Warlords and Republican Warlords and Republican Dissolution IDissolution I

C. Marius and L. Cornelius C. Marius and L. Cornelius SullaSulla

Keith Hopkins’ AnalysisKeith Hopkins’ AnalysisConquerors and SlavesConquerors and Slaves

Continuous WarfareContinuous Warfare Influx of BootyInflux of Booty Investment in LandInvestment in Land Formation of Large EstatesFormation of Large Estates Impoverishment of PeasantryImpoverishment of Peasantry Emigration to Towns and Emigration to Towns and

ProvincesProvinces Growth of Urban MarketsGrowth of Urban Markets

The sword was never carried into the The sword was never carried into the assembly and there was no civil slaughter assembly and there was no civil slaughter until Tiberius Gracchus, tribune and law until Tiberius Gracchus, tribune and law bringer, was the first to fall a victim to bringer, was the first to fall a victim to internal commotion; and with him many internal commotion; and with him many others, who were crowded together at the others, who were crowded together at the Capitol around the temple, were also Capitol around the temple, were also slain. Sedition did not end with that slain. Sedition did not end with that abominable deed. Repeatedly the parties abominable deed. Repeatedly the parties came into open conflict…As the evil came into open conflict…As the evil gained in magnitude, open insurrections gained in magnitude, open insurrections against the government and large warlike against the government and large warlike expeditions against their country were expeditions against their country were undertaken by exiles, criminals, or undertaken by exiles, criminals, or persons vying with one another for some persons vying with one another for some office or military command.office or military command.

Appian, Appian, Civil WarsCivil Wars, 1, Introduction 2, 1, Introduction 2

Conservative Retrenchment in the Conservative Retrenchment in the Aftermath of the GracchiAftermath of the Gracchi

Occupation of Occupation of ager publicusager publicus Thorian Law of 118 BCEThorian Law of 118 BCE Agrarian Law of 111 BCEAgrarian Law of 111 BCE

Socio-Economic and Military Socio-Economic and Military Recruitment Crises ContinueRecruitment Crises Continue

PopularesPopulares and and OptimatesOptimates

External Developments: New External Developments: New Wars, New Conquests, New Wars, New Conquests, New

CrisesCrises North: (Ligurnians, Allobroges, North: (Ligurnians, Allobroges,

Arverni) and the Conquest of Arverni) and the Conquest of Gallia Narbonensis (southern Gallia Narbonensis (southern France) in the 120s France) in the 120s BCEBCE

South: Jugurtha of Numidia (war South: Jugurtha of Numidia (war with Rome, 112-106 with Rome, 112-106 BCEBCE))

C. Marius and the Germanic C. Marius and the Germanic Northmen (Cimbri and Teutones)Northmen (Cimbri and Teutones)

Marius and the NorthmenMarius and the Northmen

Cimbri and Teutones defeat Cimbri and Teutones defeat Roman armies in 105 Roman armies in 105 BCEBCE

Appointment of C. Marius to Appointment of C. Marius to consulate (consulate (novus homonovus homo): 107, ): 107, 104-100, 86 104-100, 86 BCEBCE

Marius defeats Cimbri and Marius defeats Cimbri and Teutones in 102/101 Teutones in 102/101 BCEBCE

Land Grants in Africa for Marius’ Land Grants in Africa for Marius’ discharged veterans (tribune discharged veterans (tribune Saturninus)Saturninus)

Coin of C. FundaniusCa. 100 BCECommemoratingC. Marius’ TriumphOver Cimbri andTeutones

Our generals always thought that Our generals always thought that those peoples [Gallic and Germanic those peoples [Gallic and Germanic tribesmen] should be repulsed tribesmen] should be repulsed rather than punished in war. The rather than punished in war. The famous Gaius Marius himself, whose famous Gaius Marius himself, whose divine and extraordinary ability divine and extraordinary ability relieved the great affliction and relieved the great affliction and destruction visited upon the Roman destruction visited upon the Roman people, checked the enormous force people, checked the enormous force of the Gauls flowing into Italy but of the Gauls flowing into Italy but did not himself penetrate to their did not himself penetrate to their cities and abodes.cities and abodes.Cicero, Cicero, On the Consular On the Consular

ProvincesProvinces, 13.32, 13.32

Marius and the Jugurthine Marius and the Jugurthine WarWar

Early Roman Defeats in AfricaEarly Roman Defeats in Africa Charges of Corruption and Bribery at Charges of Corruption and Bribery at

HomeHome Marius as “New Man”Marius as “New Man”

Catonian Politics against Corrupted Catonian Politics against Corrupted AristocratsAristocrats

Supported by the Equestrian OrderSupported by the Equestrian Order Appointed by Popular AssemblyAppointed by Popular Assembly Property Qualification EliminatedProperty Qualification Eliminated Volunteer Army (“Marius Mules”)Volunteer Army (“Marius Mules”)

Italian Question and the Italian Question and the Social War of 90-87 Social War of 90-87 BCEBCE

Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 BCETribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 BCE Proposes Roman citizenship to all Italians (idea Proposes Roman citizenship to all Italians (idea

had been broached in 125 BCE)had been broached in 125 BCE) Courts to be shared by equestrians and senatorsCourts to be shared by equestrians and senators Assassination of DrususAssassination of Drusus

Italian RebellionItalian Rebellion Establishment of Capital at Corfinium (Italia)Establishment of Capital at Corfinium (Italia) Italia mints separatist coinage (Italian bull gorging Italia mints separatist coinage (Italian bull gorging

Roman wolf)Roman wolf) AftermathAftermath

Romans grant citizenship in 89 BCERomans grant citizenship in 89 BCE War winds down by 87 BCE (“Pyrrhic victory” for Roman War winds down by 87 BCE (“Pyrrhic victory” for Roman

aristocracy?)aristocracy?)

Italian BullGorging RomanWolf

The East: Mithridates VI of PontosThe East: Mithridates VI of Pontos

Competition for Bithynia as Client StateCompetition for Bithynia as Client State Mithridates invades Asia Minor and Mithridates invades Asia Minor and

GreeceGreece Slaughter of 80,000 Italian businessmenSlaughter of 80,000 Italian businessmen Occupation of Athens, 88 Occupation of Athens, 88 BCEBCE

Factional Struggle in Rome for Factional Struggle in Rome for Mithridatic CommandMithridatic Command C. Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla?C. Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla?

Sulla awarded command (makes his name in the Sulla awarded command (makes his name in the Social War)Social War)

Sulpicius Rufus proposes transfer of command to Sulpicius Rufus proposes transfer of command to MariusMarius

Sulla’s march on Rome in 88 Sulla’s march on Rome in 88 BCEBCE

Revolutionary Violence in Roman Revolutionary Violence in Roman Republican Political Life:Republican Political Life:

Sulla’s March on Rome (88 BCE)Sulla’s March on Rome (88 BCE)

Sulpicius Rufus murderedSulpicius Rufus murdered Flight of MariusFlight of Marius Sulla wins Mithridatic commandSulla wins Mithridatic command Marius and Cinna retake control of Marius and Cinna retake control of

Rome in 87 (proscriptions)Rome in 87 (proscriptions) Sulla comes to agreement with Sulla comes to agreement with

Mithridates (85)Mithridates (85) Disloyal cities of Asia Minor pay heavy Disloyal cities of Asia Minor pay heavy

reparations to Sullareparations to Sulla

Sulla’s Return (83 Sulla’s Return (83 BCEBCE) and ) and Dictatorship (81-79 Dictatorship (81-79 BCEBCE))

Battle at the Colline Gate, 82 Battle at the Colline Gate, 82 BCEBCE Proscription and Confiscations (10,000 Proscription and Confiscations (10,000

murdered)murdered) Conservative Reforms (“Turning Back the Conservative Reforms (“Turning Back the

Clock”)Clock”) Restoration of Senate’s AuthorityRestoration of Senate’s Authority

Restrictions on tribunes (ineligible for Restrictions on tribunes (ineligible for higher offices)higher offices)

Control of courts returned to SenateControl of courts returned to Senate Senate doubled to 600 members (admission Senate doubled to 600 members (admission

and incorporation of wealthiest equestrians)and incorporation of wealthiest equestrians) Minimum age requirements for offices Minimum age requirements for offices

enforcedenforced

After crushing Italy by war, fire, and After crushing Italy by war, fire, and murder, Sulla’s generals visited the cities murder, Sulla’s generals visited the cities and established garrisons at the suspected and established garrisons at the suspected places….Sulla himself called the Roman places….Sulla himself called the Roman people together in an assembly and made people together in an assembly and made them a speech, vaunting his own exploits them a speech, vaunting his own exploits and making other menacing statements in and making other menacing statements in order to inspire terror….he immediately order to inspire terror….he immediately proscribed 40 senators and 1,600 knights. proscribed 40 senators and 1,600 knights. He seems to have been the first to make He seems to have been the first to make such a formal list of those whom he such a formal list of those whom he condemned to death, to offer prizes to condemned to death, to offer prizes to assassins and rewards to informers, and to assassins and rewards to informers, and to threaten those who concealed the threaten those who concealed the proscribed.proscribed.

Appian, Appian, Civil WarsCivil Wars, 1.11.95-12.103 , 1.11.95-12.103 (excerpts)(excerpts)

A Deadly FormulaA Deadly Formula

Unprecedented and Unconstitutional Unprecedented and Unconstitutional MeasuresMeasures Marius’ consecutive consulshipsMarius’ consecutive consulships Sulla’s extended dictatorshipSulla’s extended dictatorship

Use of Armies for Political Ends Use of Armies for Political Ends (Sulla’s March on Rome)(Sulla’s March on Rome)

Commanders Responsible for Land Commanders Responsible for Land Grants to VeteransGrants to Veterans

Charismatic General + Personal ArmyCharismatic General + Personal Army Death of Senatorial GovernmentDeath of Senatorial Government