THEORY OF ERRORS IN THE MEASUREMENT

1. Measurement and UncertaintyTo know and understand the world around us, it takes a relationship between physical quantities with other physical quantities. For example, to measure the velocity (v) on a uniform rectilinear motion is needed to measure the distance (s) and time (t).

To be clear, the measurement results should be expressed quantitatively, not qualitatively or simply by illustration. Quantitative results are needed for comparison with other results.Wrong : Should :

Hasan has is very highHasan has a height of 2.1 m

A breeze dampedWind speed of 10 m / sec

The measurement accuracy is very important in physics to obtain reliable results. However, there is no precise measurement absolute, there is always uncertainty in each measurement.Therefore, we must include error numbers so that we can provide a reasonable assessment of the results of experimental physical quantities, e.g., x can be expressed:

With a value instead of the correct value, an error in the measurement caused the limitations of the tool, Negligence, the time difference measurements, etc. To include or limit fault tolerance to a value that we think is right, we can account for the results of the experiments conducted.2. Sources and Type of ErrorsOther sources of experimental errors can come from:a. Instrumental, such as calibration tools are not perfect.b. Observations, such as parallax error reading.c. Environmental, such as mains voltage is unstable.d. Theory, the model here is very simple, such as neglect friction.e. In the measurement, the error is divided into two kinds: f. Systematic errorg. Random errorRandom Error, is a consistent error occurred on the measurement that basically can be identified and eliminated. This error can be avoided by good calibration, observation avoids parallax, looping an electrical breakdown occurs.Random Error, not always be identified, such as: error after reaching the smallest scale division, temperature fluctuations and mechanical vibration. This error can be quantified statistically.Scheme of random error and systematic error can be illustrated below:Only random error True valueRandom and systematicTrue value

3. Writing Errors on Measurement ResultsHow to estimate and state error, depending on how the measurement is done, that is repeated measurements and a single measurement (cannot be repeated).If possible, in an experiment should be made through repeated measurements, but sometimes a single measurement cannot be avoided, namely:a. Events that cannot be repeated, e.g. comets velocity measurements, long total solar eclipse, and others.b. The measurement was repeated but the result remains the same, this is usually caused by a low level of precision instrument used to measure a smaller scale, e.g. with a ruler to measure the thick fur.In such case, the measurement results are reported as below:

With the result of a single measurement and is times the smallest measurement scale of the measuring instrument. Examples. Repeated measurements produce a sample population , that is ..., n. To state the best value instead of the true value of x from the measurements above, use the average value of the sample that is:

While for stated deviation measurement results () can be used the standard deviation of the average value of sample:

The measurement results can be written as below:

(Sometimes there are some experimental textbooks that take over errors such, with u is error applying / smallest scale of the measuring instrument).Measurement error is often expressed in:a. Relative error : (can also be written in percent)b. Absolute error : c. Error (relative) of the literature : Writing results should use the correct number of significant figures, decimal places of the error should not be more than the numbers after the decimal point from the average, if found very large numbers or very small exponent form should be used and the unit should always be written.Table I. How Writing Significant FiguresExample of writing wrongExample of writing true

k = (200,1 0,215)0K/Second k = (200,1 0,2)0K/Second

d = (0,000002 0.00000035) mmd = (20 4) x 10-7 mm

= 22/7 = 3,1415

F = (2700000 30000) NF = (270 3 ) x 104 N

4. Error PropagationMany physical quantities are a function of other physical quantities. For example physical quantities , a function of and . To find , then the scale and should be measured first. Furthermore, the uncertainty of can also be determined by first outlining the function be a differential or a Taylor series around and . Examples:1.

2.

3.

Uncertainty can also be calculated by the equation:

Sometimes found a quantity determined by several measurements , which have different degrees of accuracy . The average value of these quantities can be calculated using weighted average:

With weighting factor:

The uncertainty of the weighted average is:

5. Creation of graphs and Linear RegressionThe results of experiment when it was made in the form of numbers alone will drab, therefore the numbers are visualized in a graph or curve of the desired variables. Making graphs whose objective look at the relationship between variables, calculate the constants / coefficients of the formula, and prove the truth of a formula.For the purposes of the first, can be done by way, making all data points are available, then we connect these dots (example with a ruler) to obtain the curve pattern. While the purpose of the second and third remedy, we keep the linear curve . For example, suppose we want to find the relationship between the pressure (P) and volume (V) of a gas at constant temperature. We know Boyle's Law; PV = constant, then to get a straight line, we draw the graph P vs 1 / V and not the P vs V.Then to get the coefficients / constants from the experiment, we use the last square method (least squares) to get a linear regression. The decline over the formula can be seen in statistics books, here only the final results will be disclosed only.Suppose we have some data , ..... n (number of data n) associated linearly with data , .... n which can be expressed as below:

Best prices a and b can be found by the least squares method:

With error

With error Here:

Strength of the relationship between x and y can be calculated from the correlation coefficient (fuller discussion can be seen in the statistics books):

Or can be written as below:

To facilitate the search for the prices of A and B should be made a table with columns

