The First Great Warlords

C. Marius and L. Cornelius SullaC. Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla

The Paradox of Roman Imperial SuccessSocial and Economic Turbulence in Roman Society

Increased Social and Economic Differentiation Increased Social and Economic Differentiation (insufficient “trickle-down” effect)(insufficient “trickle-down” effect)

State-Subsidized Grain for the Populace of Rome State-Subsidized Grain for the Populace of Rome (seen as a radical, demagogic maneuver on the part (seen as a radical, demagogic maneuver on the part of individual Roman statesmen in the historiography of individual Roman statesmen in the historiography of the earlier Republic)of the earlier Republic)

New Magnificence in Public Buildings, Games, and New Magnificence in Public Buildings, Games, and TriumphsTriumphs

Electoral Bribery (Electoral Bribery (ambitusambitus) and Legislation Against ) and Legislation Against ItIt

Sumptuary LegislationSumptuary Legislation

Keith Hopkins’ AnalysisConquerors and Slaves Continuous WarfareContinuous Warfare Influx of BootyInflux of Booty Investment in LandInvestment in Land Formation of Large EstatesFormation of Large Estates Impoverishment of PeasantryImpoverishment of Peasantry Emigration to Towns and ProvincesEmigration to Towns and Provinces Growth of Urban MarketsGrowth of Urban Markets

The Problem

AssiduiAssidui and Property Qualification and Property Qualification for Eligibility for Military Servicefor Eligibility for Military Service

The Gracchan Challenge Tiberius Sempronius GracchusTiberius Sempronius Gracchus Gaius Sempronius GracchusGaius Sempronius Gracchus Aristocratic BackgroundAristocratic Background

Father T. Sempronius Gracchus, consul and Father T. Sempronius Gracchus, consul and patron of Spainpatron of Spain

Mother Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Mother Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus, conqueror of HannibalAfricanus, conqueror of Hannibal

Revive the Original Function of the Tribunate Revive the Original Function of the Tribunate as the Defender of Plebeian Interestsas the Defender of Plebeian Interests

Creators of the Creators of the PopularisPopularis Tradition for the Late Tradition for the Late RepublicRepublic

The Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus (133/132 BCE)

Limitations to Holdings of Public Land (Limitations to Holdings of Public Land (ager publicusager publicus) ) Land Redistribution: Reestablish the Free Peasantry to Land Redistribution: Reestablish the Free Peasantry to

Small FarmsteadsSmall Farmsteads Gracchan Commission for Assigning Land (Gracchan Commission for Assigning Land (triumviri agris triumviri agris

iudicandis adsignandisiudicandis adsignandis)) Tribunician Obstacles (M. Octavius) and Senatorial Tribunician Obstacles (M. Octavius) and Senatorial

ObstructionObstruction Attalus III of Pergamum’s Legacy (133)Attalus III of Pergamum’s Legacy (133) Tiberius’ Direct Appeal to the Popular AssemblyTiberius’ Direct Appeal to the Popular Assembly Re-election Bid; Riots and LynchingsRe-election Bid; Riots and Lynchings Tiberius and 300 Gracchan Supporters found floating in the Tiberius and 300 Gracchan Supporters found floating in the

Tiber RiverTiber River

Gaius Gracchus’ Tribunate(123/122, 122/121 BCE)

Continues Tiberius’ Land Redistribution Continues Tiberius’ Land Redistribution Program (Program (ager publicusager publicus))

Overseas Colonization; Junonia (Carthage)Overseas Colonization; Junonia (Carthage) Regular, State-Subsidized Grain for Capital Regular, State-Subsidized Grain for Capital

((lex Sempronia frumentarialex Sempronia frumentaria)) Reform of Extortion Court (Reform of Extortion Court (quaestio de quaestio de

repetundisrepetundis): ): equitesequites and and publicanipublicani Knights granted rights to exploit the Knights granted rights to exploit the

province of Asiaprovince of Asia ((lex de Asialex de Asia)) Reserved seats for knights next to senators in Reserved seats for knights next to senators in

theatertheater

Senatorial Reaction

Gaius Gracchus failed reelection bid for Gaius Gracchus failed reelection bid for 121 121 BCEBCE

The Italian QuestionThe Italian Question Unrest and RiotingUnrest and Rioting Emergency Decree of the Senate (Emergency Decree of the Senate (senatus senatus

consultum ultimumconsultum ultimum)) Murder of Gaius and 3,000 SupportersMurder of Gaius and 3,000 Supporters

Conservative Retrenchment in the Aftermath of the Gracchi Occupation of Occupation of ager publicusager publicus

