Consequences of EmpireConsequences of Empire

I Social and Political Changes at I Social and Political Changes at HomeHome

II Marius and SullaII Marius and Sulla

III Civil WarsIII Civil Wars

Consequences of Roman Expansion Consequences of Roman Expansion 1. Social Changes 1. Social Changes

Dramatic Changes in Roman SocietyDramatic Changes in Roman Society Massive influx of slaves and wealth (plunder) increased gap Massive influx of slaves and wealth (plunder) increased gap

between rich and poor between rich and poor Many ordinary soldiers returned to heavily mortgaged or ruined Many ordinary soldiers returned to heavily mortgaged or ruined

farms; some were dispossessed, swallowed over by farms; some were dispossessed, swallowed over by latifundialatifundia (large plantation type farms worked by slave-labour); (large plantation type farms worked by slave-labour);

Competition for political office among elite dramatically Competition for political office among elite dramatically accellerated; conspicuous consumption becomes part of accellerated; conspicuous consumption becomes part of competition; election campaigns for become extremely competition; election campaigns for become extremely expensive; expensive;

Military success (i.e. multiple triumphs) became essential Military success (i.e. multiple triumphs) became essential component for political competition (had to outdo Scipio component for political competition (had to outdo Scipio Africanus); Africanus);

Reputation as successful general interrelated with acquisition of loot and wealth: attracted support and allowed to pay debts incurred to finance election campaigns

2. Changes in the nature of Roman 2. Changes in the nature of Roman politicspolitics

After‘Struggle of the Orders’ there were two ways of passing After‘Struggle of the Orders’ there were two ways of passing legislation: 1. the older Centuriate Assembly, 2. The Plebeian legislation: 1. the older Centuriate Assembly, 2. The Plebeian Assembly (after 287 BCE) passed plebiscites, binding on all Assembly (after 287 BCE) passed plebiscites, binding on all citizens citizens

The importance of The importance of patron-clientpatron-client relationship was undermined relationship was undermined by new legislation.by new legislation.

Development of two factions in the Roman senate 1. Development of two factions in the Roman senate 1. PopularesPopulares (those senators who used the tribunes and Plebeian (those senators who used the tribunes and Plebeian assembly to legislate). 2. assembly to legislate). 2. OptimatesOptimates (those who legislated (those who legislated through the consuls, senate and the centuriate assemblythrough the consuls, senate and the centuriate assembly

Note:Note: PopularesPopulares vs. vs. OptimatesOptimates not an ideological or party not an ideological or party division, senators often changed sides depending on what division, senators often changed sides depending on what avenue appeared more promising in advancing their interestsavenue appeared more promising in advancing their interests

Problem: the constitution itself – the Roman senate was an Problem: the constitution itself – the Roman senate was an advisory body, relying for centuries on their advisory body, relying for centuries on their auctoritas auctoritas (influence and respect); had no legislative power; – their (influence and respect); had no legislative power; – their advice: advice: senatus consultumsenatus consultum – accepted until Flaminius and the – accepted until Flaminius and the brothers Gracchibrothers Gracchi

The Main points of Social The Main points of Social discontentdiscontent

Resettlement of Land: Dispossession of farmers – Resettlement of Land: Dispossession of farmers – reduced pool of recruits;reduced pool of recruits; discontented landless discontented landless

Ager PublicusAger Publicus = Public Land: unfair distribution; = Public Land: unfair distribution; large landowners taken over large tracts and large landowners taken over large tracts and treated like their own for generationstreated like their own for generations

Settlement of veterans (land needed).Settlement of veterans (land needed). Private ambitions of the political elite.Private ambitions of the political elite. Discontent of equestrians – could not get fair Discontent of equestrians – could not get fair

legal redress – jury courts in hands of senatorslegal redress – jury courts in hands of senators Tensions between Rome and her Italian allies Tensions between Rome and her Italian allies

over: 1. over: 1. Ager publicusAger publicus. 2. lack of political (did not . 2. lack of political (did not have full citizenship).have full citizenship).