EXPERIMENT ISPRING VIBRATION

A. Standards CompetenceApplying the concept and principle of waves symptoms and optics in solving the problem.B. Basic CompetenceDo a scientific studies to recognize the symptoms and characteristics of wave in general and its application.C. Indicator1. Students can explain the factors that affect the spring period.2. Students can determine the period and constant of spring.D. Experiment Goals1. Determine the springs constant.2. Find out the relation between springs periods to the mass of burden.E. Tools and MaterialsNoTools / MaterialsAmount

1Stopwatch 1 pc

1Base of statif1 pc

2Feet of statif1 pc

3Short statif bar1 pc

4Long statif bar1 pc

5Spiral Spring1 pc

6Burden/Load 100 gram6 pcs

F. Basic TheoryRepetitive motion in the same time interval called Periodic Motion. This periodic motion can always be expressed in sine and cosine functions, therefore periodic motion called Harmonic Motion. If this periodic motion moves back and forth through the same path called Vibration or Oscillation. The time needed to take the path back and forth called the Period, while the number of vibrations per unit time is called Frequency.:T = f =(1.1)The Relation between period (T) and frequency (f) according to the following statements is:T =(1.2)The unit of frequency in SI is cycle per second or Hertz (Hz). Position when the resultant force acts on the vibrating particles equal to zero is called a balanced position. Consider an object of mass (m) is hung on the end of the spring, the spring length increases. In equilibrium position, weight (w) is equal to the spring force (F), the resultant force is zero, the load stuck. y0 max 0max 0 maxa KE PEmax 0 maxequilibriumF = -k. y

Figure 1.1 Spring MotionFrom its equilibrium, the load is given deviation (y), the work load force (F), this force tends to drive the load up. Spring force is the driving force, whereas the spring force is proportional to the deviation of the spring. F = -k y; k = constant of spring(1.3)Easy to understand that the smaller the deviation the smaller the driving force anyway. Movement motive force is proportional to the deviation called Harmonic Motion (harmonic).Negative sign (-) must be used because the direction of F and y is always opposite.According to Newton's Second Law, in motion of object is:F = m.a(1.4)Restoring force on the object motion is: F = -k . y

This equation is called simple harmonic motion differential equations.To find the simple harmonic motion with finding the solution of simple harmonic differential equation is a function (y) is derivate tow times to (t) so that obtained negative value of its function and times to the. The function with that characteristic is named sine and cosine function. Let sine function as: y = where A, , and still have to look for the value.If the equation is derivate two times to (t), so we get:

If the equation is substituted to the simple harmonic differential equation, we get:

So, to make the sine function is really a simple harmonic differential equation, we get:

If time (t) in equation of y = A sin () is added with so we get:

So the function is repeated again after a time interval . So that, is its motion period, or T = Because so we get:

(1.5)G. Experimental Procedure1. Arrange the instruments and materials as figure below.

Figure 1.2 Experiment Construction1. Hang the load of mass 500 gram of the spring1. Pull down the loads 2 cm and practicing take the stopwatch in hand.1. Release the load and wait till the spring have harmonic motion, after the spring have harmonic motion switch on the stopwatch.1. Count up to 10 oscillation and exactly in that 10th oscillation, switch off the stopwatch. Note the experiments result in the table.1. Count the time for 1oscillation (period, T) and complete the table.1. Repeat step 3 up to 6 with changing its deviation to 3 cm.1. Repeat step 2 up to 7 for the load 600 gram.Table 1.1 Experiments Result of Period of Spring MotionNoMassa of Load(gr)Deviation (cm)Time to 10 Oscillation (s)Period (T)(s)Springs Constant (gr/)

t1t2t3

15002

26002

35003

46003

H. Task After Experiment1. Explain the factors that affect the oscillation period!1. Write the application of using the spring in daily activity! 1. Make the graph of relation between period and mass of load!1. Make Graph relations and mass load periods

EXPERIMENT IISHADOWS FORMATION OF FLAT MIRROR

A. Standards CompetenceBeing able to analyze and apply the concepts of optical geometry in daily lifeB. Basic CompetenceBeing able to understand the concept of the shadow formation and reflection in a mirror flat by experimentC. Indicators1. Students can determine the systematic relationship between the angle flat mirrors with the number of images forming2. Students can draw the rays form the image on the diagram of flat mirror at an angle3. Students can prove sound Snells Law of reflectionD. Experiment Goals 1. Counting the number of shadows that occur on two flat mirrors based on experiments for several different angles2. Drawing the formation of a shadow that occurs on two flat mirrors for several different angles3. Proving the sound of Snells LawE. Tools and MaterialsNoTools / MaterialsAmount

1Flat Mirror2 pcs

2Pointer Laser1 pcs

3Degree Bow1 pcs

4Soft Board1 pcs

5Needle1 pcs

6White paper1 pcs

F. Basic TheoryThe light is usually seen as a group of light rays or we called beams of light.There are three types of light beam that is parallel, divergence and convergence. The mirror is smooth surface, flat and shiny that reflects all the light that comes to it. There are two types of light reflectance namely diffuse reflectance and regular reflectance.Snell's Law of reflection that:1. Incident rays, reflected rays and the normal lines intersect at one point and put in one plane2.

