theories of human development chapter 2. main points developmental theories and the issues they...

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 2

Main Points

Developmental Theories and the Issues They Raise

Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory Erikson: Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic

Theory Learning Theories Piaget: Cognitive Developmental Theory Systems Theories Theories in Perspective


Introduction to Main Theories Guides the collection of new information

What is the most important to study What can be hypothesized or predicted How it should be studied

Four main theories Psychoanalytic (Freud, Erikson, and neo-

Freudians) Learning (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura) Cognitive (Piaget) Systems theory (Bronfenbrenner)

Criteria of a Good Theory Internally consistent- its different parts are not

contradictory Falsifiable- generates testable hypotheses Supported by data- describes, predicts, and

explains human development Five key issues on which theorists disagree

Goodness or badness of human nature Nature or nurture Activity or passivity Continuity or discontinuity Universality or specificity

Engagement Box on where you stand on major development issues)


The Goodness/Badness of Human Nature Hobbes- children are inherently selfish and

bad, and society must teach them to behave in a civilized way

Rousseau- children are innately good, and society must not interfere with innate goodness

Locke- children are born neither good nor bad, but are like a tabula rasa or “blank slate”


Nature vs. Nurture Development as product of nature (Rousseau

champion of innate goodness in children) Individual genetic makeup Universal maturational processes guided by genes Biological based predispositions Change driven by biology Individual differences due to genetic differences

Development as product of nurture (Locke claim that experience shapes development) Emphasis on environment

Physical environment (e.g. pollution) Social environment (e.g. societal trends)


Activity vs. Passivity Activity- have control over one’s development

(Rousseau) Passive- shaped by forces beyond one’s control

(e.g. environmental or biological) (Locke) Continuity vs Discontinuity

Continuity- gradual change (small steps) Discontinuity- abrupt change (a series of steps) Qualitative or quantitative change

Quantitative- change in degree (continuity) Qualitative- change in kind (discontinuity) Discontinuity theorists propose the existence of

developmental stages- distinct phase of the life cycle


Universality vs. Context- Specificity Universality- developmental change common to

everyone Stage theorists typically believe that stages are

universal Context-specific- developmental changes vary

by individual, culture, subculture Are both universal and context-specific aspects

to human development Poet Mark Van Doren: “Two statements about

humans beings that are true: that all human beings are alike, and that all are different”


Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud: Viennese Physician and Founder of

Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalytic theory- focus on development and

dynamics of personality Emphasis on humans being driven by motive and

emotions of which we are unaware Belief that we are shaped by earliest experiences in life Theory far less influential than in the past

Instincts and Unconscious Motives Instincts- inborn biological forces that motivate behavior Unconscious motivation- instinctive and inner force

influences beyond our awareness/control Emphasis on nature (biological instincts)

Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory Id, Ego, and Superego

Id All psychic energy contained her Impulsive, irrational, selfish part of personality Seeks immediate gratification

Ego Rational side of personality

Realistic ways to gratify instincts Capable of postponing pleasure

Superego Internalized moral standards (developed age 3-6) Superego insists that people find socially acceptable outlets for id’s

undesirable impulses Id, ego, and superego conflict common/inevitable

Problems arise when level of psychic energy unevenly distributed Antisocial personality may have weak superego Unable to undress in from of spouse may have overly strong to a superego

Analysis of dynamics among three parts of personality used to describe and understand human behavior

Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory Psychosexual Development

Importance of libido- sex instinct’s energy shifts body locations Five stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal,

phallic, latency, genital) Oral and anal stage conflict of id and social demands

leads to heightened psychic conflict and anxiety Fixation- development arrested at early stage Chronic thumb sucker or chain smoker stuck (fixated) at

oral stage During anal stage of toilet training, parents who are

punitive way created children who are anxious and who resist demands from authority figures

Parent’s goal- allow some (but not too much) gratification of impulses while helping child achieve some (but not too much) control over impulses

Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory Psychosexual Development

Phallic stage- Oedipus and Electra complexes (incestuous desire) resolve by identifying with same-sex parent and incorporating parent’s values Oedipus complex- boy loves mother and fears castration by

father Oedipus complex resolved through identification with father-

taking on or internalizing attitudes or behaviors Electra complex- girl desires father (penis envy), views

mother as rival, resolves conflict through identification with mother

Latency stage- sexual urges are tamed (age 6-12) Genital stage- experienced during puberty

Trouble accepting new sexuality Reexperience conflict and distance self from parents Greater capacity to love and have children in adulthood

Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory Defense mechanisms- Unconscious Coping Mechanisms of the Ego