Gaius Flaminius

232 BCE 232 BCE Gaius FlaminiusGaius Flaminius –first one to pick –first one to pick up land bill and bypass the senate:up land bill and bypass the senate:

proposes a law to settle Roman landless poor proposes a law to settle Roman landless poor in Po Valley on land annexed in 283 from the in Po Valley on land annexed in 283 from the Gauls; Gauls;

opposed by senate; goes directly to Plebeian opposed by senate; goes directly to Plebeian assembly to have laws passed (plebiscite) assembly to have laws passed (plebiscite)

Consequence: set dangerous precedent; but Consequence: set dangerous precedent; but Land resettlement issue does not go awayLand resettlement issue does not go away

Tiberius Gracchus’ land bill Redistribution of public land in Italy Holdings limited to 500 jugera Against interests of oligarchy- many wealthy

would have to be removed from land which they occupied as their own, opposed by most senators

To pass his land reform, Tiberius bypassed the senate and went directly to the plebeian assembly

Forcibly removed his colleague Octavius who sided with senate and vetoed Tiberius

Tried to stand for second term Murdered by mob of angry senators on day of his

election –

Gaius Sempronius Gracchus

Tribune in 123 and 122 B.C. Renewed land bill; Promoted new colonies Reduced military hardship Promoted citizenship grant for all Italian allies Supplied urban poor with cheap corn (grain) Gave equestrians extortion courts and tax

farming rights in new province of Asia Attracted large blocks of clients cut across many Attracted large blocks of clients cut across many

social classes social classes Stood 3Stood 3rdrd time for election as tribune – senate time for election as tribune – senate

issued a SCU = issued a SCU = Senatus Consultum UltimumSenatus Consultum Ultimum = = final senatorial decree - Gaius Gracchus and final senatorial decree - Gaius Gracchus and supporters hunted down and killedsupporters hunted down and killed

The land problemThe land problemPlutarch, Plutarch, Life of T. GracchusLife of T. Gracchus 8.1-4 8.1-4

““Of the land that the Romans gained [in Italy] by conquest of their Of the land that the Romans gained [in Italy] by conquest of their neighbors, part they sold and part they added to the public domain. This neighbors, part they sold and part they added to the public domain. This latter common land they assigned to those of the citizens who were poor latter common land they assigned to those of the citizens who were poor and landless, on payment of a small rent into the public treasury. But and landless, on payment of a small rent into the public treasury. But when the wealthy began to offer larger rents and to drive the poorer when the wealthy began to offer larger rents and to drive the poorer people out, a law was enacted [367 B.C.] that no person could own more people out, a law was enacted [367 B.C.] that no person could own more than three hundred acres of public land. This act for some time checked than three hundred acres of public land. This act for some time checked the avarice of the rich and aided the poor, who retained the land they the avarice of the rich and aided the poor, who retained the land they had rented in the past. Later, however, the rich men of the neighborhood had rented in the past. Later, however, the rich men of the neighborhood managed to get these lands into their own possession by using fictitious managed to get these lands into their own possession by using fictitious names, and finally they claimed most of the public land as their own. The names, and finally they claimed most of the public land as their own. The poor who were thus deprived of their farms, no longer registered for poor who were thus deprived of their farms, no longer registered for service in war, nor did they care about the education of their children. In service in war, nor did they care about the education of their children. In a short time there were comparatively few free laborers left in Italy, a short time there were comparatively few free laborers left in Italy, which swarmed with gangs of foreign slaves. These the rich used in which swarmed with gangs of foreign slaves. These the rich used in cultivating the lands from which they had driven the free citizens. Gaius cultivating the lands from which they had driven the free citizens. Gaius Laelius, the close friend of Scipio, tried to reform this abuse; but meeting Laelius, the close friend of Scipio, tried to reform this abuse; but meeting with opposition from men of influence he soon desisted, fearing a with opposition from men of influence he soon desisted, fearing a disturbance; as a result he received the name of “the Wise” or “the disturbance; as a result he received the name of “the Wise” or “the Prudent,” both meanings belonging to the Latin word Sapiens…Tiberius, Prudent,” both meanings belonging to the Latin word Sapiens…Tiberius, however, being elected tribune of the people, embarked upon the same however, being elected tribune of the people, embarked upon the same venture without delay….” venture without delay….” (Lim & Bailkey, 2005)(Lim & Bailkey, 2005)

In Tiberius’ Own WordsIn Tiberius’ Own WordsPlutarch, Plutarch, Life of T. GracchusLife of T. Gracchus 9.4-5 9.4-5