Angle of incident rays () always same with Angle of reflection rays ()From real objects that stand at the flat mirror will form a virtual image and the shadows stand upfront flat mirror will form a virtual image. The number of images will depend on the amount of mirror images that appear by another mirror. Images number of two plane mirrors at an angle can be determined by the following equation:

n = (2.1)Where:n = the image produced

= enclose angle of flat mirrorG. Experimental ProcedureShadows Formation of Flat Mirror1. Set two flat mirror at an angle on a flat, flat as soft board (between the mirrors give the hinge)2. Measure angle between two mirror () start from 450,600, 900, 1200 and 1800. 3. Put a needle in an arbitrary point soft board between the two mirrors form an angle4. Observe and count the number of shadows that appear in both the mirror angle

1st MirrorNeedle

2nd MirrorFigure 2.1 Shadows formation of two flat mirrors5. Repeat this experiment for several different angle6. Complete experiment data in the table observation below :

Table 2.1 Observation of Shadows FormationNo

N

360/

360/-1

1450

2600

3900

41200

51800

7. Compare the number of shadows that occur on the theory and experiment8. Describe the formation of a shadow that occurs in two plane mirrors with an angle that has been done9. Conclude the concepts derived from observation table

Reflection of Flat Mirror1. Put a mirror in an upright on white paper set with protractor2. Turn on the light source and make rays at the mirror with angle formation toward normal line3. Observe the reflected rays that comes out of the mirror and measuring the reflection angle 4. Draw the incident rays, the reflected rays and the normal line on the even of reflection5. Repeat this experiment for several different angle

Mirror

i r

White PaperFigure 2.2 Reflected rays of flat mirror6. Complete experiment data in the table observation below :

Table 2.2 Observation of ReflectionNoIncident Rays ()Reflection Rays ()

1

2

3

4

5

7. Conclude the concepts derived from observation tableH. Task After Experiment1. Calculate the amount of shadow that occurs in two flat mirrors based on experiments for several different angles?2. Draw the formation of a shadow that occurs on two flat mirrors for several different angles?3. Compare the number of shadows that occur in theory and experiment?4. Measure angles rebound occurs by experiment and discuss whether the magnitude of the angle of incidence is always equal to the angle reflection?5. Discuss whether the light comes, is the reflected rays and the normal located in a plane?6. Draw the rays come, light reflection and reflection on the events of the normal line to several different angle?

EXPERIMENT IIIDIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

A. Standards CompetenceBeing able to observe the phenomenon of interference of monochromatic light from two slits.B. Basic CompetenceFinalizes the experiment to determine the distance of two narrow slits with a laser beam.C. Indicators1. Students can observe the phenomenon of diffraction of light from the two slits2. Students can determine the distance between two narrow slit diffraction patternD. Experiment Goals1. Can observe events in the double slit diffraction.2. Can determine the distance between two narrow slits by measuring the diffraction patternE. Tools and MaterialsNoTools / MaterialsAmount

1He-Ne Laser beam1 pcs

2Two narrow slits 1 Set

3Ruler 1 pcs

4Small wire diameter size range3 pcs

5Millimeters paper3 pcs

F. Basic TheoryIf the plane Ade front arriving at a narrow slit (width smaller than the wavelength), then the wave will experience bending waves resulting in a semi-circle behind the widening of the gap. This event is known as diffraction.Diffraction is the bending of light as a barrier kitar / a Koo phole. The resulting diffraction pattern is equal to conditional on the double slit diffraction pattern (interference Young).A large number of parallel slits within the same so-called diffraction grating. Lattice can be made with a precision machined parallel lines are very delicate and meticulous over the glass plate. Distance not etched in between the lines function as a diffraction. Containing cracks called transmission grating.Diffraction grating consisting of a row of narrow slits that are close together in large quantities. If a beam of light is passed diffraction grating will be diffracted and can produce a diffraction pattern on the screen. The distance between successive gaps (d) called the lattice constant. If the number of cracks or scratches per unit length (cm) is expressed by N, then:d = 1 / N (3.1)A beam is perpendicular grating and a converging lens is used to collect the rays to the desired point P on the screen. The observed intensity distribution on the screen is a combination of interference and diffraction effects. Each slit produces diffraction, as described previously, and the diffracted rays that interfere on the screen before the final pattern that produces.Interference pattern described in an arbitrary direction , before reaching the point were observed. Each light comes from different slits. For two different slits, different trajectories that occurs is d sin . Thus the general requirements of the interference pattern is:d sin = no ( n = 1,2,3 , .. )(3.2)These requirements may be expressed to determine the wavelength by measuring the lattice constant if d is known with integers, n -order diffraction states. If waves coming on the lattice consisting of multiple wavelengths of each will deviate or will establish the maximum in different directions. Except for n = 0 which occurs in the direction = 0. Maximum center (n = 0), while the maximum length range includes the 1st, 2nd and so satisfy ( m +1) * / 2 according to each wavelength.A gap is subjected to light from the front will project light shade that form with the gap behind him. But in addition, also formed bright images other than the gap on either side of original shadow, and its getting to the edge, he explained slump. So as if the rays of light that escapes the gap there are bent or diffracted towards sideways. Symptoms diffraction interference is thus nothing but the rays of light from the electromagnetic wave each piece wave field as a source of light waves.G. Experimental Procedure1. Measure the diameter (d) wire using a micrometer.2. Put a narrow slit in a holder / holders gap.3. Set the distance between narrow slits and laser beam is 60 cm. 4. Attach the wire to the mounting gap so that the experiments can be easily performed.5. Shine a laser beam right into the gap.6. Observe the pattern formed on the screen / wall.7. Mark the center point and all the light pattern using a pencil8. Turn off the source of the laser beam , and then measure the dimensions L and y9. Perform wire to wire with different diameters

Figure 3.2 the series of experimentsTable 3.1 ObservationNo.d (theory)L (m)y1(m)y2 (m)y3 (m)

1

2

3

H. Task After Experiment1. Determine the distance between the slit and its measurement error!2. Compare the difference in distance between the gap by using y1, y2 and y3!3. Compare the results with millimeter measurements d and d with this method!