Thorian Law of 118 BCEThorian Law of 118 BCE Agrarian Law of 111 BCEAgrarian Law of 111 BCE

Socio-Economic and Military Socio-Economic and Military Recruitment Crises ContinueRecruitment Crises Continue

PopularesPopulares and and OptimatesOptimates

All land, ground, or buildings above mentioned, excluding such land or ground specially excepted as stated, shall be private land, and for all such land, ground, or buildings there shall be the same right of purchase and sale as for other private lands, grounds, or

buildings; and the incumbent censor shall see that such land, ground, or building made private by this law shall be entered in

the census in the same way as other land, grounds, or buildings… Abrogation of the Gracchan Land Laws, 111 BCE Abrogation of the Gracchan Land Laws, 111 BCE

Corpus Inscriptionum LatinarumCorpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, vol. 1, 2, vol. 1, 2ndnd ed., no. 585 ed., no. 585

The sword was never carried into the assembly and there was no civil slaughter until Tiberius Gracchus, tribune and law bringer, was the first to fall a victim to internal commotion; and with him many others, who were crowded together at the Capitol around the temple, were also slain. Sedition did not end with that abominable deed. Repeatedly the parties came into open conflict…As the evil gained in magnitude, open insurrections against the government and large warlike expeditions against their country were undertaken by exiles, criminals, or persons vying with one another for some office or military command.

Appian, Civil Wars, 1, Introduction 2

External Developments: New Wars, New Conquests, New Crises

North: (Ligurnians, Allobroges, Arverni) North: (Ligurnians, Allobroges, Arverni) and the Conquest of Gallia Narbonensis and the Conquest of Gallia Narbonensis (southern France) in the 120s BCE(southern France) in the 120s BCE

South: Jugurtha of Numidia (war with South: Jugurtha of Numidia (war with Rome, 112-106 BCE)Rome, 112-106 BCE)

C. Marius and the Germanic Northmen C. Marius and the Germanic Northmen (Cimbri and Teutones)(Cimbri and Teutones)

Marius and the Northmen

Cimbri and Teutones defeat Roman Cimbri and Teutones defeat Roman armies in 105 BCEarmies in 105 BCE

Appointment of C. Marius to consulate Appointment of C. Marius to consulate ((novus homonovus homo): 107, 104-100, 86 BCE): 107, 104-100, 86 BCE

Marius defeats Cimbri and Teutones in Marius defeats Cimbri and Teutones in 102/101 BCE102/101 BCE

Land Grants in Africa for Marius’ Land Grants in Africa for Marius’ discharged veterans (tribune Saturninus)discharged veterans (tribune Saturninus)

Coin of C. FundaniusCa. 100 BCECommemoratingC. Marius’ TriumphOver Cimbri andTeutones

Our generals always thought that those peoples [Gallic and Germanic tribesmen] should be repulsed rather than punished in

war. The famous Gaius Marius himself, whose divine and extraordinary ability relieved the great affliction and destruction

visited upon the Roman people, checked the enormous force of the Gauls flowing into Italy but did not himself penetrate to their cities

and abodes.

Cicero, Cicero, On the Consular ProvincesOn the Consular Provinces, 13.32, 13.32

Marius and the Jugurthine War

Early Roman Defeats in AfricaEarly Roman Defeats in Africa Charges of Corruption and Bribery at HomeCharges of Corruption and Bribery at Home Marius as “New Man”Marius as “New Man”

Catonian Politics against Corrupted Catonian Politics against Corrupted AristocratsAristocrats

Supported by the Equestrian OrderSupported by the Equestrian Order Appointed by Popular AssemblyAppointed by Popular Assembly Property Qualification EliminatedProperty Qualification Eliminated Volunteer Army (“Marius Mules”)Volunteer Army (“Marius Mules”)

The Italian Question and the Social War of 90-87 BCE

Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 BCETribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 BCE Proposes Roman citizenship to all Italians (idea had Proposes Roman citizenship to all Italians (idea had

been broached in 125 BCE)been broached in 125 BCE) Courts to be shared by equestrians and senatorsCourts to be shared by equestrians and senators Assassination of DrususAssassination of Drusus

Italian RebellionItalian Rebellion Establishment of Capital at Corfinium (Italia)Establishment of Capital at Corfinium (Italia) Italia mints separatist coinage (Italian bull gorging Italia mints separatist coinage (Italian bull gorging

Roman wolf)Roman wolf) AftermathAftermath

Romans grant citizenship in 89 BCERomans grant citizenship in 89 BCE War winds down by 87 BCE (“Pyrrhic victory” for War winds down by 87 BCE (“Pyrrhic victory” for

Roman aristocracy?)Roman aristocracy?)