““The wild beasts of Italy…have their own dens as The wild beasts of Italy…have their own dens as places of repose and refuge, but the men who fight places of repose and refuge, but the men who fight and die for their country enjoy nothing more in it than and die for their country enjoy nothing more in it than the air and the light; having no houses or settlements the air and the light; having no houses or settlements of their own, they must wander from place to place of their own, they must wander from place to place with their wives and children. The army commanders with their wives and children. The army commanders are guilty of a ridiculous error when they exhort the are guilty of a ridiculous error when they exhort the common soldiers to defend their sepulchers and common soldiers to defend their sepulchers and altars, for not one among so many Romans has an altars, for not one among so many Romans has an ancestral altar or tomb. They fight and die to maintain ancestral altar or tomb. They fight and die to maintain the luxury and wealth of other men. They are called the luxury and wealth of other men. They are called the masters of the world, but they have not one foot the masters of the world, but they have not one foot of ground to call their own.” (Lim & Bailkey 2005)of ground to call their own.” (Lim & Bailkey 2005)

The murder of Tiberius Gracchus

Those who were farther off, however, wondered at what was going on and asked what it meant. Whereupon Tiberius put his hand to his head, making this visible sign that his life was in danger, since the questioners could not hear his voice. But his opponents, on seeing this, ran to the senate and told that body that Tiberius was asking for a crown; and that his putting his hand to his head was a sign having that meaning. 3 All the senators, of course, were greatly disturbed, and Nasica demanded that the consul should come to the rescue of the state and put down the tyrant. The consul replied with mildness that he would resort to no violence and would put no citizen to death without a trial; if, however, the people, under persuasion or compulsion from Tiberius, should vote anything that was unlawful, he would not regard this vote as binding. Thereupon Nasica sprang to his feet and said: "Since, then, the chief magistrate betrays the state, do ye p191who wish to succour the laws follow me." 4 With these words he covered his head with the skirt of his toga and set out for the Capitol. All the senators who followed him wrapped their togas about their left arms and pushed aside those who stood in their path, no man opposing them, in view of their dignity, but all taking to flight and trampling upon one another.

Continued 1 5 Now, the attendants of the senators carried clubs and staves

which they had brought from home; but the senators themselves seized the fragments and legs of the benches that were shattered by the crowd in its flight, and went up against Tiberius, at the same time smiting those who were drawn up to protect him. Of these there was a rout and a slaughter, and as Tiberius himself turned to fly, someone laid hold of his garments. 6 So he let his toga go and fled in his tunic. But he stumbled and fell to the ground among some bodies that lay in front of him. As he strove to rise to his feet, he received his first blow, as everybody admits, from Publius Satyreius, one of his colleagues, who smote him on the head with the leg of a bench; to the second blow claim was made by Lucius Rufus, who plumed himself upon it as upon some noble deed. And of the rest more than three hundred were slain by blows from sticks and stones, but not one by the sword.

20 This is said to have been the first sedition at Rome, since the abolition of royal power, to end in bloodshed and the death of citizens; the rest though neither trifling nor raised for trifling objects, were settled by mutual concessions, the nobles yielding from fear of the multitude, and the people out of respect for the senate. And it was thought that even p193on this occasion (Plutarch, Life of Tiberius Gracchus 19-20)

The First Tribunate of C. Gracchus (123 The First Tribunate of C. Gracchus (123 BCE):BCE):