EXPERIMENT IVFORMATION OF SHADOWS BY LENS

1. Standards CompetenceUnderstand the concept and application of optics in everyday technology products.1. Basic CompetenceInvestigate the properties of light and the relationship with different lens shapes.1. Indicators1. Students can design and conduct experiments to demonstrate the properties of light.1. Students can experiment to determine the position of the shadow of a shadow on the properties of concave lens and convex lens.1. Experiments Goals0. Investigate the nature of the image formed by a convex lens and a concave lens0. See the relationship between the object distances, the distance a shadow, with a negative focus length lens and a positive lens.1. Tools and Materials:NoTools / MaterialsAmount

1Concave lens1 Piece

2Convex lenses1 Piece

3Lens holder2 Piece

4Screen1 Piece

5Ruler1 Piece

6Source of light (candle)1 Piece

1. Basic Theory5. LensThe lens is a transparent object, and has at least one curved surface. There are two types of lenses are convex lenses and concave lenses.9. Convex lenses (positive lens / convex lens), this lens has a thicker middle section from on its edges, so that the rays - rays are usually accumulate. This lens is also called a converging lens.

Figure 4.1 The three form a convex lens or a convex lens9. Concave lens (negative lens / concave lens), this lens has a center part is thinner than the edges, so that the rays - rays are usually radiate. This lens is also called a diverging lens.

Figure 4.2 The three form a concave lens or concave lensBeam into the lens can be made from both directions, so that the lens has two focus points (denoted F1 and F2). The focus point is called the focus point F1 is active, because the major axis parallel rays refracted through or as if - as if from that point. While the focus point F2 is called passive.Ray - a special light on the convex lens0. Rays come parallel to the main axis is refracted towards the focus point

0. Rays coming through the center of the lens (0) did not undergo refraction

0. Rays come through the focus point will be refracted parallel to the main axis

Ray - a special light on the concave lens1. Rays come parallel to the main axis is refracted as if coming from the focus point F1

1. Rays coming through the center of the lens (0) did not undergo refraction

1. Beam that seems to come into focus point, refracted parallel to the main axis.

If thick lenses have only a surface, which has a finger - the finger of curvature R1 and R2, for a thin lens thickness of the lens is considered zero, or not taken into account.I= first surfaceII= second surfaceR1 and R2 finger - the finger curvature of each - one surface(4.1)Where:n =refractive index of objects and shadows, or the refractive index around the lens is located. For air, n = 1n=refractive index of the lensfor n = 1 (air) then equation (4.1) becomes:(4.2)And when the object is no infinite far s = ~, then the shadow of the object will be at a point focus lens or s = f, then equation (4.2) can be: s = ~ s = f

(4.3)f: = focus length lensProvisions:1. For convex-convex lens (biconvex), R1 and R2 positive negative1. For a concave lens - concave (biconcave), R1 and R2 positive negative1. R can be mentioned in front of the lens is worth negative and positive value R behind the lens

5. Lens Power(P)The power of the lens, or often called the power of the lens is the reciprocal of the lens focus length.(4.4)By:f: focus distance of the lens in the airP: power of the lens in the airIf f has units of meters then P has units of diopters(4.5)Or if f united cm, then the equation can be written into:(4.6)1. Experimental ProcedureEstablishment of Shadows by Convex Lens1. Notes prices lens- focal distance.1. Compose the tool according to the screenshot below. Put the lens is convex (3) at a distance of 15 cm from the wax objects (2) practical work on the table (1). The distance between objects to this lens is the scb.

Figure 4.3 Experiment shadow formation by convex lens1. Slide screen to form the image that most clearly on display (4). Measure the distance between the convex lens to the screen (s).1. Measure the height of candle flame (hcb) and height of shadows (h'cb).1. Repeat step 2 until 4 with scb = 25 cm.1. Compare the nature and results of the formation of the shadows that occur when practical with the theoretical.1. Fill in the data table on the experiment results.Table 4.1 Observations convex lensNoscb (cm)s'cb (cm)hcb (cm)h'cb (cm)scb + s'cb (cm)scb. s'cb (cm2)(scb. s'cb) / (s+s) (cm)s'cb / scbh'cb / hcbNature of shadows

115

225

Establishment of Shadows by Concave Lens1. Note the price of the lens focus positive and negative lens1. Compose tool fit the image below. Place the concave lens (3) at a distance of 5 cm from the candle (2) and a concave lens (4) 35 cm from the candles on the table practical (1).

