material describes what things aregoing to be turned in (i.e., delivered). There should be an item for everythingthat is turned in during the semester, including Notebook reviews, outlines, etc.The date that each of these items is delivered should be shown on theSchedule (see next section) as a milestone. Except for the final designspecification contained in the final Notebook submittal, there needs only be avery briefly description of what is being delivered (i.e., the name of thedocument and a sentence or two is sufficient).

The exception to this brevity is the description of the detail contained in theDesign Section of your last Notebook. This report must describe, as bestpossible, the level of detail to be contained in the final design the teameventually plans to submit. List as many of the design variables as possible(just their names not their values). This large set of variables will need to beorganized is some fashion (e.g., by component or function or system). Try toindicate the number of significant figures that will be presented. If the designvariable value is something other than a number, indicate whether the variablevalue will be generic or specific (e.g., if the design variable is a type of pump,will its value be "gear pump" (generic) or Goulds Pumps, number G23-a45(specific)). In addition to listing the design variables this section must alsodescribe what set of design drawings (i.e.; assembly, isometric with cutaways,layout, etc.) the team plan to develop and submit. Try to indicate what parts ofthese drawings will have dimensional information explicitly shown.

8. ScheduleBecause there are several mastery areas related to schedules (C4 & G2) thereport must have a schedule showing when all the proposed tasks will be done.Any format is possible; a Gantt Chart format is acceptable (dates across thetop, tasks down along the side, and bars showing when each task starts and

ends). If the report has a Statement of Work Section there should be a one toone correspondence between the tasks shown on this schedule and the tasksdiscussed in the Statement of Work. In the Gantt Chart the thickness of thebars should indicate the level of effort (i.e., how many team membersassigned), thicker bars implying more effort. The schedule should also includeall required milestones (e.g., design notebook due for review)

final design reportThe purpose of a final design report is to document and justify the final design. As istrue for any report, this report must be convincing. Some general traits of good

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documentation were given earlier; some more specific suggestions for this report arediscussed below.

1. present numerical resultsThe use of a specific numerical value or result instead of a general term alwaysimplies a greater level of known detail in the work. For example, stating thatthe temperature was 120 C, rather than that the temperature was high makes itmuch easier to convince the reader that some decision, based on thistemperature, is reasonable. The presence of numbers implies the existence ofmodels which again adds credibility to the report.

2. present specific factsThis is very similar to the above item but is not limited to numerical data. Themore specific you can be, the stronger your arguments become. For example,the reader gets a much better feeling when he/she reads "The critical columnload was found using a modified Euler, slender column, buckling analysis;"rather than, "The maximum column load was determined.

3. present a feeling of completenessIf the reader believes that yc,i have covered all the necessary topics he/she willbe more receptive to accept the work and results presented. This sense ofcompleteness can be fostered by, early on, listing what you feel are theimportant topics and then discussing each of them completely in the body ofthe report. This is standard good report writing, i.e., tell t he reader what youare going to discuss and then discuss the items.

4. present an organized feelingThe more organized your report; the more organized your project or at leastthat is the implication. If conclusions arise naturally as a consequence of aseries of arguments, the reader gets the feeling that the writer of the report hastruly mastered a complex subject because he/she is able to present the myri4dof facts in a meaningful, organized manner.

5. present a readable reportIf a report is easy to read, the reader is likely to accept the argumentspresented more easily than if the report is hard to re ad. Report readability canbe enhanced by using transition paragraphs to tie major sections of the reporttogether.

The need to be readable and the desire to use specific numerical facts canlead to a conflict. The presence of too much numerical data and too little textcan make the reading very dry ("wooden" as Zonker remarked on the style ofthe Zip Code directory he was reading) and not very readable. You have towalk (write) a fine line between presenting too much or too little numericalwork.

define your audience

For your final report you may select your audience to be either the course instructors orthe MAE faculty. You must make it clear to the course instructors which audience youhave selected.

printed May 12, 1994 13

294

Documentation

state your purpose - select a theme

At the time you tell the course instructors who your audience is you must also tell themwhat your theme is. The quality and completeness of this final report will be judgedbased on your success at achieving your state purpose or theme.

final design report format - senior design projects

The following format is the one to be used for the senior design project classes (i.e.,MAE 443/468). The report has six major written sections: Executive Summary,Introduction, The Design Process, The Design, Design Justification, and Conclusions.Each of these, along with some other topics, is discussed in the material to follow. Asyou write each section, be sure to keep the guidelines for good report writing in mind.

Before writing the report you should develop an outline. Since the report is limited insize and there are many topics which must be covered, an outline is almost mandatory.Further, since the report will have material written by different people, the outline is oneway to define exactly what material should be covered by each person. An outlinehelps organize the report and eliminate redundancies.

1 title pageThe Title Page is the first page of the report and must include the project title,the class name, the submittal date, the group number, the members' names,and the instructors' names.

2. design pictureThis page is your concept presentation page. This page is a picture, sketch, orset of pictures on the page, that shows the essence of your artifact. The moreyou capture the sense of the entire proposed artifact the better this pagebecomes. It can range from an artists rendition to an engineering drawing;however, the more it is a rendering the more successful the picture will be. Becreative in developing this picture.

3. executive summaryThe Executive Summary is a summary of the report. This summary mustincluded introductory background material as well as a synopsis of the design.In addition, you must cover the reasons behind several of the more importantdesign decisions. The Executive Summary, along with the design Picture mustbe able to stand alone.

Note: the title page, design picture, and executive summary should form apackage which could stand along (i.e., make sense with no other material).These three pieces of a report are often removed, copied and distributed tr otherpeople. This means that the audience for the executive summary is larger andpotentially less informed than the audience for the report itself.

4. table of contentsFollowing the Executive Summary comes the Table of Contents. All majorsections of the report should appear here, including the Executive Summaryand al! Appendices. You should have a separate Figure Table of Contentsfollowing the first Table of Contents. Every Figure (i.e., every plot and table)must be entered with a page number.

printed May 12, 1994 14 Documentation

295

5. introductionThis material is very similar to the material contained in the Problem DefinitionSection of your Design Proposal. This section establishes the context of theproblem as well as presenting a brief description of the concept you propose asa solution. The discussion of the concept is done in a general manner,explaining how the concept works and solves the stated problem. Thediscussion of the concept does not contain specific details about the particularartifact you eventually designed; this detail will be found in the Design Sectionof this report.

This section gives reasons as to why the project is being worked on; it givesbackground material or technical information which gets the reader up tospeed; and it contains material which establishes the important designconstraints and selection criterion. This section could contain justification forthe general concept (some sort of shortened version of what was in the designproposal) but should not contain justification of the design decisions you madeafter the Design Proposal was signed.

This material may end with a transition paragraph which explains theorganization of the rest of the report.

6. the design processIn your Design Proposal you discussed the general approach you planned touse, i.e., you discussed the system aspects of your work. In this section ofyour report you should explain what general approach you actually used.Discuss the generic types of models that were developed and how they wereused and integrated together. Specific details concerning the models are notof interest; how the models were used in the over all design process is ofinterest.

7. the designThis section presents your final design, the best design you had time to find.This section summarizes the most important features of the design. Thissection is not meant to be a complete description of the design because that isfound in the Notebook. This section will be a combination of text, tables, anddrawings, organized and presented in a form that makes it easy for the readerto quickly grasp the important features and components of the proposedartifact. As is true with the Notebook design section, this section of the reportshould not contain any justification of the design. All justification for theselections will be found in the next section.

8. design lustificationThis section will be the longest and most detailed section of the report. It is inthis section that you attempt to convince the reader that, through soundtechnical work:

1. the design is feasible and

2. the design is good.

printed May 12, 1994 15 Documentation

2 9 6

You need to present plots and tables which show that the design does notviolate major constraints (i.e., it is feasible) and that the particular values of thedesign variables selected give a design which is better, according to theselection criterion outlined in the Introduction. This section can also be used todiscuss the sensitivity of some of the environmental and performance variableson the design decisions made (e.g., how sensitive is the wing lift calculation tothe value of air density used in the analysis). If your group has done redesignthis is the place this work is discussed.

Be sure to completely discuss all the figures that you include as proof of designfeasibility or goodness. Be sure to discuss the implications of the plots and donot simply report the shape of the plot. Try to explain why the plot looks like itdoes. This may require you to briefly discuss some of the modelling details(e.g., major assumptions, first principle approaches used, etc.). Discussion ofspecific model development should be kept to a minimum and only bepresented if it helps explain the predicted results. You should emphasize howthe results of the modelling, as shown in the figures, influenced your designdecisions. The detailed information on how the tables and plots weregenerated is contained in the Notebook.

9. conclusionsThis section ends the body of the report and lists the major conclusionsreached concerning the design. It also gives any recommendations you mayhave reached concerning the need for additional work, the goodness of thedesign or the completeness of the modelling. This is an important, if not long,part of the report.

10. appendicesThese are optional and contain information which you feel should accompanythe report. Remember, however, the report must make sense without theAppendices.

11. general format notesYou should assemble your report in the following order, observing the pagelimits.

1. Title Page - one page

2. Design Picture - one page

3. Executive Summary - two page maximum

4. Table of Contents - no limit

5. Body of Report - twenty pages maximum (exclusive of pictures, plots, tables,etc.)

6. Appendixes - no limitYou may use any printer font you wish but it must not be smaller than 12 point.The report should have at least a one inch margin on all sides. The reportshould be stapled once in the upper left hand corner; no folders or binders are

required or desired.

printed May 12, 1994 16 Documentation

4. 7

oral reportsDog and Pony Shows, Informal Presentations -- whatever you call them -- oralpresentations of your work are an important facet of your professional life. Lastingimpressions are made during oral presentations, impressions which can be helpful orharmful. The long range implications are such that you should never just give one ofthese presentation "off the top of your head " (i.e., you must plan in advance what youwant to cover and how to cover it).

Like all aspects of design, the only way to learn how to present good oral presentationsis to give them. It takes practice. Here are a few do's and don'ts which may help you

initially.

1. plan your talkFind out who the audience will be and how much time you will have, and planyour talk around those two constraints. If the audience is familiar with yourwork, you will not need much introductory material and vice versa. Make anordered list of the topics you want to cover and then, starting with the first one,cover as many topics as you think you will have time for. Always cover themost important topics first.

2. use visual aidsIt is mandatory that you use visual aids, either overhead slides, 35 mm slides,video, etc. You can use the slides to estimate the length of your talk. On theaverage you can cover 1 to 2 slides per minute of presentation. It's possible togo through 45 slides in 15 minutes, but no one will understand what is on anyof the slides and the presentation will have failed. Your slides must be keptsimple. Do not attempt to put all the information possible on one slide, eitherremove the secondary information or present 2+ slides on the subject.

3. present report extemporaneouslyYou should strive to present the material with few if any notes, using the slidesto organize the talk and remind you of the key items you want to discuss."Extemporaneous" does not mean "off the top of your head," it simply meansthat you are not reading a prepared script. If you gave the talk twice, each talkwould be a little diffe,:1-1t. You should never just read the text of a report.

4. practiceEspecially when you are just beginning to give oral presentations, you need topre -Ice delivering the talk. This helps you see if the timing is correct as well asdeveloping a presentation pattern in your mind, a pattern you cansubconsciously use when actually presenting the material.

5. present to the audienceWhen giving the talk, look at the audience; this way you can judge thereception of the talk. It is fine to glance at the slides from time to time, but youshould not spend you whole time talking to the screen or slide projector. (Veryfew projects have been funded by slide projectors.)

printed May 12, 1994 17

2J8Documentation

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Expert-Novice Differences in Problem Solving(From Mestre, 1991)

The following three physics problems can be used to illustrate differences in the problem solvingIbehavior of experts and novices:

I Problem 1 : A 1 kilogram stick of length 1 meter is placed on a frictionlesshorizontal surface and is free to rotate about a vertical axlethrough one end. A 50 gram lump of clay is attached 80centimeters from the pivot. Find the net force between thestock and the clay when the angular velocity of the system is 3radians per second.

Problem 2: A stick of length 1.5 meters and mass 0.2 kilograms is on africtionless horizontal surface and is rotating about a pivot atone end with an angular velocity of 5 radians per second. A 35gram lump of clay drops vertically onto the stick at its midpoint.If the clay remains attached to the stick, find the final angularvelocity of the stick-clay system.

Problem 3: A 60 kilogram block is held in place in a frictionless inclinedplan of angle 30 degrees. The block is attached to ahanging mass by a massless string over a frictionlesspulley. Find the value of the hanging mass so that theblock does not move when released.

Question: Which of problems 2 and 3 would be solved mosi !ike problem 1?Explain your answer.

Typical Expert's Response: Problem 3 would be solved most like problem 1 because

Typical Novice's Response:

both involve the application of Newton's Second Law.

Problem 2 would be solved most like problem 1 becauseboth involve a rotating stick with a lump of clay attached.

INote that the expert cues on the underlying principle that could be applied to solve theproblems, whereas the novice cues on the surface characteristics of the problems.

311

Question: Describe how you would go about solving problem 1.

Typical Expert's Response:

Typical Novice's Response:

path so I would probably have to

the clay. I am told values for thefind 1 by looking up the moment

plugging in to get a number for it.

The clay accelerates as it moves in a circular path.The net force needed to keep the clay going in acircle is provided by the horizontal force between thestick and the clay. Therefore, apply Newton's SecondLaw and set the net force on the clay equal to itsmass times its centripetal acceleration. Then solvefor the magnitude of the force.

The stick and the clay are both moving in a circular

use 10 and1

1 0)2 for the stick, and mvR and1

mv2 for2 2

mass of the clay and the stick so I have m and I canof inertia of a stick pivoted at one end in a table and

The force for something moving in a circle isR

v2 so I

think that I have enough to get an answer.

Note that the expert performs a qualitative analysis during which the applicable principleis identified and a procedure for applying the principle is stated. In contrast, the noviceimmediately resorts to formulaic approaches, often writing down expressions that are

irrelevant for solving the problem (e.g., ko, 1 ko 2 ). Principles and concepts are usually

lacking from the novice's approach.

:310

One approach for helping students overcome the "force of the hand" misconception(from Mestre, 1991)

Probe for Misconception: Toss a ball vertically up and ask students to enumerate theforces acting on it when the object is halfway to the top of its trajectory.

Ask questions to clarify students' beliefs: Does the "force of the hand" change in

magnitude or direction? What happens to this force at the top of the trajectory and on theway down? Is this force active in other situations, such as rolling a ball on top of a horizontalsurface? When does the "force of the hand" act on the ball?

Suggest discrepant events that contradict students' beliefs: Suppose I push on you -how do you know when I stop pushing on you? How does the object "know" that the "forceof the hand" is still acting on it? If the object experiences the "force of the hand" after itleaves the hand, why can't one control this force while the ball is in the air?

Encourage discussion and debate: Promote fruitful, non-disparaging debate amongstudents as they take different slides in the ensuing argument. Encourage students to applyphysics arguments, concepts, and definitions.

Guide students toward constructing scientific concepts: How one guides studentsdepends on their awareness to the teacher's questions and the issues raised during thediscussion and debate. Once could involve students in:

A synthesis of their responses to questions and situations, with a discussion ofhow consistent those responses are with the scientific concept or otherobservations.

A discussion of "thought experiments" that in principle could measure the"force of the hand."

A discussion of what the motion would be like with and without the "force of thehand" from the perspective of Newton's Second Law.

The design and execution of experiments to test hypotheses.

Reevaluate students' understanding: Ask questions and pose situations that allowstudents to display whether or not they have acquired the appropriate understanding:

When is the "force of the hand" acting on a ball that is thrown up in the air?

What are the forces acting on a cannonball that was shot out of a cannon whileit is airborne?

What is the difference, if any, between tho cannonball and the thrown ball?

1

1

1

A classroom dialogue for clarifying the concept of acceleration(From Mestre, 1991)

The teacher has previously introduced the concept of acceleration. Theteacher now presents some simple situations in order to explore thestudents' understanding of the concept in concrete contexts.

Teacher Suppose I toss a ball straight up in the air like this(demonstrates). What is the ball's acceleration at the top of thetrajectory?

Student 1 : Zero.

Student 2 : Yeah, zero.

Teacher Why is it zero?

Student 1 : Well, at the top the ball stops moving, so the acceleration mustbe zero.

Teacher OK. If I place the ball on the table so that it doesn't move, is itaccelerating?

Student 2 No. It's not moving.

Teacher What if I roll the ball across the table so that it moves at aconstant velocity (demonstrates). Is the ball accelerating in thatcase?

Students 1and 2 : Yeah.

Student 3 : No way! If the ball is rolling at a constant speed it doesn't haveany acceleration because its speed doesn't change.

Student 2 : No ... listen. The ball had to have an acceleration to get to thespeed it had.

Student 3 : Yeah, but once it rolls at a constant speed it can't have anyacceleration, 'cause if it did it would roll faster and faster.

Student 2 : I'm not sure. You're confusing me.

Teacher What's the definition of acceleration?

Student 1 It's the change in speed over the change in time.

314

Teacher

Student 2 :

Teacher

Student 1 :

Student 2 :

Teacher

Student 3

Student 2

Student 1

Close but not quite. It is the change in velocity over the change intime. Speed doesn't care about direction but velocity does. Atany rate, apply your definition to the ball rolling on the table.