Repression- removing unacceptable or traumatic thoughts from consciousness

Regression- retreating to an earlier stage Projection- seeing in others the motives we fear we possess Reaction formation- expressing motives the opposite of one’s real

motives Defense mechanisms can be healthy and function despite anxiety or

they can distort reality School refusal result of separation anxiety (Exploration Box of Freudian

explanation of school refusal) Strengths and Weaknesses

Difficult to test and ambiguous (not easily falsifiable) Weak support for specific aspects of the theory (e.g., rate of sexual

fantasy and child sexual abuse) Greater support of broad ideas

Unconscious processes underlying behavior Importance of early experience Important emphasis on the role of emotions in development

Erikson: Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory

Neo-Freudian- Important Disciples of Psychoanalytic Theory Notable neo-Freudians: Adler (sibling rivalry), Jung (midlife

crisis, expression of both masculine and feminine sides of personality), Horney (challenged ideas about sex differences), Sullivan (importance of close friendships in childhood for intimate relationships in later life), daughter Anna Freud (psychoanalysis of children)

Erik Erikson is most important lifespan neo-Freudian theorist Like Freud, was concerned with inner dynamics of personality and

saw development in stages Unlike Freud,

Less emphasis on sexual urges as drivers of development Less emphasis on unconscious, irrational, selfish id and more on

rational ego More positive view of human nature More emphasis on development after adolescence


Neo-Freudian- Important Disciples of Psychoanalytic Theory Psychosocial stages

Erikson saw resolution of eight major psychosocial crises as critical Trust vs. mistrust- key is general responsiveness of caregiver (healthy balance

of trust with some skepticism is optimal) Autonomy vs. shame- concerning ability to act independently Initiative vs. guilt- preschool sense of autonomy Industry vs. inferiority- elementary age sense of mastery Identify vs. role confusion- adolescent acquisition of identity that may involve an

“identity crisis” Intimacy vs. isolation- young adult commitment to a long-term relationship Generativity vs. stagnation- middle-age sense of having produced something

meaningful (family, work, or volunteer related) Integrity vs. despair- elderly sense of life meaning and success

Did not agree with Freud that personality “set in stone” during first five years

Stage development due to biological maturation and environmental demands

School refusal explained by Freud as due to separation anxiety (mother-child relationship from birth), and by Erikson as a crisis of industry vs. inferiority (Exploration Box on school refusal from Erikson’s perspective)


Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths

Its emphasis on rational, adaptive nature, and social influences easier to accept that Freudian ideas

Captures some central development issues within the eight stages

Influenced thinking about adolescence and beyond Weaknesses

Like Freud, vague and difficult to test Provides description, but not adequate explanation

of development

Learning Theories

Watson’s Classical Conditioning Behaviorism- belief that only observed behavior should be studied Rejected psychoanalytic theory and explained Freud using learning

principles Children have no inborn tendencies, as environment determines which

way they grow up (like Locke) Classical conditioning- simple form of learning in which a stimulus that

initially has no effects comes to elicit a response through association with something that already elicits the response First discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlow

Accidently discovered while studying digestive system of dogs Famous study in which Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could learn to salivate to a

bell when bell was paired with meat powder that naturally elicits the reaction of salivation

Key elements of classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)- unlearned stimulus (food) Unconditioned response (UR)- unlearned response (salivation) Conditioned stimulus (CS)- stimulus created by pairing UCS (meat powder) with a

new stimulus (bell ring) which becomes a learned stimulus Conditioned response (CR)- learned response of salivation in response to CS of

ringing bell

Watson’s Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning study with colleague Rosalie Rayners in

which infant “Albert” was conditioned to fear a rat Loud noise created by banging steel rod with a hammer was

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)- unlearned stimulus Crying (fear) was unconditioned response (UR) White rat became conditioned response (CR) learned response of crying

after it was paired with loud noise Study clearly demonstrated that emotional response of fear can be

learned Fear generalized from white rate to other furry items like rabbit and Santa

Claus mask Fear can be unlearned if fear stimulus is paired with UCS for happy

emotions Classical conditioning involved when children learn to “love” caring

parents Rejects stage conceptualization of development Learning is a behavioral change that is context specific and differs

enormously from person to person

Learning Theories

Skinner: Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning- learning thought to become more or less probable

depending on consequences it produces Reinforcement- consequences that strengthen a response (increase

probability of future response) Positive- something added

Positive reinforcement- something pleasant added in attempt to strengthen behavior

Positive reinforcement best when continuous and when skill first being learned Can shift to a “partial reinforcement schedule” once behavior is learned to maintain the

behavior

Negative- something removed Negative reinforcement- something unpleasant taken in attempt to strengthen

behavior Fastening seatbelt to escape annoying noise illustrates negative reinforcement Bad habits may develop because they allow person to avoid or escape unpleasant events