Figure 4.4 Experiment shadow formation by a concave lens1. Put screen (5) behind the lens convex, sliding screen so formed shadow the most obvious on the screen. Measure the distance between concave lenses with sails (s'cb).1. Measuring instrument high flame of a candle (hck) and high its shadow formed in the back a convex lens (h'cb).1. Repeat step 2 s / d 4 with sck = 10 cm.1. Compare the nature and results of the shadow formation that occurs during practice with theory1. Fill data from experiments on the tableTable 4.2 Observations concave lensNosck (cm)s'cb (cm)scb (cm)s'ck (cm)hck (cm)h'cb (cm)hcb (cm)h'ck (cm)Nature of shadows

1.....

2.....

Establishment of rays - a special light on the convex lens1. Place the paper on a table-millimeter lens and a convex lens on paper millimeters. 1. Describe the lenses on Paper. Then form a line perpendicular to the central focus of the lens.1. Shape up three lines of the rays coming towards the midline, convex lens on paper work.Figure 4.5 Experiment refraction of light on a convex lens1. Observe the refraction and reflection of light on the lens.1. Experiment 1 s / d 2 with different beam directions, thus forming a central point on Paper1. Draw the shape of the beam is formed from refraction lens and measuring the distance from the lens to the point of refraction of light.

Establishment of rays - a special light on the concave lens6. Place the paper on a table-millimeter lens and a convex lens on paper millimeters. 6. Describe the lenses on Paper. Then form a line perpendicular to the central focus of the lens.6. Shape up three lines of the rays coming towards the midline, concave lenses on paper work.

Figure 4.6 Experiment refraction of light on concave lens1. Observe the refraction and reflection of light on the lens.1. Experiment 1 s / d 2 with different beam directions, thus forming a central point on paper1. Draw the shape of the beam is formed from refraction lens and measuring the distance from the lens to the point of refraction of light.

1. Tasks After the Experiment1. From the experiments that have been done then calculate the focus point, powerful lenses, and lens magnification.1. Can the distance between the object to the lens object distance s given name? What is the reason?1. Can the distance between the lens until the shadow is called the distance of the shadow? What is the reason?1. How huge shadow of the object when viewed directly by the eye through the lens, and how shadows are captured by the screen? The shadow is what happened in both these lenses?1. Under question 3 can concave lenses is called a negative lens?1. What is the price s.s/s+sremains1. What is the price s.s/s+sequals f?1. Provide an analysis of the relationship between s.s chart with s + s that you have the picture.1. Based on data make a graph with the y-axis is s.s and the x axis is s + ss.ss+s

Note:1. Virtual image is a direct reflection can be seen by the eye.1. Shadow is a true eye shadow that can be seen when captured by the screen.EXPERIMENT VREFRACTION LIGHT BY PRISM AND PARALLEL PLAN

A. Standards CompetenceUnderstand the natural phenomena and its application in daily life.B. Basic CompetenceAble to analyze and apply concepts of geometric optics in daily life.C. Indicators1. Understand the basic principles prims and forms of light refracting on the prism.2. Determine the shift light on the glass parallel plan (t).D. Experiment Goals1. Determine the refractive index of the prism material. 2. Determine the shift light on the glass parallel plan (t). 3. Describe the formation of the refraction light by a prism and a parallel plan.E. Tools and MaterialsNo.Tools / MaterialAmount

1HVS8 pcs

2Pin length8 pcs

3Protractor1 pcs

4Rule1 pcs

5Cardboard (Styrofoam)1 pcs

6Plan parallel glass1 pcs

7Equilateral prism1 pcs

8Millimeter block3 pcs

F. Basic Theory1. Refraction Light by PrismPrism in optics is a clear medium bounded by two surfaces that form an angle. When a beam of white light or polychromatic light passes through a prism so that light will be described. The decomposition of light into monochromatic colors of light is called the light dispersion. Light dispersion occurs because each color of light has a refractive index different. Red light has the largest refractive index, so the red light experienced the smallest deviation and light purple experienced the largest deviation.Of a prism with a refracting angle and the refractive index of prism n will be obtained and beam coming out of the prism will be banked for the first rays enter the prism angle is called the angle of deviation or deviation angle. Be obtained systematically geometric deviation angle on the magnitude of the prism that is,(5.1)By varying the position of the prism so that the magnitude of the angle incidence be changing as well. When the incident angle becomes larger, the deviation angle is also getting bigger, and otherwise. When the incident angle is made into smaller, by rotating the position of the prism, the angle of deviation will be smaller scaled cant be continue, exist deviation angle irreducible. So in smallest deviation of a prism exist minimum deviation. Systematically if isosceles triangle is evidenced: (5.2)PQ rays coming from the air on the prism with the angle of incidence i1 to normal line N. By AB surface, PQ rays refracted near-normal N. According direction of QR, refractive angle is r1. Next, QR rays is refracted by the surface of BC, by RS with angle of incidence is i2 and angle of refraction is r2 for each time it undergoes refraction of light, the light is deflected toward the thicker part of the prism.

Figure 5.1 Propagation of light in a prismRays that comes out of the prism (RS ray) turned an angle to the direction of rays initially (extension PQ ray). The angle is called the angle of deviation. In geometry can evidenced:(5.3)2. Refraction Light by Parallel PlanParallel plan is glass with certain thickness bounded by two parallel planes. The parallel planes is refracting field. In parallel plan, with the law of refraction using nu sin i = nk sin r, nk can be calculated (index of refraction of the glass).