Well, I guess since its speed - I mean, velocity - doesn't changewhen it rolls; it can't have an acceleration.

Do we agree on this case?

Yeah.

I guess so.

So it appears that an object can have a zero acceleration if it isstanding still or if it is moving at a constant velocity. Let'sreconsider the case where the ball is at the top of its trajectory(demonstrates again). What is the ball's acceleration when it is atthe top?

It would be zero because the ball is standing still at the top. It'snot moving - it has tot urn around.

It think it might be accelerating because it gets going faster andfaster.

Yeah, but that doesn't happen until it gets going again. When it'sstanding still it's not accelerating.

The teacher could pursue various directions from here to attempt to get studentsto realize that the ball's acceleration is not zero at the top of the trajectory. Onemight be to pose a related situation. Another might be to revisit the definition ofacceleration and ask students to apply it during the time interval just prior to theball's reaching the top and just after the ball starts its descent.

315

IErnst von Glaserfeld on Constructivism

"...[constructivism] deliberately discards the notion that knowledge could orshould be a representation of an observer-independent world-in-itself andreplaces it with the demand that the conceptual constructs we call knowledge beviable in the experiential world of the knowing subject." (Synthese, 1989, p. 122)

"...knowledge cannot simply be transferred by means of words. Verballyexplaining a problem does not lead to understanding, unless the concepts thelistener has associated with the linguistic components of the explanation arecompatible with those the explainer has in mind. Hence it is essential that theteacher have an adequate model of the conceptual network within which thestudent assimilates what he or she is being told. Without such a model as basis,teaching is likely to remain a hit-or-miss affair." (Synthese, 1989, p. 136)

"...the fact that scientific knowledge enables us to cope does not justify the beliefthat scientific knowledge provides a picture of the world that corresponds to anabsolute reality." (Synthese, 1989, p. 135)

"...if I want to 'orient' the conceptual construction of others, I would do well tobuild up some idea as to what goes on in their heads. In other words, in order toteach, one must construct models of those "others' who happen to be thestudents. Only by operating on the basis of a more or less adequate model ofthe students' conceptual structures can one present the required 'knowledge' inways that are accessible to the students. And students obviously do not comeas blank slates. They have their own constructs, as well as theories of how andwhy their constructs work. Such constructs or theories may be considered'misconceptions' from the teacher's point of view, because they are incompatiblewith the concepts and theories sanctioned by the particular discipline at themoment. Nevertheless they make good sense to the students, preciselybecause they have worked quite well in the context of the students' interests andactivities. And because these concepts and theories make sense to thestudents, they also determine to a large extend what the students see. Hence itis often necessary to do a certain amount of dismantling before the building upcan begin." (Bremen Proceedings, 1992)

31f

Commentary on Hands-On Activities

"Unfortunately, the research evidence suggeststhat hands-on activities or instruction in processskills will not ensure meaningful learning, eitheralone or in combination with conventional fact-based instruction. One problem is that scienceprocesses do not seem to consist of unitaryskills that can be transferred from one context toanother. Observing cell cultures, for example,has little in common with observing geologicalformations or with observing chemical reactions.Furthermore, a major component of processskills seems to be content knowledge (e.g., agood observer of cell cultures must know a lotabout cells.)" (Anderson, 1987)

317

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expe

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wor

k 48

yea

rsin

fiv

eca

reer

san

d 12

jobs

.Se

lf-r

elia

nce,

con

stan

ttr

aini

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flex

ibili

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reth

e ke

ys to

sta

ying

empl

oyed

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read

y to

mak

e la

tera

l mov

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bui

ld n

ewsk

ills.

The

only

sec

urity

isin

you

r sk

ills,

expe

rien

ces

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succ

esse

s.

* T

he I

nstit

ute,

Nov

embe

r/D

ecem

ber

1992

, Vol

ume

16,N

umbe

r 6,

The

Ins

titut

e of

Ele

ctri

cala

nd E

lect

roni

cs E

ngin

eers

.

333

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g ab

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earn

ing

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.e.,

the

proc

ess

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arni

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expe

ct s

tude

nts

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prob

lem

s, y

et s

eldo

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abou

t pro

blem

sol

ving

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., th

e pr

oces

s of

pro

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ving

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som

etim

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t

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e pr

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rem

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ring

).

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tim

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ade

upfo

rthi

s la

ck...

.*

Nor

man

, Don

A. (

1980

), C

ogni

tive

Eng

inee

ring

and

Edu

catio

n,In

D.T

. Tum

a an

d F

.R. R

eif (

edito

rs),

Pro

blem

Sol

ving

and

Edu

catio

n:Is

sues

in T

each

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par

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job,

whi

le th

ey a

re u

nlik

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arn

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h an

d sc

ienc

e on

the

job.

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bec

ause

the

activ

ities

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the

engi

neer

ing

stud

enth

ave

little

rel

atio

n to

the

activ

ities

of

man

y pr

actic

ing

engi

neer

s,it

is li

kely

that

eng

inee

ring

edu

catio

n di

scou

rage

s so

me

stud

ents

who

wou

ldm

ake

exce

llent

eng

inee

rs a

nd e

ncou

rage

s ot

hers

who

will

not

.T

hem

enta

lity

to d

ow

ell i

n en

gine

erin

g sc

hool

s em

phas

izes

the

abili

ty to

wor

k pr

oble

m s

ets

and

get r

ight

ans

wer

s. I

n en

gine

erin

g, th

ere

are

neve

r ri

ght a

nsw

ers

and

few

pro

blem

set

s.

Ada

ms.

Jam

es L

. 199

1. F

lyin

g B

uttr

esse

s, E

ntro

py, a

nd 0

-rin

gs:

The

Wor

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f an

Eng

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The

se p

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ems

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ende

mic

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ll in

stitu

tions

of

educ

atio

n,re

gard

less

of

leve

l. C

hild

ren

sit f

or 1

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ars

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sw

here

the

impl

icit

goal

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the

teac

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form

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tate

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pai

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truc

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ccur

s th

roug

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gage

men

t in

prob

lem

pos

ing

asw

ell a

s pr

oble

m s

olvi

ng, i

nfer

ence

mak

ing

and

inve

stig

atio

n,re

solv

ing

of c

ontr

adic

tions

, and

ref

lect

ing.

The

se p

roce

sses

all

man

date

far

mor

eac

tive

lear

ners

, as

wel

l as

a di

ffer

ent m

odel

of

educ

atio

n th

an th

e on

esu

bscr

ibed

to a

t pre

sent

by

mos

t ins

titut

ions

. Rat

her

than

bein

gpo

wer

less

and

dep

ende

nt o

n th

e in

stitu

tion,

lear

ners

nee

d to

beem

pow

ered

to th

ink

and

to le

arn

for

them

selv

es. T

hus,

lear

ning

need

s to

be

conc

eive

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som

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lear

ner

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, not

som

ethi

ngth

at is

don

e to

a le

arne

r.

Fos

not,

C.T

. (19

89).

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uirin

g T

each

ers,

Enq

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arne

rs. N

Y: T

each

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Col

lege

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inal

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lf-pa

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Inst

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havi

ng o

wn

spac

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Slid

e 73

11 B

ased

on

mat

eria

l pre

sent

ed in

How

ard

Gar

dner

's T

he U

nsch

oole

d M

ind;

How

Chi

ldre

n T

hink

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thin

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at w

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)

344

345

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*

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inte

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pers

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all,

G.E

. & H

ord,

S.M

. (19

87),

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nge

in S

choo

ls: F

acili

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g th

e Pr

oces

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lban

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offe

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efo

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ing,

Jam

es S

., Sy

nthe

sis

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In

Sear

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ffec

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ract

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duca

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Edu

catio

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p, 1

993,

Vol

. 51,

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3, p

p. 6

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likel

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y si

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last

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arac

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dev

elop

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acity

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oral

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nat

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havi

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cour

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and

disc

oura

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are

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inch

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educ

atio

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lear

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, stu

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rshi

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thos

e ru

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a s

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tisfa

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Ch

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rativ

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arni

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One

of t

he m

ajor

edu

catio

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ucce

ss s

torie

sov

er th

e pa

stde

cade

is th

e us

e of

coo

pera

tive

lear

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str

ateg

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rativ

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arni

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stud

ents

are

pla

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in s

mal

l gro

ups

whe

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egr

oup

lear

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ass

umes

cen

tral

impo

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uden

ts a

re r

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ot o

nly

for

thei

r ow

nle

arni

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ut a

lso

for

the

lear

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of o

ther

s....

The

influ

ence

of c

oope

rativ

e le

arni

ng m

etho

dsan

d ju

st c

omm

unity

env

ironm

ents

on

stud

ent

char

acte

r su

gges

ts m

echa

nism

s by

whi

chsc

hool

s ca

n ut

ilize

the

dyna

mic

s of

atta

chm

ent t

ogr

oups

in a

pos

itive

pro-

char

acte

r m

anne

r.L

emin

g, J

ames

S.,

Synt

hesi

s of

Res

earc

h: I

n Se

arch

of

Eff

ectiv

e C

hara

cter

Edu

catio

n, E

duca

tiona

l Lea

ders

hip,

199

3, V

ol. 5

1, N

o. 3

, pp.

63

- 71

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phas

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e in

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in a

dem

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tic c

onte

xt,

stud

ents

dis

cuss

gro

up p

robl

ems

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lop

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whi

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roup

life

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arch

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ased

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ta fr

omre

sear

ch o

n sc

hool

clim

ate

in m

ore

typi

cali

nstit

utio

nal s

ettin

gs.

Sev

eral

stu

dies

hav

e sh

own

that

inst

itutio

nsth

at s

eem

to h

ave

anim

pact

on

stud

ent c

hara

cter

res

pect

edst

uden

ts, e

ncou

rage

stu

dent

part

icip

atio

n in

the

life

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e sc

hool

, exp

ects

tude

nts

to b

ehav

ere

spon

sibl

y, a

nd g

ive

them

the

oppo

rtun

ity to

do s

o. D

isci

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e is

not

alw

ays

impo

sed,

but

with

in th

efr

amew

ork

of s

hare

d gr

oup

norm

s,st

uden

ts a

ccep

t dis

cipl

ine

as le

gitim

ate

and

chan

ge th

eir

beha

vior

acco

rdin

gly.

(pp

. 67)

.

3So

361

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pond

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Org

aniz

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n

362

363

Session 2230

Incorporating Assessment Into Classroom Activities

Richard S. Culver

SUN Y-Binehamton

A is for assessment. Assessment is the most powerful tool you have for influencing the

leamhig process. Change the assessment and you change what students give their attention

to Keep corurol of the assessment and you keep control of learning. you want students

to take some responsibility for their learning, that youprobably have to hand over aspects of

assessment too.' /1]Graham Gibbs

INTRODUCTION

Gibbs' quote reflects an often overlooked truism inmodern education - Grades are the coin of the realm inthe classroom. For most students, assessment is synony-mous with grades. But assessment should accomplishmore than just providing a basis for assigning grades. Itshould also provide feedback to improve performance bythe student and course effectiveness by the instructor.

There is an interesting parallel between the"Quality" movement in industry and the role of assessmentin education. The marked improvements in productionefficiency and product quality achieved in the past fiveyears have resulted primarily from a change in manage-ment philosophy. Responsibility for product quality hasbeen shifted to the workers, along with mechanisms forobtaining direct feedback on the production process.Through quality circles, workers have joined the teamwhich manages the production process, contributing tosolutions of problems and new innovations.

The t.orrventional approach to engineering educa-tion is similar.to traditional management philosophy.Students, like workers on the assembly line, are assignedtasks to complete, including homework assignments, labreports, and rr2mination.s. The instructor grades these todetermine the quality of student performance and providesa numerical evaluation of the result back to the student.The primary purpose for the evaluation is to assign agrade. The student is given little opportunity to providefeedback on the educational process. The end-of-termstudent course evaluation can be accepted or rejected as abasis for future course/instructor improvement. Formeaningful improvement in the quality of education, weneed to design much more sophisticated and effectiveclassroom assessment systems. In this paper, a model ofincorporating a broad-based assessment program into acourse is presented.

K. Patricia Cross, the 1991 Distinguished Lecturer,states, We will not make effective progress in reducing thegap between what is taught and what is learned until theclassroom instructor is more actively involved in theassessment process:12j She distinguishes betweenalsessment4or-accountability, in which the feedback ispublic, normative, comparative, and competitive, andasitssincnilQLAm=etmcnL which provides a continuousflow of information to aid in shaping teaching and learningwhile in process. Assessment-for-improvemetn, whichparallels the industrial 'quality' philosophy, is typicallyformative, is most effective if ant made public andemphasizes competencies rather than comparisons.

COURSE OBJECTIVES AND ASSESSMENT

As in industry, quality must be defined in terms ofoutcome specifications. Without performance objectives,which define what the student should know and be able todo, it is difficult to design an effective assessment system.Professor John Heywood, author of Atv-scm-nt in HigherEclucatirmr31, describes efforts to improve assessment inEnglith universities in this war. 'If learning is to beenhanced, then the design of comprehensive examinationsbecomes a complex activity which has to take into accountthe effects of instruction on learning and the attainment ofobjectives14) He illustrated various components in thedesign of curriculum in the cycle shown in Figure 1. Itshould be noted that, while the syllabus drives the learningstrategies, the syllabus itself works in interaction with aims,student assessment, program evaluation, and materials.

In response to Heywood's premise, I have found ithelpful to write three independent, but complementary,sets of objectives for a course,whicb define v.-hat thestudent should know epowledge), be able to do (skills),and how be should feel about it (attitudes). Theobjectives form a living which will change as the coursedevelops and in response to the personality of each class.

1992 ASEE Annual Conference Proceedings

790

3 G 4

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

EXAMINATIONS& ASSESSMENT

(eb)oeSve teem.onortranewoo embara,

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EVALUATION Of WHOLE COURSEamllet INSTTTITTX)14

Figure 1 - Assessment-CurriculumInstruction Process

For the objectives to be of value, they must beused before, during, and after the course as pan of anongoing evaluation of student learning effectiveness.Students should be provided with a copy of the objectivesat the beginning of the term and have their importanceemphasized. The objectives will define the level of mas-tery required in each topic and suggest methods of evalua-tion which will determine if the objectives have been met.

KOLB'S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING CYCLE APPLIEDTO A TECHNICAL CONCEPT

In previous papers, I have described the stages ofi7;471:ellectual development of college students as defined by

...--arry.[5] It is assumed that such development is desirableand that properly designed educational programs can stim-ulate intellectual growth, in contrast to the lack of growthexhibited by students in conventional programs. Aspreviously mentioned, assessment is perhaps the mostpowerful tool for encouraging students to stretch beyondtheir current level. For growth to occur, the students mustbe stretched in a manner which is not always comfortable,to reach for a goal that they think is beyond them. Inconventional courses, intellectual challenge is almostentirely based on increasingly difficult analysis of moreadvanced material, but not synthesis or evaluation. It doesnot provide alternative methods of learning the material orfor demonstrating that knowledge. Combining Perrysscheme with Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle, alongwith the assessment methods which are available at eachstage, provides a model for building mastery of a subjectwhile stimulating intellectual development.

The Learning Cycle David Kolb describes a logicalsequence of events through which an individual will pass inlearning a new concept: concrete experience, reflectiveobservation, abstract conceptualization, and activeexperimentation.16) As shown in Figure 2, these can bedescrbed for learning in a technical course in terms of theaction verbs: Do, Think, Model, and Test.

DO

ConcreteExpo ellainem

TEST

ActiveExperimentation

KOLB'SExperiential

Learning Cycle

MODEL

AbstractConceptuazitlatt

THINK

ReflectiveObservation

Figure 2 - Kolb's Experimential Learning Cycle

The Curriculum Cycle - Tbe first step in designing acourse to teach a new concept is to write a series cflearning objectives. Next, a series of activities whichfollow Kolb's stages of learning are selected that repre-sent an increasing level of knowledge and a correspondingincreasing level of intellectual functioning.

Figure 3 provides an example of such a curriculumcycle. It starts with a concrete experience such as ademonstration of the concept to be taught. At this entrylevel, it is critical to stimulate the student's curiosity forthe topic, it's importance, it's validity, and it's intrinsicbeauty. This can be done through such activities as aphysical demonstration, graphical modeling on thecomputer, and/or videotapes of its application in the realworld. If the student isn't interested in the subject, shewill learn it to the level needed to pass the examination,but her psychic energy will be directed elsewhere.

The second step, can beaccomplished by getting the student to learn the vocabu-lary and become aware of the basic concepts, formulas,etc. which undergird the concept. This is where the textbook comes in. Most students only read the text book tocopy out the homework problems or look at sample prob-lems for hints on the solution procedure. But if thestudent does not know the vocabulary for the topic underdiscussion, much of the value of the lecture will be lostbecause it won't be understood. A list of vocabulary wordsor questions to be answered helps direct the students'reading and heightens the *reflection' on what is found.This activity is also helps build the skills of reading andinformation retrieval critical for life-long learning.

The third step, abstract con=pruzlization, is wheremost instructors start, with derivation of the mathematicalformulas which describe the physical phenomena underdiscussion. While most instructors do this through a

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Laboratory

Tutorialsheets

Project

Demonstration16.0.014

ReadVideotape

Figure 3 - The Curriculum Learning Cycle

formal lecture, Karl Smith uses an alternative deliverymo-lel based on cooperative lcarning.(7) In either cast,the goal is to model for the student the method by whichprofessionals use theory to describe the physical world.