Plutarch, Plutarch, Life of C. GracchusLife of C. Gracchus 5 5

““Of the laws which he introduced to Of the laws which he introduced to win the favor of the people and undermine win the favor of the people and undermine the power of the Senatethe power of the Senate, the first concerned the public lands, which were to be , the first concerned the public lands, which were to be divided among the poor citizens; another concerned the soldiers, who were to divided among the poor citizens; another concerned the soldiers, who were to be clothed at public expense without any deduction from their pay, and no one be clothed at public expense without any deduction from their pay, and no one was to be conscripted into the army who was under seventeen years old; was to be conscripted into the army who was under seventeen years old; another gave Italians the same voting rights as the citizens of Rome; a fourth another gave Italians the same voting rights as the citizens of Rome; a fourth related to the supply of grain and the lowering of its price to the poor; and a related to the supply of grain and the lowering of its price to the poor; and a fifth regulated the courts of justice. This last law greatly reduced the power of fifth regulated the courts of justice. This last law greatly reduced the power of the senators. Hitherto they alone sat as judges and were therefore much feared the senators. Hitherto they alone sat as judges and were therefore much feared by the common people and the equestrian order. Gaius added three hundred by the common people and the equestrian order. Gaius added three hundred citizens of equestrian rank to the senators, who also numbered three hundred, citizens of equestrian rank to the senators, who also numbered three hundred, and trusted the judicial authority to the whole six hundred. In arguing for this and trusted the judicial authority to the whole six hundred. In arguing for this law he showed in many ways unusual earnestness; whereas other popular law he showed in many ways unusual earnestness; whereas other popular leaders had always turned their faces toward the Senate and the place called leaders had always turned their faces toward the Senate and the place called the comitium, he now for the first time turned the other way, toward the people, the comitium, he now for the first time turned the other way, toward the people, and continued to do so thereafter – an insignificant change of posture, yet it and continued to do so thereafter – an insignificant change of posture, yet it marked no small revolution in state affairs, in a way transforming the marked no small revolution in state affairs, in a way transforming the constitution from an oligarchy to a democracy, his action implying that speakers constitution from an oligarchy to a democracy, his action implying that speakers should address themselves to the people and not to the senate.” (Lim & Bailkey, should address themselves to the people and not to the senate.” (Lim & Bailkey, 2005)2005)

The impact of the Gracchi:The impact of the Gracchi:on Roman politics on Roman politics

With murder of the Gracchi violence had entered With murder of the Gracchi violence had entered Roman politicsRoman politics

Land issue remained unresolved will continue to Land issue remained unresolved will continue to cause problemscause problems

Political elite polarized (Political elite polarized (popularespopulares v. v. optimatesoptimates) ) gained New avenue for ambitious politicians to gain gained New avenue for ambitious politicians to gain power; tribunate now very powerful tool power; tribunate now very powerful tool

Undermining patron-client relationship by using Undermining patron-client relationship by using social discontent as political platforms; politicians social discontent as political platforms; politicians able to attract large blocks of supporters (able to attract large blocks of supporters (clientes) clientes)

Increasing tension with Italian allies: about Increasing tension with Italian allies: about 1.Mistreatment by Roman magistrates, 2.Unfulfilled 1.Mistreatment by Roman magistrates, 2.Unfulfilled promises of citizenshippromises of citizenship

External threats to Roman power (i.e. External threats to Roman power (i.e. JugurthaJugurtha in in Numidia; The Numidia; The CimbriCimbri & & TeutonesTeutones in Gaul) in Gaul)

Citizenship for the Italian AlliesCitizenship for the Italian AlliesThe Social War (91-89 BCE)The Social War (91-89 BCE)

term from Latin term from Latin socii socii = allies = allies 91 BCE: M.Livius Drusus (tribune of plebs) proposes 91 BCE: M.Livius Drusus (tribune of plebs) proposes

another law to enfranchise the Latin Allies (another law to enfranchise the Latin Allies (SociiSocii)) Legislation blocked by nobles and Drusus dies Legislation blocked by nobles and Drusus dies

under mysterious circumstancesunder mysterious circumstances Last straw for Italian allies who finally revoltLast straw for Italian allies who finally revolt Bitter fighting ends in 89 BCE with the Bitter fighting ends in 89 BCE with the

enfranchisement of all the Latins those Italians who enfranchisement of all the Latins those Italians who had not revoltedhad not revolted

By 70 BCE, all of Italy south of the river Po By 70 BCE, all of Italy south of the river Po are granted Roman citizenship – End of this are granted Roman citizenship – End of this conflictconflict

The Social War ..All Italy took up arms against the Romans. The rebellion began with the

people of Asculum, who had put to death the praetor Servilius and his deputy Fonteius;..The fortunes of the Italians was as cruel as their cause wad just, for they were seeking citizenship in the state whose power they were defending by their arms; every year and in every war they were furnishing a double number of men, both of cavalry and of infantry, and yet were not admitted to the rights of citizens in the state which through their efforts had reached so high a position that it could look down upon men of the same stock and blood as foreigners and aliens….