Figure 5.2 Propagation of light in a parallel planBy using the formula shift plan parallel glass rays (t): (5.4)With the: d = thickness of the glass i = angle of incidence r = angle of refraction t = shift plan parallel glass rays

G. Experimental ProcedureRefraction Light by Prism1. Put a thick cardboard (Styrofoam) on the table and a sheet of paper on it. 2. Put prism on paper and draw a line along three sides. 3. Paint the normal line perpendicular to the side of the prism that has been previously painted. 4. Paint an incident ray PQ with the angle of incidence is 40.5. Plug pin on points P and Q and then put the prism in initially place.6. Review of direction through a prism and plug pin R and S such that P, Q, R, S looks as though is located in a straight line.7. Extend PQ and RS so that intersect and makes an angle deviation.8. Repeat steps 3 s/d 7 with the angle of incidence 50 and 60.9. Write down observations in the following observation table.

Table 5.1 Refraction Light by PrismNo. ()()()() () ()

1.40

2.50

3.60

Refraction Light by Parallel Plan1. Place the cardboard (Styrofoam) on the table, then take graph paper and place it on top of the cardboard. 2. Create a line right in the middle of the paper along the vertical and horizontal directions. 3. Place the parallel plan glass on the graph paper and draw the edges of glass.4. Draw a vertical line as a normal line (N).5. Make the angle of incidence (i) and insert the value of the angle 25.6. Plug the pin at point A and B at the specified angle.7. Measure the angle of refraction (r), then enter the result in observation table.8. Repeat steps 1-8 with a large angle of incidence of 30 and 35.9. Write down observations in the following observation table.Table 5.2 Refraction Light by Plan ParallelNo. ()() () ()d (cm)t (cm)

1.25

2.30

3.35

H. Task after Experiment1. Based on experimental data obtained, determine the refractive index of the prism material used!2. How examples of refraction in prism and plan parallel application in daily life?

EXPERIMENT VIOHMS LAW AND SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

A. Standards CompetenceUnderstand the Ohms Law symptoms and its relations in daily life and apply the concept of electricity in the resolution of electric problem and a variety of products and technologies. B. Basic CompetenceString up the electric components (resistor) that set in series, parallel, and measure the current and voltage of each resistor.C. Indicators1. Student able to set series and parallel circuits correctly.2. Student able to measure the resistance, current, and voltage in a circuit.D. Experiment Goals1. Prove the Ohms Law.2. Recognize the characteristics of series and parallel circuits.E. Tools and MaterialsNb.Tools / MaterialsAmount

1Resistor 3 pcs

2Multimeter1 pc

3Project Board1 pc

4Connection Cable2 pcs

5Power Supply1 pc

F. Basic Theory1. Definition of Electric CurrentAn electric current is due to the flow of electrons in which each electron has a charge of magnitude same. If object has a negative charge then the object has an excess of electrons. Degrees of the object is measured by the number of excess electron. Capacity of an electron is often expressed in the symbol of the pick q = 1.6 x 10-19 C.The amount of electrical current to the units of number of electrons per second, however this unit is not practical because the price is too small. Unit used Ampere. (6.1)2. Definition of VoltageFor example, we have two tubes connected by two tubes. If the two tubes is on the table, so in place on the surface of the water on the both of tubes will be the same and in this case there is no water flow in the pipe. If one of tube removed so water will naturally flow out of the tubes lower to tube. The higher tube in then the water flows through the pipe. The occurrence of such flows can be understood by the concept of potential energy.The high of tube shows the amount of potential energy possessed. The most important thing in this case is the difference in the two tubes are at the same height determines the magnitude of the potential difference. So the greater the potential difference is getting heavy flow of water in the pipe. It should be noted that the potential difference measured between the ends of a conductor. If we talk about the potential at a certain point then it is we actually measure the potential difference at that point to a certain reference point. As a standard reference point is usually chosen point land (ground).3. Ohm's LawOhm's Law is: "The strength of an electric current flowing in an electrical load straight proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the electric barriers."Figure 6.1 the series of strong relationship of current, voltage, and resistance4. Series and Parallel CircuitsSeries circuit is one of the electrical circuits arranged in rows (series). The batteries are in flashlights are generally arranged in a series circuit.Parallel circuit is one of the electrical circuit are arranged in parallel. The lights were installed in the home is generally a parallel circuit. Parallel circuit is an electrical circuit, in which all components of the input comes from the same source. All components are arranged parallel to one another. This has led to a parallel arrangement of the electrical circuit to cost more (connecting cable is needed more). In addition to these weaknesses, the parallel arrangement has certain advantages compared to the composition of the series. The advantage is that if one component removed or damaged, then the other components continue to function as it should.Combined between series circuit and parallel circuit is called a series - parallel circuit (sometimes referred to as a series of mix).Series Circuit

Figure 6.2 Series CircuitRtotal = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn (6.3)The number of series circuit total resistance equal to the amount of resistance of each component (resistor).Parallel Circuit