The fourth step, wive experimentation_ could entailtwo forms of learning, practice problems and laboratoryexperiments. Each has its role to play. The practiceproblems require the student to review class notes and thetext to understand the concepts and use mathematicalanalysis to apply them in a rariety of situations. Thelaboratory provides an alternative., more concrete, methodof understanding the concepts and provides an opportunityto explore the approximate nature of the mathematicalmodels used in engineering analysis. It also develops skillin using technical equipment, making physicalmeasurements, and performing data analysis.

The learning cycle starts over again with applicationof the concept being learned to a design problem and/orproject in which it is tied to other concepts; a newconcrete exnerienot but at a much higher level than theoriginal demonstration. The project should require thestudent to deal with the concept under study at thesynthesis/evaluation level. It can also provide practice inthe skills of project management, time management, oraland written presentation, and open-ended problem solving.

The Assessment Cycle - In parallel with these activities isthe assessment that can be used at each stage of the cycleand the objectives which are being measured by each.(Figure 4) Some of these assessment activities will beprimarily formative, providing feedback to the student andthe instructor on what is known and the rate of progress.Others will be primarily for the purpose of measuringstudent competence and assigning a grade. It is implicitthat each assessment activity also serves as a potentialsource of feedback to the instructor on the effectiveness ofthe learning activity.

The assessment activity in support of step two, thereading phase, could be a check list of definitions andequations which the student should locate in the reading.If additional structure is needed in order to insure that thestudent does the reading, the instructor could give a shortquiz at the beginning of the class period. This might bedone in order to meet the objective of building skill inreading technical literature.

During a k>cuire, step three, a possible form offeedback is a discussion Question or problem handed outto the students to be worked in pairs. Ostermannproposes that this be done after about 20 minutes, at thepoint where student attention tends to drift.[8] Five to 10minutes spent on this activity is rewarded by increasedattention, better understanding of the material justcovered, and feedback to both the student and instructoron the level of understanding of the topic. The discussionquestion also gives a means of taking role in a large classand stimulates cooperative learning between students.

Debug testLog book

Report

Tutorialsolutions

Peer assessmentLog book

Project ReportWrteten, ere'

AssessmentCycle

DiscussionQuestion

Figure 4 - The Assessment CYcle

Final exam

ReedingChecklist

Use of homework for assessing learning, step four,is common in engineering courses. To improve the levelof feedback to the suidents, one might have the studentsgrade one problem on each other's homework, using agrading scheme provided by the instructor. This reinforcesthe importance of doing the problems, and providesstudents with a model for effective solutions and examplesof a variety of approaches. This technique was used at theUniversity of Strathclyde, with a significant improvementin student test performance.(91

Peer marking can also be used on midterm examin-ations for the same rcasons. While additional time isrequired it preparing the examination and the solutionmarking procedures. instructor time is saved on markingthe examinations and students benefit from the moreeffective feedback.4101

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The laboratory report is a logical means of obtain-ing feedback on student learning. However, the conven-;onal report provides little insight on student knowledge,

Most students can complete the laboratory assignment and

) neet the course requirements, given enough time. If the

students arc working in pairs then it is possible that one

student is carrying the other. This is an area where the

skill objectives should be clear and distinct from theknowledge objectives and should be measured separately.

Skill in using equipment, taking accurate measurements,

precision in calculations, and effective writing arc all

required for effective. laboratory performance. Under-standing of the physical concepts is equally important but

quite separate. An appreciation of safety regulations,

responsibility for ones own exp rimental results, and the

importance of experimental work for creative engineering

practice arc attitudinal objectives which require separate

attention.

Two other activities besides the lab report which

can help in measuring these skills and attitudes are the logbook and the debug test. A log book provides an oppor-tunity for the student to keep track of his progress inlearning the topic under study, particularly in thelaboratory. But it should be a record of all learning that isgoing on. Optimally, the instructor will read the log bookand discuss its contents with each student.. Practically,there is little time for this. However, someone besides thestudent should read it and should make comments on theentries, both in order to improve the use of the log bookand to help the student appreciate the progress that isbeing made.. Donald Woods makes use of the logbook tohelp students develop self assessment skills.[11)

The debug test, or lab practical, is an attempt todetermine whether the student really understands how touse the equipment. It can involve nothing more thatsetting all the dials on an oscilloscope to zero and askingthe student to set it up to accomplish a particular sweepand gain. Or, at a more sophisticated level, the instructorcan introduce a bug into a piece of equipment and askthe student to determine what is wrong. This activity willseparate the students who understand the equipment fromthose who rely on others for help in the lab. If studentsunderstand that this is an objective of the lab and that theywill be tested on it, they will take a different approach tousing the lab equipment.

The design problem/project step provides an oppor-tunity for a much wider range of assessment. Too often inproject courses,. the objectives and methods of assessment

are poorly defined, so the student is working in the dark.Frequently, the instructor is also unsure of how to assess

design/ project work. Approaching the assignment from a

professional perspective can help. If this were an assign-

ment to a junior engineer in industry, what would bemeasured? How would the assignment be made? What

would be considered an acceptable outcome? How would

the engineer be expected to report the re=lts of his work?To whom? The assessment should be framed such that itmeasures performance at the synthesis /evaluation leveLMany design projects only require analysis.. Problemdefinition should be a major part of the asr:gnment.

As in the laboratory assignment, the assessment canmeasure skills in a variety of areas, such as groupparticipation and leadership, project management, timemanagement, oral presentation, report wrir:ng, andprofessional attitudes. Some of these may be measuredpurely for feedback and to support skill development,particularly the first time they are measured_ Withoutsome form of assessment, they may not be taken seriously.Furthermore, many students will not sec them as skillswhich can be developed with practice.

If the other forms of assessment lived above areused during the course, the final examination can bepurely for the purpose of accreditation. The formativeassessment included in the other activities will provideadequate feedback to the student.

The curriculum and assessment activities selectedabove are purely illustrative. The types of assessmentactivities, as well as their scope, will depend upon thelearning objectives set for the course. Careful analysis ofthe results of each assessment activity can provide theinstructor wits valuable information on how to improve thecourse and which forms of assessment are most useful tostudent and instructor.

FEEDBACK FOR COURSE DEVELOPMENT

While it is implicit in the description of thecurriculum /assessment cycle given above that theinstructor is obtaining feedback on the effectiveness oflearning activities, there are two sperific means ofobtaining feedback that should be mentioned. I havefound the use of class representatives and midterm courseevaluation sheets to be simple and effective ways ofobtaining feedback during the semester which permits meto adjust the course to meet the needs of a particular class.

Class Representatives - Most students are reluctantto inform the instructor if there is a ptobkm with the waya course is organized or is being taught. There is alwaysthe assumption that if a student complains, that part of thefault is with the student, not the course. To circumventthis problem, I ask for three student volunteers to serve asclass representatives at the first or second ciass period.Class election of representatives proved burdensome.

I meet with these students about once a month,starting about two weeks after the beginning of thesemester. Because shey are representing the class, they donot have to assume personal responsibility for theircomments. It is important to report back to the class on

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their comments after the first meeting. and any changes inschedule, etc., should be attributed to the student input.After the first meeting. other students in the class willbegin to seek out a representative if they have problems.By the end of term, if there is a problem, the represen-tatives will come to see me on their own initiative.

The class representatives frequently become theinstructor's advocate with the rest of the class. Becausethey have taken the time to get to know the instructorpersonally, and have learned about the rationale behindthe course, they can answer many student concerns beforethey become a problem.

Midterm Course Evaluation - A single sheet ques-tionnaire with room for short answers in response toquestions on course organization. presentation, etc.,permits the students to identify what they like and don'tlike about a course. A Liken Scale ( 1 to 5) does notprovide useful feedback in this case. The midtermevaluation identifies ways that the course can be modifiedto improve student learning in ghat particular class. It isimportant to give students time in class to fill out thisform. If they are rushed, or if they complete it out ofclass, the answers will not be as informative.

CLOSURE

How much assessment is enough? Look at yourresearch and ask yourself the same question concerningthe level and magnitude of results required to support yourpublications. We should be able to defend what we aredoing in the class to the same level that we can defend ourresearch. Otherwise, we are not meeting our professionalresponsibilities.

RICHARD S. CULVER

Dick Culver is Professor of Mechanical Engineeringat the State University of New York at Binghamtonand Visiting Professor at the University of Salford,Manchester, England. Formerly Associate Dean forAcademic Affairs, be helped develop the engineeringprogram at Binghamton which started in 1983. Priorto coming to Binghamton, Dr. Culver was director ofthe EPICS Program at Colorado School of Mines,where he served on the faculty over a period oftwenty years. He has also served on the faculties ofAhmadu Bello University in Nigeria and theUniversity of Calgary, in Canada.

Active in ASEE, Dr. Culver is past chair of theERM Division, and was general chairman forF1E'89. With Peggy Fitch, be has presentedworkshops in the US, Canada, and England, dealingwith intellectual development and rationalcurriculum design.

REFERENCES

1. Gibbs, G., 'An A to Z of Student Focussed TeachingStrategies', Oxford Polytechnic, Headington, Oxford(undated).

2. Cross, K. P., 'Feedback in the Classroom: MakingAssessment Matter', tiAliallsiessmenaoruni, 1990.

3. Heywood, J, dnastataiallighcasliazatimjnda ;am John Wiley & Sons, New York.

4. Heywood, J., 'Problems in the Evaluation ofFocussing Objectives and Their Implications for theDesign of Systems Models of the Curriculum withSpecial Reference to Comprehensive FYikininatione,hos.aonlizzan..aluzuion..12$2. Binghamton, NY.

5. Culver, R. S. liackos, J., "Perry's Model ofIntellectual Development,' Enginarainglduszadon. VoL73, No. 3, Dec., 1982.

6. Stice, J. E.., 'Using Kolb's Learning Cycle to ImproveStudent Learning: Engintraingldusalial Vol. 77, No.5, February, 1957.

7. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., Smith, K. A.., ActiveLeArningtCosotaginnin1headlegeMassroom,Interaction Book Company, Edina, MN, 1991.

& Forbes, D. A., Spence, J. 'An Experiment inAssessment of a Large Group," Cont.Pros.-InnovativeTeaching in Fmginterinr, Sheffield, UK, September,1991.

9. Baud, D. J., Holmes, W. H., 'Self and Peer markingin an Undergraduate Engineering Courtz," TREETransactions on Education Vol. E-24, No. 4., November1981.

10. Osterrnann, D.N, 'Selection and Evaluation ofAlternative Teaching Methods in Higher Education,'Instructional Dvelopment: Sialc...dthaALLCollegiate Publishing. Columbus, OH, 1978.

11. Woods, D. R, Marshall, R. IL, Hrymak, A. N., 'SelfAssessment in the Context of the McMaster ProblemSOving Programme', Assessment in Higher Education,Vol XIII, No. 2, 1988.

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? 1,

;;. MATURITY; "The state of being fully devel-.4 oped in body and mind" Webster's Dictionary.

::. .1;

1;

WHEN asked what attributes he would seek in anew gr duate, a practicing engineer started the listwitir1

1.1

"He, or she, must be able to mature rapidly. We, ..pie stew graduates responsibility much more

rapidly than in the past."

As Ile plored the characteristics of the effective- profess onal, this attribute seemed to encapsulate

the Ot4rs.. Ace ting this as a goal presents a significanti challen e to engineering schools, as it suggests that

we 'should build an emphasis into our programsthat currently seldom exists. Since there is far more

It to teach than can possibly be covered, we mustcarefully assess what is the optimum use of our4-year window of opportunity when preparing ourstudents for professional practice.

hil particular, it challenges the professor toI

expand his role in the education of the student. Onmost c$ ants, we do a good job of mentoring thefull-time graduate students, serving as professionalrolei tabs:leis, and engaging them in the learning

studFn s go on to graduate school and most who dotproves . But only a small percentage of our

are preparing themselves for that narrow portion ofthe en ineering profession dealing with research.

' For m e st undergraduate students, contact with the

'Pipe received 27 December 1986. Final version accepted27 Jewry 1987.

eating for Maturity: Perry's Model forllectual Development*

LVERJ. Watson School of Engineering, State University of New York, Binghamton, NY 1390 I ,

Modern engineering education programs are very efferlive at teaching students the technicalmaterial of the engineering profession. They are less effective at preparing Merit fur the piarthe ofengineering, where the problems are typically complex and ill-defined, and hare critical.nontechnical components. Effective engineering practice calls Jr a professional whit i%

intellectually and ethically mature, who can deal with complex issues, make Oectiy ow ,a'

authority, and assume responsibility for his/her decisions. Perry's model for intellermaldevelopment provides an effective description of intellectual maturity and suggests the tgres nlinstructional activities which will stimulate intellectual growth. In this paper. the authorcompares the challenges faced by the student in a traditional engineering education program withthose faced by the professional and shows that, since the challenges arc different, die student% arenot being encouraged to develop the critical skills and attitudes required by the Initlessional. IVithPerry's model us a theoretical basis, he then describes ethwath tut nairities Minis (1t11 ttttt late

such development and lists some engineering programs which ham inwrponned Mew aimitie%into their curricula.

INTRODUCTION

457

professor is superficial, constrained by the boun-daries of the class period and format.

What are the characteristics of the mature Pro-fessional engineer? Innumerable studies haveaddressed this question. For the purposes of thispaper, 1 will use the following: The effective pro-fessional:

(1) has mastered a body of knowledge and thecorresponding skills central to his field ofpractice,exercises good judgement in making deci-sions,uses authority as source of expertise,assumes responsibility for decisions,is capable of thinking critically and com-plexly,deals with problems in their total complexity,uses reflective thinking and self-evaluation,has an effective and socially responsiblevalue system.

In earlier papers, Culver 11, 21 has contendedthat a person with these characteristics is capable ofa high level of intellectual functioning, as deli tied byPerry 131. In this paper, I will compare thesimilarities and differences between the effectivestudent and effective professional with Petry'smodel, propose some goals for the educationalprogram, and look at the role of the professor inachieving them.

(2)

(3)(4)(5)

(6)(7)(8)

PERRY'S MODEL

In the 1950s, William Perry, Director of theBureau of Study Counsel at Harvard College.undertook a longitudinal study to determine

369

458 R. S. Culver

happens to a student exposed to four years ofliberal arts education?" The research occurredwithin tr.e framework of an educational philosophywhich claims that education should nourish theprocess by which a student approaches complexissues. This increasing sophistication occurs inpart as the individual matures. but also in responseto stimuli in his environment. Thus, college stu-dents will mature intellectually when exposed to anenvironment which fosters critical thinking.

ferry's study, based on thecognitive-developmentviews of Piaget 141, started from an empirical base.lie began by focusing on how college studentsrespond to the intellectual and moral atmosphere at1 larvard College, an atmosphere that appears topresent constant challenges to the students' un-examined assumptions about the world aroundthem. After 4 years and 98 recorded interviews,Perry and his colleagues observed that thereappeared to he "... a common sequence ofchallenges to which each student addressed himselfin his own particular way." This led Perry toformulate a model for the sequence of intellectualdevelopment. He then expanded thestudy to test hishypothetical model under better controls.

The following is a paraphriise of the stages, or'positions', of intellectual developmentidentified byPerry:

Dualism

Position 1. Students see the world in polar termsof we-right-good vs other-wrong-bad. Absoluteright answers exist for everything; the answers areknown by Authorities whose role is to mediate(teach) them to students. Problems are solved byfollowing the word of an Authority, rules, traditionor the n -rin. Knowledge and goodness are per-ceived its quantitative accumulations of rightanswers that are collected by hard work andobedience.

Position 2. Students begin to perceive alternativeviews as well as uncertainty among Authorities, butaccount for then as unwarranted confusion amongpoorly qualified Authorities. They may decide thatuncertainty is simply a game devised by Authority.so we can learn to find the Answer for ourselves.'Their arguments are often illogical, and they do notunderstand the use of evidence.

Position 3. Students see diversity and uncertaintyas legitimate, but still temporary, in areas whereAuthority 'iasn't found the Answeryet:They beginto sec A utbo; ity as 'biased' or arbitrary in that theyare graded for 'good expression.' The apparent lacko I standards is puzzling, and many students begin toview all arguments as equally correct or biased, orboth, with decisions based predominantly onpersonal belief. The hard sciences and mathematics.ceni better understood by Authority than humani-ties or social sciences.

Position 4. (a) Students perceive legitimateuncertainty (and therefore diversity of opiniori) tobe pervasive and raise it to a realm of its own i which'anyone has a right to his own opinion,' as op seld toAuthority's realm, where right and wro g tillprevail. Or (b) students discover qualitative, Tel

want'reasoning as a special case of 'what They want'within Authority's realm. In either case, students! aresuspicious of the 'truth' of any evidenceloti anauthority's opinion, and often deny that opinionscan be objectively evaluated.

Relativism.

! Position 5. Students perceive all knowledge andvalue (including authority's) as contextual andrelativistict They subordinate right-wrong prob-lems to the status of special uses, in a frame° refer-ence. They begin to recognize that all points inif vieware not equally correct and may argueon the b sis ofevidence that one is more likely. l

Position 6. Students recognize the need to rientthemselves in a relativistic world through pe sohal

ICommitment (as distinct from unquestion orunevaluated commitment). While they can 41y onevidence, they still may not synthesize that evikie cefor,themselves but rely on the synthesis of o ers,.