The war carried off more than 300,000 of the youth of Italy. On the Roman side in this war the most illustrious commanders were Gnaeus Pompeius, father of Pompey the Great, Gaius Marius, Lucius Sulla ,,Quintus Metellus.. So bitter was this Italian war, and such its vicissitudes, that in two successive years two Roman consuls, first Rutilius and ..Procius Cato were slain by the enemy, the armies of the Roman people were routed in many places…..(Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History II.15.1-17)

II Marius and Sulla

The first series of Civil Wars

Gaius MariusGaius Marius(157 – 86 BCE)(157 – 86 BCE)

http://www.vroma.org/images/raia_images/marius.jpg

Gaius MariusGaius Mariusa a novus homonovus homo

Born c. 157 BCE - a Roman citizen at Arpinum, prominent local Born c. 157 BCE - a Roman citizen at Arpinum, prominent local equestrian family; a equestrian family; a novus homonovus homo

Novus homoNovus homo = = new mannew man - first in family pursuing a public career - first in family pursuing a public career Married into patrician Julian family; Married into patrician Julian family; Served under Scipio Aemilianus at Numantia in the Spanish War Served under Scipio Aemilianus at Numantia in the Spanish War

and distinguished himself as outstanding soldierand distinguished himself as outstanding soldier 119 BCE elected tribune with support of L. Caecilius Metellus119 BCE elected tribune with support of L. Caecilius Metellus 109 BCE – went with Q. Caecilius Metellus to Numidia as second in 109 BCE – went with Q. Caecilius Metellus to Numidia as second in

command against king of Numidia, command against king of Numidia, JugurthaJugurtha – fall-out over – fall-out over Metellus’ poor handling of campaign; Metellus’ poor handling of campaign;

108 BCE – goes to Rome despite Metellus opposition to stand for 108 BCE – goes to Rome despite Metellus opposition to stand for the consulship (at age of 51) the consulship (at age of 51)

107 Elected consul with the support of: 1. Equestrian class, 2. The 107 Elected consul with the support of: 1. Equestrian class, 2. The Roman army, 3. middle and lower class Romans Roman army, 3. middle and lower class Romans

Senate reappointed Metellus as commander against Senate reappointed Metellus as commander against Jugurtha; the Plebeian assembly overruled it and sent Jugurtha; the Plebeian assembly overruled it and sent Marius insteadMarius instead

Marius’s successMarius’s success Supported by lower classes and equestrians who Supported by lower classes and equestrians who

looked to looked to novus homonovus homo to end to senatorial corruption to end to senatorial corruption and poor military leadership and poor military leadership

Supported by landless poor (Supported by landless poor (proletariiproletarii) by enrolling ) by enrolling them into the army with the promise of land at end them into the army with the promise of land at end of term. of term.

Supported by army for his skill and competence as Supported by army for his skill and competence as commander; external military threats called for an commander; external military threats called for an outstanding military man for the consulshipoutstanding military man for the consulship

His rustic simplicity appealed to ordinary soldiers His rustic simplicity appealed to ordinary soldiers Marius’ election to the consulship revealed the deep Marius’ election to the consulship revealed the deep

class divisions in Roman politicsclass divisions in Roman politics

The Career of Gaius Marius :The Career of Gaius Marius :

Held 7 consulships (107, 104, 103, 102, 101, 100, 86 BCE) Held 7 consulships (107, 104, 103, 102, 101, 100, 86 BCE) several consecutive - disregarding the several consecutive - disregarding the cursus honorumcursus honorum (career path)(career path)

107 BCE: 1.Defeats Jugurtha,107 BCE: 1.Defeats Jugurtha, 104-100 BCE: 1 .Elected consul 5 times because of fear of 104-100 BCE: 1 .Elected consul 5 times because of fear of

the the CimbriCimbri and and TeutonesTeutones, 2. Army reforms – admits , 2. Army reforms – admits proletarii into army with promise of land at end of term; proletarii into army with promise of land at end of term;

a dangerous precedent: soldiers owed Marius a dangerous precedent: soldiers owed Marius personal loyalty personal loyalty

100 BCE – supported by Tribune, L. Appuleius Saturninus, 100 BCE – supported by Tribune, L. Appuleius Saturninus, passed: 1. Law granting land to Marius’ veterams., 2. Grain passed: 1. Law granting land to Marius’ veterams., 2. Grain law (stabilizing/controlling prizes)law (stabilizing/controlling prizes)