Figure 6.3 Parallel Circuit (6.4)The number of inverse parallel circuit the total resistance equals the sum of the inverse obstacle each component (resistor).G. Experimental ProcedureOhms Law1. Prepare the instruments and materials according to the list of them. Use the resistor with color of rings resistor is red, red, red and gold!2. Set the circuit according to the figure

Figure 6.4 Ohms Law Circuit3. Source voltage is set by the power supply at 3 Volt.4. Measure the current through the resistor.5. Measure the voltage at the resistor.6. Repeat steps 3 5 for source voltage is 4,5 Volt and 6 Volt.7. Note the experiment result on tableTable 6.1 Table of Ohms Law Experiment ResultNoResistance R( Ohm )Voltage V( Volt )Current I(Ampere)

TheoryExprTheoryExprTheory (Vt/Rt)Expr

1.3

2.4,5

3.6

Series Circuit1. Prepare the instruments and materials according to the list of them. Use 3 resistors with color of rings of each resistor :R1 = brown, red, red, goldR2 = brown, red, red, goldR3 = red, red, red, gold2. Set the circuit according to the figureR1R2R3V1V3V2AV

Figure 6.5 Series Circuit3. Set the source voltage at 3 Volt.4. Measure the voltage of each resistor.5. Measure the current of each resistor.6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the source voltage is 6 Volt.7. Note the experiment result into table.Table 6.2 Table of Series Circuit ExperimentNoT / ER1R2R3 RtotVtotV1V2V3ItotI1I2I3

1.Theory

Expr

2.Theory

Expr

Parallel Circuit1. Prepare the instruments and materials according to the list of them. Use 3 resistors with color of rings of each resistor :R1 = brown, red, red, goldR2 = brown, red, red, goldR3 = red, red, red, gold2. Set the circuit according to the figure

Figure 6.6 Parallel Circuit3. Set the source voltage at 3 Volt.4. Measure the voltage of each resistor.5. Measure the current of each resistor.6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the source voltage is 6 Volt.7. Note the experiment result into table.Table 6.3 Table of Parallel Circuit ExperimentNoT/ER1R2R3 RtotVtotV1V2V3ItotI1I2I3

1.Theory

Expr

2.Theory

Expr

H. Task after Experiment 1. Based on data of Ohms Law, make a graph of relation V and I!2. How are the current and voltage of every resistors in the series circuit and parallel circuit? Explain!3. What is the application of series and parallel circuits in daily life?EXPERIMENTVIIKIRCHOFF'S LAWS

A. Standards CompetenceApplying the concepts of electricity in a variety of problem-solving and technology products.B. BasicCompetenceStringing gauge power and use it on closed circuit is good and right.C. Indicators 1. BeingabletoquantitativelyproveKirchhoffsLaws.2. Beingabletoanalyzethecurrentstrengthinthecircuitclosed.3. Able to prove Kirchhoffs Laws I and II in the experiment.D. ExperimentsGoals1. Determining a strong current in each branch in an electrical circuit2. Determine the voltage between two points in an electric circuit3. Proving the amount of voltage in closed loop is equal to zeroE. ToolsandMaterialsNo.Tool / MaterialAmount

1Multimeter1 Pcs

2Power Supply2 Pcs

3Resistor 100 ohm3 Pcs

4Cable Connector6 Pcs

F. BasicTheoryThe voltage in each element and the current flowing through each element in an electric circuit is governed by the second law Kirchhoff. Historically, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824 - 1887) in making his analysis of the law, carefully following the Faraday induction in describing electrical, magnetic Oersted in connecting electricity, Ampere force in connecting with the electric current, and Ohm in relating the voltage and current.1. KirchhoffsILaw The first law is also called Kirchhoff's Current Law, which reads: "At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node". This means that the number of strong currents in all the branches that meet at a point equal to zero.This law is a consequence of the law of conservation of charge. Charge coming into a node must leave that node because the charge cannot accumulate at a node.Mathematically, it can be written as follows:

(7.1)

For figure 1 current I1, I2, and I3 to point A, and then current I4 and I5 leave point A.Figure 7.1 Currents at each PointAI5I4I3I2I1

(7.2)

2. Kirchhoffs II LawThe second law is also called Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, which reads: "The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed network is zero". This law is a consequence of conservation of energy and the conservative nature of the electrical circuit. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law can be applied to the circuit by a few different ways. A method that provide little more than an error of writing equations, consisting of the movement around a closed circuit in the clockwise direction and direct write any element of the terminal voltage (+) and found her writing negative for any voltage that first encountered the sign (-).Mathematically Kirchhoff's Voltage Law can be written as follows: = 0 (7.3)

(7.4)Powerful current that flows can be determined by usingSome rules as follows:a. Determine the direction of rotation for each current loop.b. Currents in the direction of the parable is considered positive.c. The current flowing from the negative to the positive pole on the element considered positive.d. If the result is positive, the current strength calculation metaphor right direction, if the negative mean current direction opposite to the direction of the parable.G. Experimental ProceduredcbaI3I2I1R3R2R1E1E2Figure 7.2 Scheme series of experiments