Commitment in relativism

Position 7. Students makean initial Commi mentin some area, such as career selection, v ues,religious belief etc. However, they examin theviews they endorse based on logical evaluati n ofevidence, the opinions of experts, as w 11 asreasoned conjecture about 'whatappears to be rue.'

I

Position 8. Students experience the implicationsof Commitment, and explore the subjective andstylistic issues of responsibility.

iPosition 9. Students experience an affirmation ofidentity among multiple responsibilities and realizeCommitment is an ongoing, unfolding activity andthat their own views may be incorrectand may eedto be reformulated in the future in light ofadditionalevidence.

iAccording to Perry, one of the major aclom-plishments of college students is to progress roma simple, dualistic view of life and knowledg to amore complex, mature view which is also ref tiv-

1istic. Until this transfer occurs, students ar not'their own people' in the sense that their va ues,attitudes and life goals are borrowed from theinfluential Authority figures in their earlier d vel-opment. Note that when the transition occurs the'Authority' in the upper case (unchallen ed)becomes the 'authority' in the lower case, wh thestudent has evaluated and accepted as havin thebest answer at the present time.

While Perry found that most Harvard stud ntshad reached position 6 by the time of graduataon;subsequent studies have indicated that, in the ;academic environment prevalent on most modern .i

It

camropmcthe upositieduceized t

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Iratefrom tidentifpositicfundar

Apcto abscernedtor. Ncthe stuthe bybasedAuthorgrows,conflictcommitwill heperson;

Thiswhere,white aright andecline:new, m

. ment ispositior

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I.1i. i ,. V.:1 I ! i

i .

1. 1 camPlis ; there is relatively little intellectual Bevel-' opment n the college years 151, Most students enter

.:; the wig rsity in position 2..or 3, and leave in' positiOn 4;f which probably is not what most

.:. educato s'w'ould prefer. This position is character-,izec! by: , 1 : ,

. ?...0 1

(1) a endency to treat all opinions as equallygod : . ;

I

lit le evaluation of alternative views of an.is ueJ: . :1

I

*(3) a endency to hold one's opinions largely onth basis of whim and unsubstantiated belief,,

(4): a esitancy to take a stand or commitment,b sed on evidence and reason (61.

Intere tingly; position 5, where the transitionfrom. m Itiplicity to relativism occurs, was rarelyidentifie by the students while they were in thatpositiqn. Only in retrospect could they identify thisfundaine tal change in their way of thinking.

Appa ntly, the transition process from concrete'to abstr ct i thinking is perilous, requiring con-!cerned c allenge and reinforcement by the instruc-:tor. Nev)ell recognized that during this transition,'the is noticeably reduced. Atthe lo We stages of Perry's model, commitment is,basedlu n !faith' in Authority and the rightness ofAuthorit 's positions on key issues, As the student!grows; t at faith is slowly eroded by unreconcilable'conflicts Only when the student gradually rebuilds;commit ent through a process of personal analysis!will he e 'able to convert what was faith intopersonal and self-committed belief 171.

Thii p ocess is illustrated schematically in Fig.where', a the lower stages, everything is black orwhite an a ;dominant Authority figure has all the:right ans ers. As diversity increases, commitment'declines ntil the transition at:position 5 creates a'new, ,ino e open viewpoint. A need for commit -;ment:is r lized at position 6, initially attempted atposition , evaluated at position 8, and established.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Fig. 1. Perry's model of intellectual development.

as a process of continual revision and developmentat position 9.

EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE IN ANENGINEERING ENVIRONMENT

Perry's model provides a tool for looking at howwe prepare engineering students for professionalpractice. Let us approach this task by comparingthe challenges and performance of the successfulstudent with the successful practicing engineer, onthe premise that professional preparation is bestaccomplished by having the student model profes-

s sional behavior. Table 1 presents a.comparison ofthe measures of success for the student and theprofessional. It shows that the student is expectedto learn prescribed solutions to classes of prob-lems. He is measured by the professor in his abilityto perform these procedures quickly and correctly.By contrast, the major challenge for the profes-sional is determining what problem needs to hesolved. Speed is not as important as insuring thatthe problem is properly defined before solutionproceeds. The problems faced by the professional

Table 1. Criteria for effective performance

Engineering student Professional engineer

(1) View of knowledge

(2) Criticalknowledge

(3) View of instructor/supervisor

(4) Source ofEvaluation

Approach tolearning

(6) Work/learningenvironment

(7) Critical problem-solving skills

(8) Goal of work

(5)

Discrete facts,procedures, subjects

Algorithms and facts

Source of knowledge,authority

Instructor

Responsive

Competitive

Efficient al solvingstructured problems

Good grades

Connected conceptsand facts

Heuristics for decisionmaking

Source of expertise, support

Self and peers

Proactive

Cooperative

Effective at defining ploblems

Usable product or service

460

are typically complex and multifaceted, requiringcooperative input by other professionals and self-education in new areas as the solution progresses.While the student defers to the professor as thesource of knowledge, right answers, and evalu-ation. the mature pi ofessional selects authoritieson the basis of expertise, but assumes responsibilityfor evaluation of his own work.

While exceptional work has the hallmark ofcreative genius, whether produced by the studentor the professional, it can be seen that, in virtuallyall the areas listed in Table 1, the approach' andcriteria are different. By comparing the lists inTable I with ferry's model, it is apparent that thechallenges presented to;the student reinforce thefunctioning in lower, dualistic positions: while thesuccessful professional ;is called on to functionnthe higher. relativistic , mode. If the i academicchallenge does not encourage performance at thehigher levels, the student has no incentive. forintellectual growth.

In his book, The Reflective Practitioner, Scholl:18; describes how the effective professional: usesreflective thinking during the critical :phases tofproblem formulation. The reflection tends.to beintuitive, nonlinear and, at times, nonrational.Through practice, he develops. the; judgement.needed to expand the variety . of i problemsaddressed and the effectiveness of the solution. Bycontrast, the applied scientist uses a more:elegant,rational approach to the development of analyticalsolutions. Schon distinguishes betweeni, theengineering professor, who he sees asan appliedscientist, and the practicing engineer in terms ofconvergent and divergent thinking. Since it is theapplied scientist that is recognized; by thei edu-cational establishment, it is his approach" toproblem solving that is typically presented 'to thestudent in the classroom. While competence inanalytical solutions is also a critical skill for thepracticing engineer, it is but one of many skillsneeded for effective professional practice. I con-tend that our students also need practice in dealingwith open-ended, ill-defined problems in order tostart developing the art of the practitioner and theability to h Indic complex systems.

R. S. Culver, ;

i.

. .;

RES'L1 THE CURRICULUM

If we wish to improve our students' preparationfor professional practice, we need to identify thoseskills and attitudes which are underdeveloped inour current graduates. The report of the FutureGraduate Study at the Colorado School of MinesM acknowledged that the graduates ;were. tech-nically competent and hardworking.! However,along with graduates front other engineeringschools, most graduates "... lack good communi-cation skills, even in writing. They are unfamiliarwith working in interdisciplinary groups ...cannotinvestigate an unfamiliar problem starting fromfundamentals. and impart only limited knowledge

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.

7 I

of, and interest in, their responsibilities tsocial, political and natural surroundings t(heavy) curriculum and insularity of departleads to the 'credit syndrome', in which each

-is seen as a hurdle to be jumped and left behThe narrow nature of their assignments !leacook-book approach to the solution,: ofdefined problems, at which the graduate isbut also to a lack of curiosity and a reluctaapproach broader, unfamiliar, problems ffundamental standpoint."

!!

their,e full

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I ;Ile reasons for these limitations are not fluid tofind. The growth of public education; with limitedlimi#tedresources -Sourceiand increasing enrollments, has de. eli

oped an apprOach to education which emphasizesmemorizing 'answers and solutions; to.! st n and

. iiroblemt.!Multiple-chOice tests, lectures wi 00students,1 'and depersonalization of . the '1 ringenvironment have led the students to see I

ail,ng

as a means to an end rather than an end to be uediin itself. Emphasis has:been placed on fittin more:subjects into less time.and more detailsim giyen!course. We hear more about the stude t. who.finished the ;prescribed program in 31 yea s;titran;the studentwho chose:to reduce the course oad inorgier to, learn the material more thorou hlY; or

.: ;explore areas,of interest outside those requt eo,for

..;the degree.i: i ' : 1 ! .i. ; ;1 i . I - fl;

;;;What, :can we do? Some features. of a; rofes-I sionally-Oriented program are:. . : ! 1 ; .ii ;

'1(1)' i'; a ;

( 1 ) give the student more ownership o i:hisI. learning,' ! ; 1: ! ' :i!

:.!(2) reduce the prescribed work loa and

.increase project emphasis, .

1 (3) Create' 'marker: events' 'which givemeaning to the learning., '-'' 'I r!

'' (4). have a mentor, for each student,! II. ':

(5) structure the educational activities t stunu-. : late increasingly 'mature' performa err;`'

,'i (6) train the student in performance evalu-

:I (7) involve students in each other's lea g,

p; 7

.;anon, ,i

.1 (8) provide projects for students with e rries"sional context,:

. ... .. . . 1

. .ii ' Ili.. .

(9) create activities that 'involve risk takingI

!and assuming; responsibility for e con-

; sequences, :1 i 1:1

; I (10) use 'developmental instruction' eon ep g toiti design educational activities. .1 r.i i '

it,.

ies thats edu-ttitude;I rn-

!.

I '4

! OwnershipOwnership of learning impthe student sees himself in control of:cational program and, because of a positive

; towards it, becomes actively engaged in thtog process. The other features listed ;ibelsuggest how this can be accomplished..

Reduce course workloadA commonthumb is that a.student can be expected

' 55 h per week. Assignments need to be bthroughout the program so that they can

' pleted within this time frame. If the world°heavy that the student cannot master onebefot - passing onto the next, it leads to su

3 '7 0

%Yin.

rule: ofwork

lanced .'e 6om .:! ridlis so,oncepterficial .

Educating for Maturity: ferry's Model for Intellectual Development

/earning which is unsatisfying and results in aswim/mode of operation in which learning runs apoor second to passing the course.

Project emphasisTo combat the 'credit syn-(Ironic', students need to know how they will usethe subjects being studied in math, science andhumanities. This can best be illustrated by havingthem involved in 'doing engineering' at an earlystage, even if the projects are technically trivial. In'class discussions during the project, the instructorcall explain the relevance of the other courses to theeducational background of the professional, but inthe context of the projecti ;

Marker eventsStudents arc more likely tostain a new procedure or concept if it is tied to an

event which has personal 'significance to them, thatstands out in their memories. This event frequently'is the basis for new insight, a rearranging of think-ing, and major jumps in growth. It can be positive ornegative. (Failing a course is a marker event formost students.) Since the 'marker'. is the student'sresponse to a stimulus, not the stimulus itself, wecannot force our students to experience markers inoar courses, but we can create an environment inwhich they can happen. The more intense theresponse, the longer the lesson will be remem-bered. Industrial tours, student design competi-tions. an impressive laboratory demonstration,. or ;.the completion of a major, project are likely sourcesof marker events. A course designed to include twoor three activities with marker potential' is morelikely to influence a student's career than one\vithout. r

A !einem People recognized as ! successfuluniformly identify the mentors who were critical inshaping their careers. The typical advising systemused in engineering schools is not designed todevelop a mentor relationship between student andfaculty. Given prevalent studentteacher:ratios; itis unrealistic to put this burden entirely on theshoulders of the faculty. But upperclassmen,properly trained, could start the process with fresh-men. Professionals 'from industry could assist on aBig Brother basis. The student needs help inmaking meaning out of a collection of courses.

Professional projectsLeft to pick their ownprojects, students tend to select something that isnarrowly defined, using previously developedskills, or a project so broad that it can't be managed.Carefully selected projects, submitted by an exter-nal client. can provide real-life experience. Theseshould have a social or economic context which thestudents arc required to address as part of thesolution. Project teams with students from differentacademic years can provide internal mentoring.The client-based project has strong markeranemial.

Mortising maturityIt is unreasonable toespixt a freshman to function as a self-managedlearner. (For discussion of self-managed learning,see Culver 110, 111.) But since effective engineersM UST do so, the transition would ideally occurduring the 4 years on campus. The process can

start' with a freshman project or design cours9. Bythe senior year, most courses should be structuredto call on 'mature' performance, with the instructor ras coach instead of manager and judge.

'Performance evaluationOne of the mar s ofthe mature professional is the ability to evaluat hisown, work and assume responsibility for it. 'eer.evaluation is important in developing the stud nt'sunderstanding of professional relationships. tu-dents should start with quantitative evaluatio andprogress to qualitative evaluation of reports, oralpresentations etc. .

Cooperative learningThe academic env on-ment is primarily competitive, but the cr ticalphases of professional* performance nor allyoccur in design groups, which must work coo era-tively. Competition between student project t amscan give the students the opportunity to expert nceboth concurrently.

Risk and responsibilityRisk taking and as um-ing responsibility for results are critical qualit ofthe professional. Inmost cases, the risk in'an du-cational activity must be dissociated from the radereceived or the students won't 'play the g me.'Academic risks do not accurately model the 'sksfaced by the professional. Projects, simul nongames, and student competitions are good. w s ofexposing students to risk taking. I

Developmental instructionBased on. P rrY'sintellectual development :scheme, Cornfield andKnefelkamp's developmental instruction odelprovides a procedure for selecting and desi ningeducational activities to achieve an optt umbalance between support and challenge.: E peri-ence has shown that this approach to curric lamdesign can significantly increase the rate of st dentdevelopment. Fitch and Culver presented a ork-shop on Developmental Instruction at the 985Frontiers in Education Conference, whi hreported in the Proceedings1121.

'1

1:i

. THE ROLE OF THE INSTRUCTORi

From the statements above, it is apparen thatthe professionally-oriented program envy agedwould pose a different role for the prof spr.Instead of functioning as an 'independent stib-contractor' who lectures on a given topic, ithrastudent assistant to do .the grading, the pro aorwould be a member of a management team hichsupervises the student's learning. Some o the

. activities suggested could be built into an indi idualcourse, but since student growth to I'm tuire'professional functioning is a gradual proses overthe, 4-year period, it will occur most effectiv lyj asthe result of planned growth, rather than a se ies ofdisjointed efforts by individual professors. s

calls for a redesign of the curriculum with th g, alof producing a graduate prepared for profes ionalpractice, as well as for research-based graduatestudies. It would be a program designed to e pha-size general professional skill development, lather

BEST COPY AVAILABLE3 73

462 R. S. Culver

---than the specific technical skills needed during thefirst year on the job, although some technical skillswould he covered as practice in self-education.

In his role as a learning manager, the professorwould work with the student through a learningcontract, serving ati coach and mentor. While acourse in such a program might look similar toconventional courses from the outside, the' inter-action between student and professor and theirexpectations for the course would he different. Ifthe student is to gain control over the learning, theinstructor would have to give up some control. Thiswould require more tolerance on the part of theinstructor, since the student will make somemistakes as he explores the scope of his responsi-bility. It will also demand more of the professor'senergy, since it takes more effort to manage asystem that you do not completely control.

As control is gradually shifted to the students,evaluation should begin to look and feel more likethat which occurs in a professional environment.The professor would be responsible for monitoringthe quantity of work being assigned, as well as theamount and quality being produced. In the profes-sional work place, the manager is responsible forinsuring that assignments can be completedaccording to schedule, since he is evaluated on hisability to manage the projects in his charge. Thistype of accountability is alien to most highereducation, but could be the basis for insuringresponsible instruction, as well as effective learn-ing.

SOME EXAMPLES OF PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED PROGRAMS

This may sound like an overwhelming job, but ithas been achieved to varying degrees in someinnovative engineering programs in the UnitedStates.

Worchester-Polytechnic Institute (WPI) restruc-tured its curriculum in 19711131. The WPI PLAN,as it is known, emphasizes competencies, indi-vidual freedom within a student's curriculum, self=initiated investigation. and new instructionalmethods which join students and faculty in a learn-ing partnership. The four major activities of thePI .A N include:

(I) a competency evaluation of a major field ofsi tidy,

(2) a major qualifying project (MOP) whichintegrates formal academic studies in the student'smajor field through an in-depth research project,

(3) an interactive qualifying project (1OP) whichfocuses on the interactions of technology withsociety and human values,

(4.) a sufficiency in a minor area.

The MOP and 101) provide the practical experi-ence required for professional preparation, whilethe procedure for selecting courses and minor give

student ownership of his learning in a manneruncommon in undergraduate education.

Harvey Mudd College established the Engineer-ing Clinic in 1960, where junior and sen' r ;under-graduates work with a master's candi at on aclient-submitted project, on which the graduatestudent serves as a project leader 1141. 5, in theWPI program, the projects are carefully screenedto provide appropriate learning opp rtunities.Since the institution guarantees complet on.of theproject, students may leave the instituti nbeforethe project is complete. Permitting st dents towork into increasingly responsible positi ns withinthe project team models professional de elopmentof the graduate engineer.

A similar Design Clinic was develo d by LeeHarrisberger at the University of Alabama.iSeniormechanical engineering students do individualprojects and participate in exercises selected toteach professional skills during the fall] semesterand then participate as members ^f project teamsto solve client-based problems in thsemester 1151.