After 100 BCE becomes more and more conservative, After 100 BCE becomes more and more conservative, supports the nobility; becomes less popular with end of supports the nobility; becomes less popular with end of military threats looses support military threats looses support

86 BCE becomes consul once again – by force86 BCE becomes consul once again – by force

Lucius Cornelius SullaLucius Cornelius Sulla

quaestor under Marius in Africa, 107-105 BCE and against the German tribes, 104-103 BCE;

In Africa arranged the capture of Jugurtha by persuading king Bocchus of Mauretania to betray his ally -

From old patrician family; successful commander in Social War 88 BCE: consul; command against King Mithridates VI of Pontus; conflict with Marius; Marius (through tribune Sulpicius Rufus)

had command against Mithridates transferred to himself; Sulla is insulted, marched on Rome (first march on Rome);

Marius and Cinna flee; Sulla goes east to fight Mithridates 87 BCE: Marius and Cinna raise an army and re-take Rome; Sulla

declared an enemy of the Roman State; 86 BCE Marius and Cinna “elected” consuls 82 BCE: Sulla retakes Rome (second march on Rome); Is made

“dictator”; takes revenge on enemies: Proscriptions follow; Introduces conservative reforms. 79 BCE – resigns dictatorship, dies soon after.

Sulla’s Proscriptions “He would take vengeance by strong measures on the praetors,

quaestors, military tribunes, and everybody else who had committed any hostile act …After saying this, he forthwith proscribed about forty senators and 1,600 equites. He seems to have been the first to make such a formal list of those whom he condemned to death, to offer prizes to assassins and rewards to inforers, and to threaten with punishment those who concealed the proscribed. Shortly afterward he added the names of other senators to the proscription. Some of these, taken unawares, were killed where they were caught, intheir homes, in the streets, or in the temples. Others were hurled through mid-air and thrown at Sulla’s fee. Others were dragged trhough the city and trampled on, none of the spectators daring to utter a word of remonstrance against these horros. Banishment was inflicted upone some, and confiscation upon others. Speis were searching everywhere for those who had fled from the city, and those whom they caught they killed. There was much massacre, banishment, and confiscation also among those Italians who had obeyed Carbo, Norbanus, Marius, or their leituenants. ..

Appian, Civil Wars 1.11.95-12

A New Breed of General and Politician:A New Breed of General and Politician:Sulla Plunders the Temples of Greece (88 Sulla Plunders the Temples of Greece (88

BCE)BCE)

““Thus in order to become the masters of those Thus in order to become the masters of those better than themselves they made themselves better than themselves they made themselves the slaves of the worst. These kinds of activities the slaves of the worst. These kinds of activities drove Marius into exile and again brought him drove Marius into exile and again brought him back against Sulla; these made Cinna the back against Sulla; these made Cinna the murderer of Octavius and Fimbria of Flaccus. And murderer of Octavius and Fimbria of Flaccus. And not least, Sulla led the way. For to corrupt and not least, Sulla led the way. For to corrupt and win over those under the command of others, he win over those under the command of others, he made lavish expenditures on his own soldiers. As made lavish expenditures on his own soldiers. As a result of making traitors of the soldiers of other a result of making traitors of the soldiers of other generals and profligates of his own soldiers, he generals and profligates of his own soldiers, he had need of a great deal of money, especially for had need of a great deal of money, especially for this siege.” ( Plutarch, this siege.” ( Plutarch, SullaSulla 12) 12)

Rome after SullaRome after Sulla Politics had become extremely violent.Politics had become extremely violent. Proscriptions new practice in civil wars Proscriptions new practice in civil wars

to get rid of enemies and to replenish to get rid of enemies and to replenish depleted coffers of state and politiciansdepleted coffers of state and politicians

The “bribing” of the people The “bribing” of the people increasingly common as part of gaining increasingly common as part of gaining support: expensive games put on support: expensive games put on (Bread and Circuses); political (Bread and Circuses); political campaigns had become very expensivecampaigns had become very expensive

The Role of the Army after Marius and Sulla

Armies had become personal tools of ambitious politicians by enrolling the landless, provided them with land at end of term and tied them to themselves as clients who owed their patron gratia

Armies used to intimidate political opponents