Italian BullGorging RomanWolf

The East: Mithridates VI of Pontos

Competition for Bithynia as Client StateCompetition for Bithynia as Client State Mithridates invades Asia Minor and GreeceMithridates invades Asia Minor and Greece

Slaughter of 80,000 Italian businessmenSlaughter of 80,000 Italian businessmen Occupation of Athens, 88 BCEOccupation of Athens, 88 BCE

Factional Struggle in Rome for Mithridatic Factional Struggle in Rome for Mithridatic CommandCommand C. Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla?C. Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla?

Sulla awarded command (makes his name Sulla awarded command (makes his name in the Social War)in the Social War)

Sulpicius Rufus proposes transfer of Sulpicius Rufus proposes transfer of command to Mariuscommand to Marius

Sulla’s march on Rome in 88 BCESulla’s march on Rome in 88 BCE

Green = Roman Empire ca.100 BCE

Yellow/Orange Verticals =Areas under Mithridates’Influence

Yellow = Kingdom of PontosUnder Mithridates VI

Revolutionary Violence in Roman Republican Political Life:Sulla’s March on Rome (88 BCE)

Sulpicius Rufus murderedSulpicius Rufus murdered Flight of MariusFlight of Marius Sulla wins Mithridatic commandSulla wins Mithridatic command Marius and Cinna retake control of Rome in 87 Marius and Cinna retake control of Rome in 87

(proscriptions)(proscriptions) Sulla comes to agreement with Mithridates (85)Sulla comes to agreement with Mithridates (85) Disloyal cities of Asia Minor pay heavy Disloyal cities of Asia Minor pay heavy

reparations to Sullareparations to Sulla

Sulla’s Return (83 BCE) and Dictatorship (81-79 BCE)

Battle at the Colline Gate, 82 BCEBattle at the Colline Gate, 82 BCE Proscription and Confiscations (10,000 murdered)Proscription and Confiscations (10,000 murdered) The Dictatorship of L. Cornelius Sulla (82-79 BCE)The Dictatorship of L. Cornelius Sulla (82-79 BCE) Conservative Reforms (“Turning Back the Clock”)Conservative Reforms (“Turning Back the Clock”)

Restoration of Senate’s AuthorityRestoration of Senate’s Authority Restrictions on tribunes (ineligible for higher Restrictions on tribunes (ineligible for higher

offices)offices) Control of courts returned to SenateControl of courts returned to Senate Senate doubled to 600 members (admission and Senate doubled to 600 members (admission and

incorporation of wealthiest equestrians)incorporation of wealthiest equestrians) Minimum age requirements for offices enforcedMinimum age requirements for offices enforced

After crushing Italy by war, fire, and murder, Sulla’s generals visited the cities and established garrisons at the suspected places….Sulla himself called the Roman people together in an assembly and made them a speech, vaunting his own exploits and making other menacing statements in order to inspire terror….he immediately proscribed 40 senators and 1,600 knights. He seems to have been the first to make such a formal list of those whom he condemned to death, to offer prizes to assassins and rewards to informers, and to threaten those who concealed the proscribed.

Appian, Civil Wars, 1.11.95-12.103 (excerpts)

A Deadly Formula

Unprecedented and Unconstitutional MeasuresUnprecedented and Unconstitutional Measures Marius’ consecutive consulshipsMarius’ consecutive consulships Sulla’s extended dictatorshipSulla’s extended dictatorship

Use of Armies for Political Ends (Sulla’s March Use of Armies for Political Ends (Sulla’s March on Rome)on Rome)

Commanders Responsible for Land Grants to Commanders Responsible for Land Grants to VeteransVeterans

Charismatic General + Personal ArmyCharismatic General + Personal Army Death of Senatorial GovernmentDeath of Senatorial Government

Readings for Next Meeting

H.H. Scullard, H.H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to NeroFrom the Gracchi to Nero, , 88-15888-158

M. Gelzer, M. Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Caesar: Politician and StatesmanStatesman, 272-333, 272-333

J. Patterson, “Military Organization and J. Patterson, “Military Organization and Social Change,” in Social Change,” in War and Society in War and Society in Republican RomeRepublican Rome, 92-112, 92-112

Questions for Reading

What factors led to the breakdown of Republican What factors led to the breakdown of Republican government in the first decades of the first century government in the first decades of the first century BCE?BCE?

How did Caesar exploit the social and economic How did Caesar exploit the social and economic consequences of empire differently than the consequences of empire differently than the warlords who preceded him?warlords who preceded him?

How did the social and economic consequences of How did the social and economic consequences of empire affect Roman military organization in the empire affect Roman military organization in the late Republic?late Republic?