The guided design principles deve, Wales and Stager are uniquely successfu

e ; spring

oped byin teach-

ing a process for problem solving anti decisionmaking 1161. Guided design exercises are particu-larly valuable as an introduction to. o en:-ended

! problem solving. .t 1.

The EPICS Program at Colorado chool ofMines encompasses developmental i structionconcepts into the first 2 years 1171. A four emester,10 credit hour course sequence, EPICS ntegratesinstruction in graphics, computer pro ramming,technical writing, and open-ended probl9m solvingin a muffler which provides a context f r nipperdivision engineering courses. The fact that theinstruction is spread over four semester is .mpor-tant because it paces the student's perso alation.

In recent years, several other e gineeringschools in the United States have begu to'adoptsome of the ideas presented in the rpgramsdescribed above.

vitc*1

4%061'li-e

i.

374

a TiEhCPREFERRED LEARNING 51..(%.

Fig. 2. Vicious cycle of preferred learning s vies.

MANAGING CHANGE

The educational concepts 'proposed above areambitious, perhaps even threatening to some,bee.ause they call for planned growth and change ofboth .the student AND the professor. Studentsprefer, to earn in a mode that is comfortable; the .

traditicina lecture format is comfortable because itis familial and responsibility for the learning restsprimarily with the instructor. The professor prefers :the traditional mode because he learned well thatway. Otherwise he would not have made the grades '

to go to graduate school and on to a position on thefaculty. This is the vicious cycle of preferred learn- _

ing styles (Fig'. 2).However, if the educational program is going to

improve, it must change. This will require change inthe way we teach, and the change will involve risk. Itis important, therefore, that the administration ofthe educational institution also assumes its respon-sibility for improvement of the program throughinnovative development. This can best be done byopenly supporting faculty who arc willing In risklearning new ways to teach.

REFERENCES

1. R. S. Culver and J. T. Hackos, Perry's model of intellectual development. Engng Ethic. (December1982).

2. R. S. Culver, Values development in engineerinieducution. In: Conference Proceedings/Frontiers inEducation (1985)..I

3. W. G. Perry, Jr, Forinsof huellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years:a Scheme. I lilt, Rinehart & Winston, New York (1970).

.4. B. W. Stephenson and C. Hunt, Intellectual and ethical development: a dualistic curriculum inter-vention for college students. Counseling Psychologist 6(4), 39-42 (1977).

5. P. Fitch and R. S. Culver, Educational activities to stimulate intellectual development in Perry'sscheme. In: Proceedings/1984 American Society of Engineeering Education Annual Conference.Salt Lake City. I

. 6. J. A. Schmidt'and M. Davison, Does college matter? Reflective judgement: how students tackle the! tough questions. MOral Educ. Forum 6(1), 2 (1981).

' 7. L. J. Newell, Lecture on Perry's; Model at the Colorado School of Mines, Golden. CO (1980).8. D. A. Schon, The Reflective Practitioner. Basic Books, New York (1983).9. W. R. Bull, Profile of the Future Graduate. Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO (1979).

10. R. S. Culver, Who's in charge here? In: Conference Proceedings/Fronliers in Education (1986). .

11. R. S. Culver, Motivation for continuing education. In: Conference Pmceedings/Frowiers iu;. Education (1986)..:

12. P. Fitch and R. S. Culver, Applying the Perry model of intellectual development to engineering: education. In: Conference ProzeedingslFrontiers in Education (1985).

13. .1. S. Demetry and W. R. Grogan, Social issues and engineering education-coursesor laboratories. In:Conference Proceedings/Fromiers in Education (1980).

14. L Harrisberger, R. Heydinger, J. Seeley and M. Talburtt, Experience Learning in Engineering. Education. American Society of Engineering Education (1976).15. L Harrisoerger, Developing the Compleat. Engineer. In: Conference Proceedings/Frontiers in

Education (1979).:16. C. E. Wales and R. A. Stager, Guided Design. West Virginia University (1977).17. M. J. Pavelich, R. S. Culver and J. T. Hackos, EPICS: professional projects for freshmen and

sophomores. Engng Educ. (February 1984).

Educational Engineering:) Heuristics for Improving

Learning Effectiveness and Efficiency*

rr

r

K. A. SMITH

Mineral Resources Research Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, U.S.A.

The development of Armlet,' ALM% VIM hr improved by tla epplicntion r,f c,.V111117 fral f pio-cedttre%. knowledge reptesenattion smaegte% are described In minium rn 1hr twit virnetton ofknowledge bases for use With expert AVVICIIIA. ACIIVC rnrulrrnuvu of AltlifellIA rs AltrvAd Ain(emeaningful learning IA enhanced by talking wah peers and preparing to teach (when.

INTRODUCTION

"IT IS strange that we expect students to learn,yet seldom teach them anything about learning.We expect students to solve problems, yetseldom teach them anything about problemsolving, and, similarly, we sometimes requirestudents to remember a considerable body ofmaterial, yet seldom teach them the art ofmemory. It is (tine we made up for this lack ..."11, p. 97j.

Educational engineering isbased on recent develop-ments in knowledge engineering and cognitivescience.The contribution of knowledge engineering(and the broader field of cognitive science) forimproving learning efficiency and effectiveness willbe discussed along with the implications and impor-tance of these considerations for engineering educa-tion.

Drucker coined the terms efficiency (doing thething right) and effectiveness (doing the right thing)in reference to business management 121. The termsapply equally appropriately to learning efficiency(enhancing the rate of learning) and learningeffectiveness (enhancing the mastery and retentionof facts, concepts and relationships). Students'learning effectiveness and efficiency can beenhanced by providing them with strategies thatpromote learning how to learn.

LEARNING HOW TO LEARN

The concept of "learning how to learn" was firstarticulated by Bateson 131 who termed it "Deutero-learning" and it was associated with the then new

Paper received 2 October 1986. Final version accepted lorpublication 14 Aprd 1987. Published by permission of theASEE.

365

science of cybernetics. Also called "double-looplearning" this form of learning involves changes inthe governing variables, in contrast to "single-looplearning", which involves learning of new strategiesto achieve existing governing variables 141.

The process of "learning how to learn" is com-monly referred to in the cognitive science literatureas "metalearning". The prefix "meta-" in this usageis supposed to he analogous to its use in the term"metaphysics" and means "going beyond", "on ahigher level", or 'transcendent'. In a like manner,"metaknowledge" is used to refer to the structuringof knowledge. Metalearning and metaknowledgeare two different but interconnected concepts thatcharacterize human understanding. Learningabout the nature and structuring of knowledgehelps students to understand how they learn, andhelps to show them how humans construct newknowledge. Novak and Cowin 151 describe specificstrategiesconcept mapping and V-heuristicforhelping students !corn about the structuring ofknowledge and the process of knowledge produc-tion. Concept maps are intended to representmeaningful relationships between concepts in theform of propositions. They are overt, explicitrepresentations of the concepts and propositions aperson holds. The V-heuristic is an aid to helpstudents understand the contribution of and therelationship between conceptual and methodo-logical views in making sense of events or objectsobserved.

The approach of this paper will be to follow theengineering method, defined by Koen 161 as "theuse of heuristics to cause the best change in apoorly understood situation within the availableresources". Heuristics from cognitive science arereviewed that assist in making the best change instudents' learning cited iveness and efficiency.

37(;BEST COPY AVAILABLE

366

ROLE OF HEURISTICS

K. A. Smith

Heuristics are essential for a discussion Oflearning how to learn since there are no clear-cutalgorithms for second-order learning. The word"heuriskin", meaning "serving to discover". Heur-istics have become very popular in the cognitivescience literature, and interest is growing, onceagain in the problem-solving literature 17, 81 and

the engineering-method literature 191.

One of the most prolific promoters of heuristicswas George Polya. Polya 11(11 proceeded fromthree assumptions: ( 1 ) "heuristic" means "guidingdiscovery"; (2) solving a problem certainly involves

a bit of discovery, hence it involves an heuristicprocess; and (3) investigation into heuristic pro-cesses cannot aim at finding infallible rules of howto make discoveries. Polya's work in heuristics isaimed explicitly at teaching the young how to bebetter problem solvers 11 11. The main usage of theword "heuristic" at present is as an adjective in thesense of "guiding discovery" or "improving prob-lem solving". Although difficult to define, heuristicsarc easy to identify using the characteristics listedby Koen 161: heuristics do not guarantee a solution;two heuristics may contradict or give differentanswers to the same question and still be useful;heuristics permit the solving of unsolvable prob-lems or reduce the search time to a satisfactorysolution; the heuristic depends on the immediatecontext instead of absolute truth as a standard ofvalidity.

Learning to use heuristic strategies is necessarybut not sufficient to ensure competent problem-solving performance. Seln..:nfeld asserts that theseequivocal results have occur fed because the com-plexity of heuristic strategics, and the amount ofknowledge needed to implement them, have beenunderestimated in three ways 11 21:

(I)

(2)

(3)

Typical descriptions of heuristic strategics(examining special cases, for example) arereally labels for categories of closely relatedstrategies.The implementation of heuristic strategies isfar more complex than at first appears.Although heuristic strategies can serve asguides to relatively unfamiliar domains, theydo not replace subject matter knowledge orcompensate easily for its absence.

Heuristics for learning how to learn are likely tobe a promising area of research and development.If the teaching of heuristics is to be effective.however, it must focus not only on the heuristicsthemselves but on their application in a variety ofcontexts, that is. on when and where to apply them.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF KNOWLEDGEENGINEERING

Some of the contributions of knowledgeengineering (and of the broader field of cognitive

science) to metalearning include models of thelearner, expert-novice differences, acquisition ofexpertise, and knowledge structure and represen-tation.

Models of the learnerBruner 11 31 outlined five models of the learner

that serve as a useful guide to gaining a perspectiveof the contribution of cognitive science to meta-learning. The five models are Tabula rasa, Hypo-thesis generator, Nativism, Constructivism. andNovice-to-expert. The central notion of Tabularasa "one learns from experience" rests on thepremise that experience writes on the wax tablet ofthe mind. According to this model such order asthere is in the mind is a refleCtion of the order thatexists in the world. Hypothesis generator learnermodels react against the passive, tabula rasamodels and propose that the learner, rather thanbeing a creature of experience, selects what is tocuter the mind. Nativism theories share one centralconcept: mind is inherently or innately shaped by aset of underlying categories, hypotheses. and formsof organizing, experiences. The opportunities to useand exercise the innate powers of mind is all. Thetenet of Constructivism is that the world is notfound, but made. and made according to a set ofstructural rules that are imposed on the flow ofexperience. The recently developed Novice -to-expert view operates within domains and beginswith the premise that, if you want to developlearning strategies. find an expert and examine him,then figure out how a novice can become one.Computer simulations are often used to attempt toidentify transforms and heuristics that will allow anovice to become an expert.

Bruner 1141 offered his synthesis of the generalmodels that we store in our heads that guide ourperception. thought and talk by saying that "theyappear to be diverse. rich, local, extraordinarilygenerative". Bruner also discussed two modes ofthought, two modes of cognitive functioning, eachproviding distinctive ways of ordering experience,and of constructing reality. One mode, the paradig-matic or logico-scientific one, is familiar toengineers and scientists. The other, the narrativemode. deals in human or human-like intention andaction and the vicissitudes and consequences thatmark their course. The importance of the narrativemode lies in Bruner's claim that "great fiction, likegreat mathematics, requires the transformation ofintuitions into expressions in a symbolic systemnatural language or some artificialized form of it(p. 1 5)".

Novice-to-expertEnormous differences of degree and of type have

been observed in the approach taken by experts,novices and uninstructed students in solving prob-lems. Novices ask questions such as "What formulado I know that relates what's given with what I'vebeen asked to find?" They quickly move to acalculation pham: and seldom reflect (at least

377

overtly) on what they're doing. Experts ask ques-

tions such as "What are the general principles that

apply?" They spend more time thinking about the

problem, asking themselves questions, and com-

menting on their understanding of the problem.

Schoenfeld 1151 mapped the mathematical prob-

lem solving activities of novices and experts on

numerous problems and noted major differences

as described above. Similar results to those noted

by Schoenfeld were found for uninstructed stu-

dents, novices and experts solving physics

problems by Champagne etal. 1161.

Modeling the problem-solving methods of

experts and utilizing these models as instructional

aids is a very attractive approach, but it is compli-

cated by what experts arc able to tell about what

they know. Furthermore, although novice-to-

expert models are the principal ones followed by

cognitive-science researchers it is important to

keep in mind that there are many other models of

the learner.

Acquisition of expertiseExpertise appears to be acquired through a

process consisting of three more or less distinct

stages of learning 1171. In the first phase, often

termed the stage of cognition or thought, students

learn from instruction or observation what know-

ledge and acticns are appropriate. In the second

phase, often termed the associative phase of

learning, students practice (with feedback) the

relationships discovered or taught in phase oneuntil they become smooth (fluent and efficient)and

accurate (proficient). In the third phase, termed the

stage of automaticity, relationships are "compiled"

through overpractice to the point where.they can

be done without large amounts of cognitive

resources.Dreyfus and Dreyfus 118, 191 extended and

elaborated on these distinct phases of skill acquisi-

tion and proposed five stagesnovice, advanced

beginner, competent performer, proficient per-former, and expert. The novice knows basic facts

about a subject and context-independent rules for

using those facts. The advanced beginner can useexamples to formulate rules for action and can take

context into account. The competent performer is

personally involved, goal-oriented, and is able to

reason analytically and act without conscious

thought about the rules. The proficient performercan recall whole situations and apply them without

having to decompose them into smaller com-ponents. The expert makes little conscious use of

analytical reasoning, has little awareness of the

skill, is fully involved in the situation, and seems to

operate by visualizing and manipulating whole

objects and situations.Performance on tasks at the expert level is

usually smooth and proficient; however, the pro-cesses used by experts in their performance aregenerally not available to conscious awareness.Polanyi 1201 refers to this type of knowledge as-.tacit". Johnson 11 71 has termed this fact the

"paradox of expertise"the very knowledge wewish to represent in a computer program, as well as

the knowledge we wish to teach others, often turns

out to be the knowledge that individuals are least

able to talk about.

Knowledge structure and represemationResearch in cognitive science has contributed to

our understanding of knowledge structure, repre-sentation and construction. Researchers haveexperimented with production systems. They have

developed inference procedures that involve

forward-chaining and backward-chaining to act on

knowledge bases. The modeling of learning, how-

ever, turned out to be much more difficult than

expected. For example, sequential readinessassumptions may hold for some simple tasks and

for young children: however, adolescent and adultstructures of knowledge and individual differences

are often uneven and nonlinear 1211.

CONSTRUCTING KNOWLEDGEBASES

Outlines and texts are the main methods thatstudents. use for organizing knowledge externally.

These approaches appear to ser:e their purposessince the majority of student learning involves rote

memorization. Meaningful learning, on the other

hand, requires more powerful representationstrategies. A concept map (type of spatial learning

strategy) summarizing various forms of knowledgerepresentation is shown in Fig. 1.

Concept maps require representation of rela-tionships between concepts: they facilitate ab-straction and deep processing. Unlike morecontent-dependent techniques (matrixing, flow-

charting, constructing pictures or graphs, forexample) these systems can be used in a wide var-

iety of texts. Concept maps, according to Novak

and Gowin 151, are intended to represent meaning-ful relationships between concepts in the form of

propositions. In its simplest form, a concept mapwould be just two concepts connecteJ by a linkingword to form a proposition.

Outlines and concept maps differ in three mainways 151: (1) concept maps show key concepts andpropositions in very explicit and concise languagewhereas outlines usually intermix instructionalexamples, concepts and propositions in a matrixthat may he hierarchical, but fails to show thesuperordinate-subordinate relationship between

key concepts and propositions; (2) concept maps

are concise and show the key ideational relation-ship in a simple visual representation; and (3)

concept maps visually emphasize both hierarchicalrelationships between concepts and propositionsand cross-links between sets of concepts and pro-

positions.The process of constructing knowledge bases (or

representations) is very powerful for assistingstudents in learning how to learn as will be

378

overtly) on what they're doing. Experts ask ques-tions such as -What are the general principles thatapply?" They spend more time thinking about theproblem, asking themselves questions, and com-menting on their understanding of the problem.Schoenfeld 11 5] mapped the mathematical prob-lem solving activities of novices and experts onnumerous problems and noted major differencesas described above. Similar results to those notedby Schoenfeld were found for uninstructed stu-dents, novices and experts solving physicsproblems by Champagne et al. 1161.

Modeling the problem-solving methods ofexperts and utilizing these models as instructionalaids is a very attractive approach, but it is compli-cated by what experts are able to tell about what

they know. Furthermore, although novice-to-expert models are the principal ones followed bycognitive-science researchers it is important tokeep in mind that there are many other models ofthe learner.

Acquisition of expeniseExpertise appears to be acquired through a

process consisting of three more or less distinctstages of learning 1171. In the first phase, oftentermed the stage of cognition or thought, studentslearn from instruction or observation what know-ledge and actions are appropriate. In the secondphase, often termed the associative phase oflearning, students practice (with feedback) therelationships discovered or taught in phase oneuntil they become smooth (fluent and efficient) andaccurate (proficient). In the third phase, termed thestage of automaticity, relationships are "compiled"through overpractice to the point where they canbe done without large amounts of cognitiveresources.