1. By using existing ohmmeter on multimeters, each measuring resistance / barriers are used, stated in ohms () and record as R1 , R2 and R32. With By using the existing voltmeter on multimeter, measure the voltage of each is used, expressed in volts (V) and record as E1 and E23. Assembling tools and materials such as the above scheme4. If the circuit is correct, press the ON button on the second power supply5. Measuring the current strength in the I1, I2, and I3 and measuring the voltage in the R1, R2, and R3 for E1 = 10 V and E2 = 8 V.6. Measuring the current strength in the I1, I2, and I3 and measuring the voltage in the R1, R2, and R3 for E1 = 12 V and E2 = 8 V. 7. Noting the results of measurements on table of observation results Table of Observation ResultsNo.T/ER1R2R3E1E2I1I2I3V1V2V3

1Theory

Experiment

2Theory

Experiment

Note: At the time of measuring the voltage, the circuit gauge parallelized When measuring current, measuring instruments with a series When using a measuring instrument, use a measuring limit of the greatest advance in order not to damage the gauge.H. Task after Experiment1. Compare Kirchhoff's laws are obtained with a known practice in theory!2. Write down the sample applications Kirchhoff's laws in everyday life!3. Write down those factors that allow differences in outcomes at experiment?

EXPERIMENT VIIIELECTROMAGNETIC AROUND ELECTRICAL WIRE

A. Standards CompetenceApplying the concept of electricity and magnetism in a variety of problem solving and product technology.B. Basic CompetenceInvestigate the electromagnetic around electrical current carrying wire.C. Indicators1. Students can design and conduct experiments to prove the electromagnetic around a straight current-carrying wire electric.2. Students can find out the cause of the electromagnetic around a straight current carrying wire electric.D. Experiments Goals1. Can determine the electromagnetic around a straight current-carrying wire electrical.2. Can understand the concept of electric and magnetic relationships.3. Can determine the factors that cause the electromagnetic around a straight current-carrying wire electric.E. Tools and MaterialsNoTools / Materials Amount

1.Power Supply1 pc

2.Basic Statif2 pcs

3.Multimeter1 pc

4.Compass1 pc

5.Ruler1 pc

6.Copper Wire Transformer40 cm

7.Rheostat1 pc

8.Cable3 pcs

9.Knife1 pc

F. Basic Theory1. Magnetic Field Around Power LinesHans Christian Oersted (1770-1850) was a Danish physicist who first discovered that electric currents cause the magnetic force. Oersted laying a straight conductor wire above and parallel to the needle of a compass. The area around a magnet where other objects are still experiencing a magnetic force is called the magnetic field. The magnetic field can be described by magnetic lines of force coming out of the North Pole and enter the South Pole. Direction of the magnetic field surrounding the induction of electric current depends on the direction of the electric current, can be determined by the right-hand rule; As if the clasp conductor such that the straightened thumb indicates the direction of flow and the other four fingers round declared field lines.

Figure 8.1 Outline Direction Terrain Using the Right Hand Rule

2. Biot-Savart lawTwo French researcher, Jean Biot and Felix Savart trying to calculate the magnitude of the electromagnetic around the conductor wire is electrified.

Figure 8.2 Electromagnetic Elements by Wire at point PReview a very long conductive wire electrified I. through experiments conducted Biot-Savart that the magnitude of the electromagnetic at the point P (dB) caused by wire elements are:a. Comparable to currents I.b. Comparable to the length of the wire element dl.c. Comparable to sinus formed by a line connecting the current direction of the wire elements with point P, sin .d. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the wire element to the point P, r2.The above statement is mathematically expressed by the formula: (8.1)Called Biot Savart law with constant k = 0/4 = 4.10-7 Wb / Am.

3. Electromagnetic Around Dissipation StraightA very long straight electrified I. Review the P is a point of the wire. Direction of the magnetic field strength (electromagnetic) at the point P is determined by the right hand rule. Large electromagnetic B at the point P can be determined by using the Biot-Savart law.

Figure 8.3 Electromagnetic in One point of dissipation StraightLarge electromagnetic at a point P near the wire is expressed by the equation: (8.2)With B in tesla, _0 is the permeability of the vacuum chamber 4.10-7 Wb / Am, I was current flowing in the circuit (amperes) and a is the distance from the point to the wire conductor (cm).G. Experimental Procedure1. Provide the tools and materials used in this experiment.2. Scrape both ends of the copper wire along the 5 cm to exfoliate the outer layer of wire.3. Relate each end of the wires on each basic statif and stretched so that in case of a straight wire.4. Leaving the compass under the copper wire with a distance of 1 cm.5. Connect the end of the first wire with alligator shear resistance using clamp.6. Connect the shear resistance with the positive pole of the power supply using alligator clamp.7. Connect the end of the second wire to the negative pole of the power supply using alligator clamp.8. Set the output voltage of 6V and pay attention to the angle formed by the compass needle.9. Measure the output voltage, the greater the obstacles and current flowing in the circuit.10. Record the observations in the observation table.11. Repeat the procedure 1 to 9 for 8V and 10V voltage variations.Table8.1Experimental ResultsV (volt)R (ohm)I (ampere)a (cm)O)B (tesla)

6 V

8 V

10 V

H. Task After Experiment1. How changes in the angle of deviation occurs when the wire is given the flow of electric current?2. How the direction of the deviation angle is is happening? What to do with an electric current flowing in the circuit?3. Calculate large electromagnetic occurred and describe the direction of the electromagnetic based on experiments carried out!

General Physics Experiment II41