Dreyfus and Dreyfus 11 8, 19] extended andelaborated on these distinct phases of skill acquisi-tion and proposed live stagesnovice, advancedbeginner, competent performer, proficient per-former, and expert. The novice knows basic factsabout a subject and context-independent rules forusing those facts. The advanced beginner can useexamples to formulate rules for action and can takecontext into account. The competent performer ispersonally involved, goal-oriented, and is able toreason analytically and act without consciousthought about the rules. The proficient performercan recall whole situations and apply them withouthaving to decompose them into smaller com-ponents. The expert makes little conscious use ofanalytical reasoning, has little awareness of theskill, is fully involved in the situation, and seems tooperate by visualizing and manipulating wholeobjects and situations.

Performance on tasks at the expert level is

usually smooth and proficient; however, the pro-cesses used by experts in their performance aregenerally not available to conscious awareness.Polanyi 1201 refers to this type of knowledge as"tacit". Johnson 1171 has termed this fact the

-paradox of expertise"the very knowledge wewish to represent in a computer program, as well asthe knowledge we wish to teach others, often turnsout to be the knowledge that individuals arc least

able to talk about.

Knowledge structure and representationResearch in cognitive science has contributed to

our understanding of knowledge structure, repre-sentation and construction. Researchers haveexperimented with production systems. They havedeveloped inference procedures that involveforward-chaining and backward-chaining to act onknowledge bases. The modeling of learning, how-ever, turned out to be much more difficult thanexpected. For example, sequential readinessassumptions may hold for some simple tasks andfor young children: however, adolescent and adultstructures of knowledge and individual differencesare often uneven and nonlinear 1211.

CONSTRUCTING KNOWLEDGE BASES

Outlines and texts are the main methods thatstudents use for organizing knowledge externally.These approaches appear to serve their purposessince the majority of student learning involves rotememorization. Meaningful learning, on the otherhand, requires more powerful representationstrategies. A concept map (type of spatial learningstrategy) summarizing various forms of knowledgerepresentation is shown in Fig. 1.

Concept maps require representation of rela-tionships between concepts: they facilitate ab-straction and deep processing. Unlike morecontent-dependent techniques (matrixing, flow-charting, constructing pictures or graphs, forexample) these systems can he used in a wide var-iety of texts. Concept maps, according to Novakand Gowin 151, are intended to represent meaning-ful relationships between concepts in the form ofpropositions. In its simplest form, a concept mapwould be just two concepts connected by a linkingword to form a proposition.

Outlines and concept maps differ in three mainways 151: (1) concept maps show key concepts andpropositions in very explicit and concise languagewhereas outlines usually intermix instructionalexamples, concepts and propositions in a matrixthat may be hierarchical, but fails to show thesuperordinate-subordinate relationship betweenkey concepts and propositions; (2) concept mapsare concise and show the key ideational relation-ship in a simple visual representation; and (3)concept maps visually emphasize both hierarchicalrelationships between concepts and propositionsand cross-links between sets of concepts and pro-positions.

The process or constructing knowledge bases (orrepresentations) is very powerful for assisting,students in learning how to learn as will be

379

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described later. Additional strategies for repre-senting knowledge are described in Smith et al.1221.

Expert vstemsOur work in the area of requiring students to

construct explicit knowledge representationsbegan when we introduced the idea of studentsbuilding small expert systems. Our primary pur-pose was to familiarize them with this approach in acourse on the application of operations researchtechniques in engineering. The introduction of thisidea had several unanticipated side effects. One,the students were much more enthusiastic than wehad expected. Two, they mastered content that wehad not expected that they would master. Three.,they formulated rules for design and decision-making that showed they had not only reviewed alarge amount of information, but that they hadreviewed it selectively and purposefully. Theoutcome of this procedure is described brieflybelow and is described in more detail in a recentarticle by Starfield ct al. 1231.

A small expert system shell has been an in-dispensable part of the way in which we have usedknowledge bases as a teaching tool. The shell,described in Starfield et al, 1241 is written in Pascaland runs on a personal computer with 128Kmemory. The knowledge bases constructed by thestudents are stored in text files. according to asimple and flexible format. These files are inputdata for the shell, which will read, parse. check andinterpret the text. The shell then permits users tointeract with the knowledge base.

The knowledge base itself is divided into threeparts. First, there is a set of numbered decisions.The second part consists of a series of questionswhich aim to solicit the information necessary to

select an appropriate decision; associated witheach question is a limited number of answers. Thethird part consists of a set of production rules. Eachrule has the fortriation

IF <condition> THEN <decision>,

where the condition is a Boolean expressionrelating to answers to the questions and perhaps todecisions.

In a typical project students built a knowledgebase to select an urban transportation system. Thedecisions in that case consisted of a list of trans-portation alternatives, such as

Decision I busesDecision 2 light rail.

The questions r ,tell to the range of lane capacityneeded, the maximum possible investment, thespeed required, the levels of acceptable noise andpollution, etc. A typical question might be

Question 3 "What is the range of lane capacity youneed?"

Answer I "Between 15,000 and 20,000 spacesper hour-2 "Between 5000 and 15,000".

An example of a production rule might be

If (Q2 Ans3) and (not Dec4) and (05 Ans I orQ6 Ans2) THEN Dec2.

In the interaction between a user and the expertsystem shell, the shell will ask questions, record andremember the user's ;espouses. and systematicallytest out the rules until it finds a rule that is valid. It

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I will then print out the appropriate decision. Anadditional, and from the instructional point of view,important feature is that the user can at any stageask the shell "why?". The knowledge base maycontain reasons (text strings) that are associatedwith each question and each rule. These shouldexplain, briefly, the reasoning behind the questionsand rules, respectively. When a user asks "why?" heis first given the reason associated with the currentquestion. If he asks "why?" again he is then giventhe reason associated with the rule that the shell iscurrently testing.

We have found the following sequence to beeffective in the classroom:

First we introduce the concept of an expertsystem and knowledge base, explain thestructure of the production rules,and demon-strate a small system on the computer.

(2) We then divide the class into groups of two orthree and ask them to suggest topics thatwould lend themselves to this kind ofapproach. The ensuing discussion highlightsthe differences between topics that aresuitable and those that are not.Each group is then required to construct aknowledge base as a homework assignmentovera period of I or 2 weeks.Thestudentsaretold to pay particular care to the explanationfacility and are required to implement anddemonstrate their work, using the shell. Thisallows faculty and fellow students a chance tocritique the assignments.

Our experience is that students adapt very quickly tothis formal structure, learn to exploit it,and get a veryreal sense of achievement when they implementtheir work. The structure forces them to approachtheir problem in a pragmatic and purposefulmanner. It guides them into thought processes thatthey may not have previously encountered in astructured environment and teaches them to thinkexplicitly in ways that will be essential to them in theirprofessional careers.

(3)

Dar tbases and spreadsheetsThe expert system described above is an example

of "build/run" software. It enables students toconstruct a knowledge base, operate on it, andexamine the results. Standard database and spread-sheet programs facilitate the same operations. Stu-dents can compare, merge and test information in adatabase; in addition, a spreadsheet allows them tointroduce and simulate mathematical relationships.A successful spreadsheet application must he care-fully constructed of knowledge and rules (i.e. valuesand formulae) in order that one might later observe aripplirg effect of column by column output ofthe cal-culated values. Similarly, a database must be con-structed before various sorting and mergingfunctions can be invoked. These programs provide ameans to represent and manipulate knowledge.

Spreadsheet programs are used increasinglyoutside the traditional business domain. For

example, spreadsheets have been used by students inmine network analysis to simulate air flow, whereinknown values of air pressure at selected networkjunctions (entered as real values) and physical laws(entered as formulae) express the interdependenceof network junctions and network branches.

INSTRUCTIONAL USE OF KNOWLEDGEREPRESENTATIONS

The strategies described above are techniques forexternalizing concepts and propositions. However.learning the meaning of a piece of knowledgerequires dialog, exchange, sharing, and sometimescompromise. Meanings can be shared, discussed,negotiated and agreed upon. When spatial learningstrategies are used in groups of two or three students.it can serve a useful social function and also lead tolively classroom discussion. Cooperative learninggroups, an active learning technique described bySmith 1251and Smith eta/. 126, 271hasshown similarpositive outcomes. Preparing to teach or tutoranother, whether or not any leaching is actuallydone, results in greater achievement and liking of thesubject and other class members 128, 291. Cogni ti ve-psychology researchers have shown that the twoprincipal contributors to the development ofexpertise are talking with peers and preparing toteach 1301.

The learner must engage in active analysis of thestructure in order to construct a spatial representa-tion. Spatial strategies may be effective not becausethey provide an image, but rather because, byconstructing a graphic representation, the learnercarries out activities such as analysis, encoding andorganization that are themselves effective regardlessof whether or not they result in a spatial representa-tion.

In addition to training and encouraging studentsto construct knowledge bases to assist in learning.instructors could incorporate a variety of Forms of

. knowledge bases in their lectures or handoutmaterials. Day X31 described modifying lecturematerials to incorporate some of these ideas. Theconstruction of knowledge bases can he incor-porated in evaluation procedures with, for example,a scoring procedure developed for concept map-ping. We have required students to build theknowledge representation for expert systems inexams.

Many recognize microcomputers as a revolutionin education, not to supplant traditional educationalprocesses, but rather to supplement them byallowing students to experiment with many differentsituations and to "instruct" the machine rather thanbe "inst ructed" 132, 331. Programs which enable oneto modify data and quickly recalculate are excellenttools for sensitivity analysis and encourage a deeperunderstanding of the behavior of the system beingstudied. Once a knowledge representation is con-structed, one is free to operate on it with the tools ofthe particular package using a "WHAT Ir."'approach.

381

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370 K. A. Smith

SELECTION OF KNOWLEDGEREPRESENTATION STRATEGIES

Meta learning requires a capability for examiningone's own knowledge and thoughts and thenmodifying them accordingly. The "control struc-ture" that can accomplish this modification is called"metacognition" in the cognitive-science literature.-Flavell's 1341 generally accepted definition ofmetacognition is as follows:

"Metacognition refers to one's knowledge con-cerning one's own cognitive processes and pro-ducts or anything related to them, e.g., thelearning-relevant properties of information ordata. ... Metacognition refers, among otherthings, to the active monitoring and consequentregulation and orchestration of these processes inrelat ion to the cognitive objectives on which theybear, usually ill the service of some concrete goalor objective" (p. 232).

Metacognition has two separate but related aspects:(I) knowledge and beliefs about cognitive phenom-ena, and (2) the regulation and control of cognitiveactions p4i. Since there are numerous strategiesavailable to each learner, theapproach that is neededis to help the student choose appropriate strategiesfor each learning task. Bruner argues againstpromoting only one model of the learner andsuggests instead that the best approach is a reflectiveone that allows one to "go meta". He concludes:

"Any learner has a host of learning strategies atcommand. The salvation is in learning how to goabout learning before getting irreversibly beyondthe point of no return. We would do well to equiplearners with a menu of their possibilities and, inthe course of their education, to arm them withprocedures and sensibilities that would make itpossible for them to use the menu wisely."

McKeachie 1361 points out in a critique of spatiallearning strategies that he has difficultyjustifying theamount of time needed to teach students how toimplement these strategies. In contrast, our ex-perience is that it takes very little time for students tolearn how to operate within the formalism of a rule-based knowledge system, or to exploit the facilitiesprovided by a database or spreadsheet package.Onemight speculate that, if spatial learning strategieswere automated, they would become a far moreeffective teaching tool. They would then share theadvantages of the computer-aided representationsdiscussed here, namely, that they provide a frame-work for the student, an intellectual "jungle jinn"which encourages them: (1) to review (informationor data) and select from it; (2) to think about what isimportant and what is secondary; (3) to hypothesizeinterconnections, consequences and relationships;(4) to test those hypotheses and explore sensitivity;and (5) to communicate what they learn.

IMPLICATIONS FOR ENGINEERINGEDUCATION

in real-world engineering practice, problems donot present themselves to the practitioner as givens.Problem formulation, the process by which wedefine the decisions to be made, the ends to beachieved, and the alternative means which may bechosen, is neglected in much of engineering educa-tion. Problem formulation requires the capability tolearn how to learn and to reflect-in-action. Accord-ing to Schon 141. reflection-in-action exemplifiesprofessional activity:

"When someone reflects-in-action, he becomes aresearcher in the practice context. He is notdependent on the categories of established theoryand technique, but constructs a new theory of theunique case. His inquiry is not limited to adeliberation about means which depends on aprior agreement about ends. He does not keepmeans and ends separate, but defines theminteractively as he frames a problematic situation.He does not separate thinking from doing,ratiocinating his way to a decision which he mustlater convert to action. Because his experimentingis a kind of action, implementation is built into hisinquiry. Thus reflection-in-action can proceed,even. in situations of uncertainty or uniqueness,because it is not bound by the dichotomies ofTechnical Rationality."

In Educating the Reflective Practitioner Schon 1371describes his approach to the development ofprofessional practice skills. He writes:

"Designing, both in its narrower architecturalsense and in the broader sense in which allprofession practice is designlike, must be learnedby doing. However much students may learnabout designing from lectures or readings, there isa substantial component of design competenceindeed, the heart of itthat they cannot learn inthis way. A designlike practice is learnable but isnot teachable by classroom methods. And whenstudents arc helped to learn design, the inter-ventions most useful to them are more likecoaching than teachingas in a reflective practi-cum" (p. 157).

Champagne's 1381 research on scientific know-ledge and the mechanisms by which it is learnedindicates that scientific knowledge is complex andoften tacit. learnersconstruct understanding; refine-ment of personal theories about the natural world isan important part of the learning of science, andsocial interaction is a powerful mechanism forproducing cognitive change.

The cognitive-psychology research confirmingthe importance of peer interaction in the learningprocess has important implications for engineeringeducation. Meaningful learning and especiallylearning how to learn is enhanced by talking withpeers and preparing to teach others. They areessential aspects of learning. Social psychologists

382

(Lewin, Deutsch and the Johnsons) have been-advocatir; this practice for over 40 years.

A key, therefore, to learning how to learn is to getstudents involved in the construction of knowledgerepresentations 122, 391. Getting students involvedin meaningful problems is a powerful means fordeveloping talent 134, 401. We must, in addition, letstudents struggle with problems, especially at theformulation stage. We can provide them with somelearning strategies to make their task a bit easier142-441. For example, Schoenfeld acts as a rovingconsultant while the class breaks intosmall groups towork on mathematics problems. He has found thatasking the following three questions promotes thedevelopment of metacognitive skills 1451:

( I ) What (exactly) are you doing?(Can you describe it precisely?)

(2) Why are you doing it?(How does it fit into the solution?)

(3) How does it help you?(What will you do with the outcome when youobtain it?)

Heller and Hungate 1461 conclude that studentsneed to become better able to reason qualitativelyabout problems and !o know when and how toperform the many component procedures. Theysuggest several ways students' attention could beturned to learning these particular activities, includ-ing: (1) make tacit processes explicit, (2) get studentstalking about processes (an idea proposed by Bloomand Broder in 1950 1471, (3) provide guidedpractice, (4) ensure that component procedures arelearned well, (5) emphasize both qualitative under-

standing and specific procedures, and (6) test forunderstanding and reasoning processes.

CONCLUSION

The development of higher cognitive skills thatenable students to be independent learners andindependent, creative problem-solving users oftheir knowledge is a very important goal foreducators. Providing students with an active learn-ing environment where they can get involved withthe material to he learned in a mutually supportivesituation with other people and providing them withtools such as the ones described here will contributeto meaningful learning.

Even if learning, thinking and problem-solvingstrategies, whether general or specific, are shown toexist, it might not be possible to teach them directly.Perhaps they must spontaneously emerge as con-sequence of substantial experience. The currentconception is that metacognition-consciousawareness of and control of cognitive processes-emerges only as knowledge and skills in a particulardomain become quite well developed. At the veryleast, it should be possible to select and designexperience to result in a more rapid and completeemergence of such skills. A key to the success ofdeveloping students' skill at using these strategies isfor faculty to incorporate them in their handouts,exercises, lectures, assignments and exams. We mustalso he willing to accept that it may be the idiosyn-crat;c, covert concept meanings that are theprincipal factors in most human learning 148, 491.

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2. P. Drucker. T/w Ktus/o/Kr I.:Aver/tire. I laugh Show, NY ( 1 964 ).3. G. Batexon, Social planning and the concept of deuterolearning. Reprinted in Stem to on Ecohtey of

Mind. Chandler. San Francisco (1972).4. D. A. Schott, T/w Reflice Proctitioner Dow Professionals l'hink in Action .Basic Books, New York

(1983).5. J. D. Novak and DM. Gowin Learning boom, Learn. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge (1984).6. B. V. Koen, Definition of the Engineering Method. ASEE. Washington (1985).7. M. Rubinstein; Tools for Thinking and Problem Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs. NJ (1986).8. R. S. Nickerson, D. N. Perkins and E. E. Smith, The 'leaching of Thinking. Erlbaum, Hillsdale. NJ

(1985).B. V. Koen, Toward a definition of the engineering method. Engr g Ethic. December, 150-155. Alsosee Definition of the Engineer* Method. ASEE, Washington (1984).

10. G. Polya. //ow to Solve it. Princeton University Press, Princeton (1945).I I. A. Newell, The heuristic of George Polya and its relation to artificial intelligence. In: Methods of

Heuristics (Edited by R. Groner, M. Groner and W. F. l3ischof), pp. 195-244. Erlhatim, Hillsdale.NJ (1983).

12. A. H. Schoenfeld, Artificial intelligence and mathematics education: a discussion of Rissland's paper.In: Teaching and Learning Mathentatind Problem Solving (Edited by E. A. Silver), pp. 177-187.Erlhaum, Hillsdale, NJ (1985).

13. J. Bruner, Models of the learner. Ethic. Res. June/July, 5-8 (1985).14. J. Bruner. Actual Minds. Possible Worlds. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. MA (1986).15. A. H. Schoenfeld, Mathenuttial Problem Solving. Academic Press, Orlando, FL (1985).16. A. 11. Champagne, L. E. Klopfer and It. E. Gunstone, Cognitive research and the design of science

instruction. Ethic. Psycho/. 7.31-53 (1982).17. P. E. Johnson, What kind of expert should a system he? J. Med. Philm. 8.77 -97 (I 983).

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I 8. H. L. Dreyfus:ant S. E.Dreyfus. Mind over Machine:The Powerofl Inman ImuitionandExpertisein the

Era of the Computer. The Free Press, New York (1986).

19. H. Dreyfus and S. Dreyfus,Why people may never think like computers, Technul. Rev. 89, 44-61

(1986).20. M. Poksnyi, lite Tacit Dimension. Doubleday, Garden City. NY (1973).

21. S. F. Foster, Ten principles of learning revised in accordance with cognitive psychology: with

implications for teaching. &hie. Pswhol. 21. 231-243 (1986).

22. K. A. Smith, A. M. Starfield and R. Maracal. Constructing knowledge bases. In: Pmccedings Fifteenth

Annual Frontiers in Education Conference, Golden, CU (Edited by L P. Grayson and J. M.

Biedenbach). pp. 374-382.1EEE/ASEE, Washington (1985).

23. A. M.Starlield. K. L. 1111ml:4M. M. England mlK.S.Smith,Masteringenginceri ng concepts by building

an expert system. Engrg Ethic% 74, 1(14 -1(17 (1983).

24. A. M. Stanfield, S. Adamsand A. Blelock, A small expert system shell and its applications. Proceedings

Founh Annual Phoenix Conference, IEEE. pp. 262-267 (1985).

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University Oassfoonts (Edited by S. Schombcrg), pp. 18-26. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis

(1985).26. K. A. Smith. D. W. Johnson and It. T. Johnson. Structuring learning goals to meet the goals of

engineering education. Engrg Educ. 72.221 -226 (1981).

27. K. A. Smith, A. Wassyng and A. M.St:afield, Development of a systematic problem solving course: an

alternative to the use of case studies. In: Proceedings 77iineenth Annual Frontiers in Education

Conference, Worcester, MA (Edited by L. P. Grayson andi. M. 13iedenbach),pp.42-46.1EEE/ASEE,

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London (1979).29. L. F. Amis. The process and effects of peer tutoring. Mum Learning 2, 39-47 (1983).

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Proceedings of the North Midwest Section Meeting, ASEE.pp. 49-60 (1985).

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Teaching and Learning in UniversityClassrooms (Edited by S. Schomberg), pp.68-78. University of

Minnesota. Minneapolis (1 985).34. J. H. Raven, Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In: The Nature of Intelligence (Edited by

L Resnick), pp. 231-236. ErIbuum. Hillsdale, NJ (I 976).

35. .1. Garafolo and F. K. Lester, Metacognition, cognitive monitoring and mathematical performance. J.

Res. Math. Ethic. 16. 163-176 (1985).36. W. K. McKcachic. Spatial strategies: critiouc and educational implications. In: Spatial Learning

Strategies (Edited by C.1). Holley and D. F. Dansereau). pp. 301 -312. Academic Press, New York

(1984).37. D. A. Schon. Educating the Reflective Practitioners. lossey-Bass,San Francisco. CA (1987).

38. A. B. Champagne. Structured peer interactions and physical science learning. Paper presented at 1986

Arne: lam Educational ResearchAssociation Meeting. San Francisco. CA (1986).

39. K. A.Smith.Art ificial intelligence and learning how to learn.ln: ProceedingsSixteenth Annual Frontiers

in Education Conferrncr (Edited by L. P. G rayson midi. M.Biedenbach),ppi 77-183.IEEE/ASEE,

Arlington. TX (1986).40. A. W. Mall. Involvement: the cornerstone of excellence. (image July/August. 35-39 (1985).

41. A. W. A stin, Achieving Educational Escellence.Jo.ssey-Bess, San Francisco (1985).

42. D. Dansereau, Learning strategy research. In: Thinking and Learning Skills (Edited by J. W. Segal,

S. F. Chipman and R. Glaser), pp. 209-240. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ (1985).

43. S. F. Chipman and J. W. Segal, Higher cognitive goals for education. In: Thinkingand Learning Skills

Vol. 1: Rehiring Itcsearrh Insiniction (Edited byS. F.Chipman.J. W.SegalandR. Glascr),pp, 1-20.

Erlbaum. Hillsdale. NJ (1985).44. J. B. Baron and R. J. Sternberg (Eds), 'leaching 'Thinking Skills: Theory andPractice. Freeman, New

York (1987).45. A. H. Schoenfeld. Metacognitive and epistemological issues in mathematical understanding. In:

leadting and Learning Alathonainwl Problem Solving (Edited by E. A. Silver). pp. 371-379. LEA.

Hillsdale. NJ (1985).46. J. I. Heller and H. N. Hungate. Implications for mathematics instruction of research on scientific

problem solving. In: 7i.cwhing «nd teamingMathematical Problent.Volvin,k (Edited by E. A. Silver),

pp. 83-112. Erlhaum Hillsdale. NJ (1985).47. 11. S. Bloom and L. J. Broder, Problem.Solving Processes of (idlege .titt«letus. University of Chicago

Press. Chicago (195(1).48. D. Ausubel, Educinional Psychology: A Cognitive View.1-loll. Rinehart & Winston. New York (1968).

49. J. D. Novak. Metalearning and metaknowledge strategics to help students learn how to learn. In:

Cognitity structure and en:lemma' change (Edited by L. H.T. West and A. L. Pines), pp. 189-207.

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L11742-41260/N9 5301 1.00

019119 Pelf:mow Poonoo plc.

Testing Intellectual Skills in Engineering;Test Design Methods for Learning*

J. CANELOS1-G. CATCHENtThe Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A.

This study examines classroom testing front the perspective of psychological learning. Four nt41-lectual skill levels are defined, based upon basic and classic research on human learningpsychology. These intellectual skill levels can then serve as the foundation for designing testquestions. Additional psychological learning variables arc considered, and how testing interadtswith these variables. Finally, the results of a survey on testing methods used by engineering f cult),are presented.: I ..

TESTING in engineering courses is .typicallyviewed by university faculty members as simply amethod of measuring course content studentsacquire, and providing grades on academicachievement in an engineering major. However,testing can be much more than this. Since 1981, theCollege of Engineering at the Pennsylvania StateUniversity has conducted. teaching seminars forengineering faculty, and a course on teachingeffectiveness for engineering teaching assistants.One of the major topics during these seminars andcourse is test development. At the start of the testdevelopment seminar faculty members and teach-ing assistants are asked to write a sentence or twodescribing the major importance of classroom test-ing in engineering. Of the 805 faculty members andteaching assistants asked to respond over the years,87% indicated that tests are for giving grades andevaluating the amount of information acquired.Other responses included: evaluating how effec-tively material was taught, motivating students, andproviding feedback to students on skills learned.While sincere regarding their desire to be eff,:cciveinstructors, few engineering faculty members andteaching assistants understand the relationshipbetween testing and psychological learning, and theoverall value of testing for achieving specific intel-lectual outcomes.

This paper will further examine the fundamentalrelationships of testing and psychological learning.The issue of a test as an independent variable in thelearning process was considered in our first paperon testing Ill. This issue will be elaborated uponhere with a more detailed discussion of psycho-logical learning, or irtellectual skill levels, andclassic research findings related to these topicsfrom the research on concept learning and problem

Paper accepted 23 August 1988.t Dr Canelos is Director of Instructional Development and

Senior itc.scarcli Associate.Dr Catchen is Assistant Professor of Nuclear Engineering.

solving. A' number of sample test problems willthen be presented and analyzed in terms of intel-lectual skill levels. A number of references will thenbe provided on developing effective tests, front keyresearchers in the area of testing theory and, testconstruction. Finally, survey results will be (pre-sented and discussed, from a survey evaluating thetypical testing Methods! used by the engineeringfaculty. This survey examined testing methods,intellectual skills, and types of engineering cot&ses.

i .:1

RELATING TESTS TO PSYCHOLOGICALLEARNING VARIABLES .

. .. . , .

A basic psychological variable (learning vari-able) that the test affects is the variable or motiva-tion. Of course, motivation is a fundamentalpsychological variable in the learning process.Without motivation, little or no learning takesplace. The variable of motivation can be .cdnsi-dered a continuum, ranging from sleep to a highlevel of state anxiety. However, the type of motiva-tion that is most related to classroom testing isachievement motivation 12, 31. Achievement moti-vation research attempts to explain the basids ofgoal seeking behavior, and what causes variousforms of this behavior. A detailed discussio ofachievement motivation can be found in Atki sonand Feather 141. Achievement motivation rese rchresults are complex, indicating that a great de l ofenvironmental and subtle psychoiogical factorsstimulate the need to achieve certain goals, skei-fically academic goals, as Travers explains, p. 34:

The students in a class may appear bored andlistless, but this does not mean that they do nothave potential for showing achievement motiva-tion. Perhaps their specific needs are not bI ringaroused 151.

The type of achievement motivation the class-room test seems to stimulate most often is the

3385

4 J. Condos and G. Catchen

desire to acquire favorable grades. Unfortunately,grades are not the most appropriate type ofachievement motivation, but students are highlymotivated by grades on tests and major assign-ments. This level of motivation is known as externalmotivation, discussed in the locus of controlI escarch 161. The overall outcome of a professionaldegree should be to lead to internal motivation 171,or the desire to be a productive and competentengineer for that reason alone. But, in reality, mostundergraduate students are stimulated to learnbecause of grades. Therefore, the test directlyaffects motivation to learn, by stimulating achieve-nici it motivation, to acquire favorable grades. Thisrelationship should be positive, and not a negativeor punishing type of motivation. Students will tendto study more completely, and more seriously,close to the time of major tests 181. The frequency oftesting will then directly manipulate the amount ofserious study students will engage in. So, thepsychological variable of achievement motivationcan be directly manipulated by frequency of test-ing. It is likely that giving only a mid-term and finalexamination is not appropriate since this contri-butes to a cramming study strategy by students.More frequent testing would lead to a distributedstudy strategy by students, and keep their motiva-tion levels for learning new material at a constant,probably optimal level, rather than peaks of highand low motivation.

The second psychological variable tests cancontrol is the level of intellectual skill at whichstudents will acquire course content. It is notsurprising -to engineering .faculty members toobserve a wide variety of understanding levels in aclass, on any given topic being presented. Forexample, some students seem to simply memorize

-w information, while others appear to have amuch 'deeper' understanding of the material. Thisdepth of learning phenomenon is in reality a mani-festation of the intellectual skill level students arepsychologically operating at with the new material.The test can be used to directly control this intel-lectual skill level students attempt to acquire. Forexample, if a test usually asks students to memorizebasic facts, such as formulas. symbols, and defini-tions, chances are the majority of students willlearn at the factual intellectual skill level withcourse material. If tests provide the facts, but thenrequire students to apply nt w rules they shouldunderstand, chance are, students will mastermaterial at the rule application level. Of course,instruction must be at the appropriate intellectualskill level to effectively prepare the student for thetesting situation 191.

There are a number of researchers who haveattempted to define intellectual skill levels 110, 11,

2. 131. For many teaching and learning situations,their definitions are useful. However, whenexplaining engineering course material a moreclassical approach to defining intellectual skilllevels, based on research from learning psycho-logy, seems to be applicable 15, 14, 151.

386

Most engineering course content seems to fitfour basic intellectual skill levels identified as thepsychological research related to learning. From abasic level to a more sophisticated level, these intel-lectual skill types are: factual learning, conceptlearning, rule learning, and problem solving. Thekey is to be able to define course material at thesedifferent intellectual skill levels, and then preparetest questions at the same level. Subsequently, thisshould stimulate students to learn material at theappropriate intellectual skill level; since testsrequire them to perform at that level.I

The basic intellectual skill level is factual learn-ing. All educated individuals must acquire a vastnumber of facts to be able to perform morecomplex intellectual tasks. Classic i research onproblem solving, indicated that more complexproblem solving tasks required the acquisition offactual information, 116, 17, 181. Thelearly GestaltPsychologists spent a good deal of effort explainingthe differences between faculty mermiry and prob-lem solying, which they sometimes called drill andpractice versus meaningful apprehension 1191, orreproductive versus productive thinking 1201. So,while facts are the most basic level of intellectualskill that can be acquired, they forth the crux ofmuch later and more complex intellectual skills.Students should be required to learn these basicfacts in a given area, and test questions of a factualtype can easily be developed to test this skill. Thefactual level test question can be designed to stressrecall of information or recognition oflinformation.Simple completion items are quite good for factualmemory testing, as well as matching type testquestions 111. Of course, multiple choice items canbe designed to test factual memory of a recognitiontype. It is more difficult, however to recall factualinformation than to recognize factual informationstored in memory 1211. Therefore, if the facts are tobe well learned for future use, a recall test questionmay be better, such as a completion type of item.

The second level of intellectual skill is conceptlearning. There is a good deal of history behind theresearch on concept learning beginning in 1920 byHull. Similar to Hull 1221, the work by Heidbreder1231 on concept learning and Brunei, Goodnowand Austin 1241, indicated that concepts are classi-fication systems humans use to categorize informa-tion in the environment. The concept is a definition,made up of a listing of attributes. This list ofattributes forms the concept category -and oncethese attributes are learned, classifying informationinto and out of the conceptual category is a simpletask. Conceptual thinking is an innately human wayof thinking. allowing us to Teal with large quantitiesof information encountered in the environmentwithout putting a burden on memory. In fact,without the ability to think in a ccnceptual way,human memory would probably have difficultydealing with even the most simple recognitiontasks. For example. the conceptual task of identify-ing and grouping dogs from other animals, and bydog type. is quite simple for normal adults, once the

ri

conceptual rule about dogs is learned. Simplystated the dog concept is: 'Has four legs, has a head,

has a body, has a tailusually, and barks.' Knowingthis information at a conceptual intellectual leveleliminates the problem of memorizing all images

and features i-)f all dogs encountered, to be able to

recognize a dog, or dog type. Computers, on the

other hand, are very poor conceptual thinkers, but

have better Memory capabilities than humans, so

they can carrly out pattern matching memory tasks

better than we can. Young children often attempt

memory methods to try and learn concepts and fail

to think conceptually, and therefore, have difficulty

with concept tasks 1251. It is common to observe

students who attempt to use memory, instead of

trying to learn conceptually 1261. We often say that

these students don't seem to comprehend, or can't

apply what we taught. The phenomenon beingobserved is 'simply the different intellectual skilllevels ofi factual learning versus conceptual

learning. 1

Concept tasks are common in most college levelcourses, and should be represented on tests. Forexample, a conceptual learning task in electricalengineering is the ability to classify basic electricalcomponentslfor building circuits, such as resistors,capacitors, diodes, transistors, etc. There are awide variety of resistors, of varying capabilities,shapes, sizes, and colors, but once the conceptualrule defining resistor is learned, classifying what isand what is not a resistor becomes a simpleconceptual task. Similarly, many other types ofconcepts can be identified in most engineeringcourses at the college level. The first step in testdesign then,iis to differentiate course content alongthe lines; of what is a fact, concept, rule, andproblem,.and develop test items that will stimulatethe appropriate type of thinking in students. How-ever, it maylbe obvious at this stage, that differen-tiating course content and writing test items at cer-tain intellectual skill levels and evaluating studentthinking, is a hypothetical task at best. This is true,but after some practice and evaluating tests devel-oped in this:way, it becomes a viable method of testdevelopmek Since the test developer has only fivetest items to select from: completion/short answer,essay/long answer, multiple choice, true-false, andmatching, most intellectual skill levels can be testedwith these item types. Except for true-false items,all four intellectual skill levels can be addressedcontingent upon how the test item is designed. Forthe concept learning level, test items should requirestudents to be involved with concept identification1141, or classifying information into and out ofconceptual categories. Conceptual thinking can bestimulated by requiring the student to: compareand contrast concepts, explain or identify attri-butes, identify correct from incorrect attributes,formulate and explain the conceptual category.

The next intellectual skill level is rule learning.While the definition of concept learning may seemawkward, rule learning is a little easier to deal withsince engineering course content involves a wide

array of num.-muies cau L.PG C11.1101verbal, and are usually a part of problem solving.The rule can he a logical rule, such as Kirchhoff sVoltage Law or the Periodic Law, or a mathe-

matical rule, like the independent equations tosolve an electrical circuit problem. The key, how-ever, of the rule learning intellectual skill, is that the

student cannot simply memorize the rule but mustknow when to apply the rule or when not to apply a

rule; or in some cases, how the rule should bechanged to fit a certain application. A commonlearning problem among engineering students is

that of simply memorizing rules, and not fullycomprehending how to apply rules. There is a great

deal of difference in intellectual capability betweenmemorizing the rule as opposed to being able toapply the rule, given the appropriatesituation. Rulelearning is similar to concept learning, and someeducational researchers have indicated that com-plex rules used in problem solving can incorporateseveral lower-level concepts1271. Rule learning testquestions should attempt to get the learner to applythe rule and avoid simply recognizing or recallingthe rule, since this would then become a factualintellectual skill. The crux of the rule learning testquestion is that it should deal with application. Thestudent should be forced to apply the rule or rulesin a realistic way, by demonstrating how the rule isused, or by explaining the application of the rule,and in some cases for mathematical rules generat-ing the rule. Multiple choice questions can bedeveloped to test this intellectual skill, but they willrequire a good bit of time and thought to develop

111. A very good way to test rule application is with

a short answer problem, or completion type testitem.

Problem solving is the highest level intellectualskill. Problem solving involves the incorporation ofthe three more basic levels of intellectual skills:facts, concepts, and rule application. Problemsolving cannot take place without facts beingstoredin memory and conceptual understanding, and theability to apply rules. In actuality, the intellectualskill level of problem solving can be broken intothree distinct sublevels: solving simple problems,solving complex problems, and the most difficultproblem solving type, identifying a problem. Theidentification of problems is seldom done in class-room learning. Most of the learning classified asclassroom learning in undergraduate schoolinvolves either simple numerical or verbal prob-lems, or complex numerical or verbal problems. Asimple problem can he defined as one involving theapplication of a sinele concept or rule to find thesolution. A complex problem can be defined as oneinvolving a variety of concepts and rules, andperhaps a series of equations, to find a solution.The key phrase to both of these definitions ofproblem solving is 'find a solution.' To representtrue problem solving, the test question should notbe designed so that the students can respond frommemory alone. The difficulty with many testquestions thought to be problem solving is that they

:TESI COPY MN QV

6 J. Canelos and G. Catchen

simply require the memorizing of a set of steps, andrepeating the steps. This algorithmic style of arriv-ing at a solution is not problem solving, but is

actually the more basic factual intellectual skill.The classic definition of problem solving describedhere can be found throughout the research in

psychology, related to explaining human problemsolving behavior 114, 15, 28, 51. The early GestaltPsychologists conducted much of their research byobserving and explaining problem solving

ibehavior. For example, Katona 1291, in 1940,explained that memory tasks fail to allow thelearner to transfer memorized information to theproblem solution stage of thinking. Early work byWertheimer 1201 yielded results that support thenotion of differences between memorizing solu-tions and problem solving using the application ofrules. Similar explanations of problem solving canbe found in very early work by the Gestalts. Forexample, as early as 1925 and 1930, Kohler [301and Maier1321documented their work on problemsolving, indicating differences between the intel-lectual skills of memorizing solutions, versusproblem solving by deriving unique solutions.Later Gestalts, using more experimental methods,noted that memory skills alone do not allow forcomplex and creative solutions to problems [32,331, and in some cases memory problem solvingcan interfere with seeing a solution. However, thisinformation contrasting memory skills versusproblem solving skills, is probably not a greatsurprise to most engineering faculty members sincethey observe this phenomenon in students atchronic levels. To help avoid this difficulty, testitems should. be designed to require true problemsolving involving; recalling some facts, differentiat-ing concepts, and applying rules, to arrive at aunique solution not encountered before. The testitems most adept at this type of engineering prob-lem solving are long answer problems or essay andshort answer problems or cnmpletion. The rule ofthumb for the test developer, when writing prob-lem solving questions, is to consider the question:'Can my students solve the problem by using amemorized solution?' If they can simply write out amemorized algorithm, the test question is not aproblem solving question, regardless of its format,essay or completion, or complex multiple choice,but is rather a factual question.

Another powerful psychological learning vari-able which is part of testing, but seldom consideredby engineering faculty members, is that of perfor-mance feedback. The effects of feedback on learn-ing are well documented in the classic learningtheories by Hilgard and Bower 1151, and in moreapplied explanations of psychological learningrelated to school learning by Travers 1341. Perfor-mance feedback can be found in learning theoryresearch under the rubric of reinforcement, cogni-tive feedback, and informative feedback.This feed-back variable can have a significant effect uponlearning, if used appropriately as part of classroomtesting. In general, the research on feedback

concludes that a student will learn more about aparticular intellectual skill, if more information isprovided about the quality of the performance,including an explanation of what was correct andwhat was incorrect and why. This informationshould then be beyond simple feedback,' likeposting letter grades, but what is called elaboratefeedback. The elaborate feedback method can takeplace by explaining classes of problems studentstended to answer incorrectly. Such explanationsshould take place in class during post-test reviews.If entire groups of test questions are missed, it maybe necessary to review that particular material in agood bit of detail during a post-test review session.Additionally, as part of the post-test review, theinstructor should take time to explain the relativeapplication of important concepts, rules, andproblems, to future work in the course. The ela-borate feedback method turns the testing functionof the instructional process into a true learningexperience, aimed at improving intellectual skillsfor future application:

SAMPLE TEST ITEMS AND SOMEADDITIONAL SUGGESTIONS

The sample test items will provide some prac-tical examples of designing questions at differentintellectual skill levels. The samples here are fromcourses taught at the Penn State College of 'Engin-eering.

Sample IHow many independent equations based on

Kirchhoffs Current Law may be written for thiscircuit?

211

6n I

1

How many based on Kirchhoff s Voltage Law?

The Sample 1, completion test item; (shortanswer problem) is at the rule application level,since it requires the learner to determine whichequations apply to the circuit problem and .howmany. The KCL and KVL equations are beingdefined as rules that can be applied to solve theproblem, or in this case analyze the problem. Itwould be difficult to respond simply from memory,unless this exact circuit was memorized, includingthe accompanying equations.

Sample 2The layout illustrated in the figure below) repre-

sents which of the following circuits?

a. CMOS Inverterb. NMOS NOR Gatec. Dual NMOS NAND Gated. Dual NMOS Inverter

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Sample 2 represents a multiple-choice test itemat the concept learning level. The circuits aredefined as concepts, since they are made up of adefinition formed from a set of attributes. The taskin Sample 2 is to analyze the attributes of the circuitin the figure, and determine what category of circuitthe example falls onto. While memory would helpwith this task, memory alone would not allow for acorrect conceptual analysis.

Sample 3The term 'Metal Lift-Off refers to:

a. Reliability problem in IC metallization layerb. Processing sequence which. defines metal

linesc. Selective editing on h full custom layoutd. Fatigue problem in IC package pins

Sample 3 is a multiple choice item at the factualintellectual skill level. While the fact being tested isimportant if it was committed to memory the itemcan be easily answered. However, while factuallearning is a basic intellectual skill, if certain factsmust be learned they should appear on the test.

Sample 41. 7-

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b. Assign spins and parities to the unlabelledlevels in "Fe.

c. Now, check the EC classification in part aand give the final classification.

State706.41 keV136.5 keV

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The test item in Sample 4 is a long answer prOb-;lem (essay) at the problem solving level. Note herthat to evaluate the student's response his or her,work would be collected. This is a complex prob-,lem requiring the recall of facts. the ability to apply,most mathematical and verbal rules, and compre=heed concepts. The mathematical work is obviousfrom the statements in the problem, the rules topeapplied relate to spins and parities, and conceptsrelate to EC-classifications.

Sample 5 I

An NMOS enhancement mode transistor with a2 volt threshold and gain factor B R 20 Xoperating the saturation region, with V05 a 4V:What is the Drain to Source current IDS.

1

a. 10 micro-ampsb. .4 milli-ampsc. 1 micro-ampd. 40 micro-amps

Sample 5 is a multiple-choice item at theproblem solving level. However, this problem is asimple numerical problem, and not as complek asSample 4. This problem involves the application ofthe correct equation, the rule in this case, andfactual information in terms of how to calculatedata while completing equations

A number of excellent texts are vailable to helpengineering faculty with the development of effec-tive tests. To summarize the work of these authorsis beyond the scope of this paper but a detailedreading of the following would be helpful, pairti-cularly for new engineering faculty.

(1) Wilbert J. McKeachie, Teaching Tips, AGuidebook for the Beginning CollegeTeacher, D. C. Heath (1986).

389

1

1

8 .I. Condos and G. Catchen

Chapters 8 and 9 discuss practical sugges-tions for test development and methods ofassigning grades.

(2) Elliot A. Weiner and Barbara J. Stewart,Assessing Individuals, Psychological andEducational Tests and Measurements,Little, Brewn (1984).This is a cook book approach to testing, butprovides numerous example test items. Thetext also contains a discussion of gradereporting procedures and basic statisticalmethods.Lynn Lyons Morris and Carol Taylor Fitz-Gibbon, How to Measure Achievement,Sage Publications (1978).A basic, but practical guide to developingclassroom examinations, and evaluating testresults.

Robert F. Mager, Measuring InstructionalResults, from the Mager Libra?), Set, PitmanLearning (1984).For those using an objecti*..e based teachingmethod, this will provide further informa-tion on relating lesson objectives to testitems. There are a number of good examplesof test questions in this text.

(3)

(4)

TESTING METHODS USED BYENGINEERING FACULTY

A survey was conducted at the Penn State Col-lege of Engineering during Fall Semester 1987. Thesurvey items appear in Table 1. The survey wasmailed to 226 College of Engineering facultymembers, and 153 responded. Items 1, 2, and 3 onthe survey measure were to determine type ofcourse taught, and relate this information to type oftest item typically used, and level of intellectual skillthat test items tended to address. The results fromitems 1, 2, and 3 are graphically presented inFigures 1 through 10. Survey items 4 through 9evaluated additional issues related to testing in theengineering classroom. All survey data are pre-sented as percents of those responding to theoptions on each survey item. The data from thesurvey should be representative of other engineer-ing colleges, having a large undergraduate enroll-ment, and offering comprehensive masters anddoctoral degree programs. However, the majorityof undergraduates at Penn State College ofEngineering are upper level undergraduates, intheir last two years, or at least starting their fourthsemester out of eight semesters. Penn State has 21branch campus locations at which many freshmenand beginning level sophomore students start theirprograms, prior to arriving at the main campus atUniversity Park. However, there are beginninglevel students and courses at College of Engineer-ing main campus at University Park. One addi-

Table I. Sample questions and overall summary data

1. Your response refers to what type of course?(a) Freshman. Sophomore Service Course(h) Junior. Senior Service Course i

(c) Required Course in Major(d) Graduate Level Course(e) Elective Course in Major

2. What type of test item do you tend to use most often?(a) Essay-long answer problem (numerical or

verbal)(h) Completion-short answer problem (numeri-

cal or verbal)(C) Multiple-choice(d) True-false(e) Matching(f) Mixed MethodSome combinationof these

on a given test 1

3. Most frequently, the primary purpose of my testquestion is to:

(a) Measure factual knowledge, i.e., recall ofinformation

(b) Measure ability to apply mathematical, orverbi..i rules. e.g.. use equations i

(c) Simple solutions of numerical problems(d) Solutions of complex numerical problems

4. Do you tend to give partial credit for numericalproblems?94% (a) Yes

1% (b) No.5% (c) Sometimes

5. Exams are most often graded by:71% (a) Professor4% (b) TA8% (c) TA supervised by the Professor

17% (d) Both TA and Professor6. Do exams tend to be:

45% (a) Open hook in class49% (h) Closed book in'class

6% (c) Take home7. How frequently do you give major exams?

2% (a) Every 2 weeks4% (b) Every 3 weeks

21% (c) Every 4 weeks66% (d) Every 5-7 weeks

7% (e) Once per semester8. Do you give any type of quizzes?

73% (a) No27% (b) Yes (24%) (3%)

(c) If yes: (1) Pre-scheduled (2) Pop quiz9. How do you assign grades?

62% (a) Curve, or norm referenced grading34% (b) Absolute, or by points equaling grade4% (c) Otherstandard scores, like T-score

For results on 1,2, 3. see Figs. 1 -10.Percent responding to each option.

tional distinction needs to be noted, !that is, thedifference between service courses and requiredcourses, i.e., major area courses.At Penn State in theCollege of Engineering a service course is a generalcourse in engineering taken by all students, such asthermodynamics or basic electronics.

Figures 1 through 5 provide percentlrespondingdata, and list the test item types. Those test itemtypes are: essay or longer answer problem, comple-tion or short answer problem, multiple choice,true-false, matching, and mixed method. Figures 1through 5 compares the results of survey items 1with 2, or academic level and typical test item typeused on a test. Figure 1 indicates that for beginning

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level service courses faculty members tended to'usecompletion items about 20% of the time, but usedlong answer problems, 40% of the time with somematching and mixed. The mixed method is a 'testmethod with a combination of item types. Figure 2indicated that for service courses at an upper level,junior/senior, more essay items are presented ontests. Short answer problems or completion itemsare used about the same as the mixed methodhowever no matching items are given. A smallamount of multiple-choice items are use for thisacademic level.

Looking at Fig. 3, it indicates that in requiredmajor area courses, the testing methods tended todiffer from service courses. There is an equalamount of long answer problems (essay) and shortanswer problems (completion) on each test, withvery little multiple choice or matching. Howe4r, amixed method tends to be used more often,

391

10 J. Condos and G. Catchen

probably mixing short answer and long answerproblems. Interestingly, Fig. 4 indicates that in grad-uate level courses most tests are essay, long answerproblems, with very little completion or mixedmethod. The difference in frequencies betweengraduate and undergraduate test item types is quitesignificant. In elective courses in a major, the facultytended to use testing methods similar to the junior/senior service courses, with mostly essay and cc,m-pletion and some mixed method.

Figures 6 through 10 compared survey item 1with survey item 3, evaluating academic level andintellectual skill type the test questions attemptedto address. Figure 6 considered the service coursesfor freshman and sophomore level. Most test ques-tions, 60%, were designed to evaluate rule applica-tion, with some test items involving simplenumerical problem solving, and complex problemsolving. For junior/senior service courses (Fig. 7)the results are similar to Fig. 6, but Fig. 7 indicatesthat more factual level questions are used. How-ever, at the junior and senior level, with servicecourses, the stress is still on rule application andproblem solving.

Interestingly, the required courses in a major,Fig. 8, results are similar to results on servicecourses. In required courses, the faculty are stress-ing rule application, with a reasonable amount offactual knowledge. Figure 9, indicates a similarstress on application of rules, but problem solvingtends to be more complex, which is expected ingraduate level courses. Finally Fig. 10, indicates astress on the application of rules, but factuallearning is significantly higher for these electivecourses.

FigureS 1 through 10 indicate favorable resultsin light of ever increasing enrollments at Penn Stateand probably other similar engineering colleges. Asenrollments increase, it becomes more difficult toevaluate and grade essay and completion typeitems, particularly at the rule application andproblem solving level. One may hypothesize that

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increasing enrollments would lead to factualoriented testing with multiple-choice and otherobjective style test items, but this has not been thecase. Faculty members are consistently attemptingto stay with rule application and problem solvingoriented tests, using long answer and completionproblems, as well as mixed methods. Addressingthese upper level intellectual skills via testing iscritical in the engineering curriculum, and shouldnot fall victim to enrollment pressures.

Survey item 4 indicated that most faculty use apartial credit grading method. This is consistent fortesting at the rule application and problem solvinglevel, using mostly essay and completion test itemtypes. Item 5, indicates that the professor is notdelegating test grading to the teaching assistantmost of the time:

(1) 71% of the time the professor does allgrading

(2) 25% of the time the professor and TA doFig. G. grading.

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Item 6 indicates that open book exams are usedabout half the time. Most faculty members tend togive major tests about every 5 to 7 weeks; 87%responded in these categories. While 5-7 weeksmay be a bit too long between tests, item 8 indicatesthat 27% of faculty give quizzes, thus, addingneeded study and motivation. Additionally, manyPenn State College of Engineering faculty membersgive graded homework between major exams, toprovide performance feedback. Finally, item 9 indi-cates that while 62% of faculty graded on a curve,

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howne,icelSolutions

about 34% used an absolqte method based one,

accumulated points to get a pre-specified grade.A future work is planned by the authors on t

ing, to evaluate the testing methods used by other,engineering faculty at other universities. Plans are,to use the same testing survey measure, but stratifyresults by:

(1): 2 year technical degree programs,(2): 4 year bachelor degree programs,(3). Graduate degree programs.

REFERENCES

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(1966).5. It M. W. Travers, Essentials of Learning, Macmillan, Nev York (1982).6. J. 13. Rotter, Generalized expectations for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychol.

Mortog. 80, whole No. 609 (1966).7. S. B. Messer, The relation of internal-external control to academic performance. Child Develop -

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York (1985).11. B. S. Bloom, Taxonomy of educational objectives, handbook I; cognitive domain,David McKay Co.,

New York (1956).12. J. H. Block. Mastery Learning, theory and practice, Holt, Rinehart, Winston, New York (1971).13. B. Joyce and M. Weil, Models of Teaching, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1972).14. It E. Mayer, Thinking and Problem Solving, Scott, Foresman, Glenview, Illinois (1976).15. E. R. Hilgard and G. H. Bower, Theories of Learning, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey

(1975).16. H. G. Birch, The relation of previous experience to insightful problem solving.!. Comp. Psycho!. 3 8 ,

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