(e.g., lying to avoid parental lecture)

Punishment- consequences that decrease a future response (weaken a behavior) Positive punishment- something unpleasant added in attempt to weaken behavior Negative punishment- something pleasant taken in attempt to weaken behavior

Learning Theories

Learning Theories

Skinner: Operant Conditioning Extinction- no consequence given and behavior becomes less frequent Skinner emphasized positive reinforcement and generally discouraged the use of

physical punishment in childrearing Many parents believe that spanking is necessary in raising children

Physical punishment best used in specific circumstances Administered immediately following act Administered consistently following each offense Not overly harsh Accompanied by explanation Administered by otherwise affectionate person Used sparingly and combined with efforts to reinforce acceptable behaviors

Carefully, designed research indicates that physical punishment can have negative effects on child development Berlin and colleagues found spanking associated with aggressive behavior and lower

developmental scores Punishment may make children anxious and teach that hitting is an appropriate way to solve

problems Skinner and Watson believed that development depends on learning experiences Skinner’s operant conditioning principles help explain many aspects of development and

is still applied in areas like cognitive-behavioral interventions in education and therapeutic settings

Some psychologists believe that Skinner placed too little emphasis on the role of cognitive processes

Learning Theories

C. Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory formerly called “social learning theory”

Humans are cognitive beings with active information processing skills

Humans’ sophisticated cognitive abilities distinguish them from other animals

Agrees that Skinner’s operant conditioning is an important type of learning but… Humans can think about behavior and anticipate consequences Humans engage in self-reinforcement and self-punishment Cognition affects behavior

Observational learning- (from models) most important mechanism for behavior change Imitating allows children to learn many behaviors Observational learning is a more cognitive form of learning in that it

requires paying attention, constructing, and remembering mental responsibilities

Learning Theories

C. Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory Classic Bandura experiment using “Bobo” doll showed that

children could learn a behavior neither elicited by a conditioned stimulus (as in classical conditioning) nor performed and strengthened by a reinforce (as in operant conditioning) Children shown movie of adult hitting Bobo doll with a mallet and

harming it in other ways (e.g. with rubber balls) Children then saw adult in movie praised, punished, or receive no

consequences Children seeing reward and no-consequence imitate models more Children seeing punishment did not model but did demonstrate learning-

process called latent learning Children displayed vicarious reinforcement- learner changes

behaviors based on consequences observed being given to a model Observation learning important in our society but more

important in traditional societies Mayan children were more attentive to siblings playing with a new

toy and learned more an European American children

Learning Theories

C. Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory Human agency- ways in which humans deliberately exercise

control over environments and lives Self-efficacy- sense of one’s ability to control self or environment Watson and Skinner believed people are passively shaped by

environment, but Bandura disagreed Reciprocal determinism- mutual influence of individuals and social

environments determines behavior Like other learning theorists, Bandura doubts the existence of

stages View cognitive capacities as maturing over time Learning experiences differentiate development of child of same age Learning theorists do not give a general description of the course of

normal development School refusal explained by learning theorists as learned through

classical conditioning (traumatic fire drill), punishing or reinforcing consequences, or via observational learning (Exploration Box on learning theory explanations for school refusal)

Learning Theories

Strengths and Weaknesses Learning theory strengths

Precise and testable Controlled experiments show how people learn many things Principles operate across the lifespan Many important practical applications (e.g., optimizing

development and treating development problems) Learning theory weaknesses

Doesn’t show that learning actually causes observed developmental changes (just that it might)

Oversimplifies development by focusing on experience and downplaying biological influences

Today’s learning theorists appreciate how factors like genetic endowment, previous learning history, personality, and social context affect learning experiences

Piaget: Cognitive-Development Theory

Jean Piaget Swiss scholar: began studying children’s intellectual

development in the 1920s Greatly influenced study of intellectual development in

children First scientific work (study of albino sparrows) at age 11 Blended interest in zoology and philosophy Devoted life to study of how knowledge is acquired and used

to adapt to the world Worked on IQ testing with Binet

Emphasis on intelligence testing is on number of correct answers Piaget emphasized errors in thinking (wrong answers)

Questions children to find out how they are trying to solve problems

Argues that differences in cognitive development are qualitative in nature


Constructivism Constructivism- active construction of new

knowledge based on experience Children are curious and active explorers of

their environment Children use current knowledge to solve

problems but also revise understanding to fit reality

Stage progression due to interaction of biological maturation and environment


Stages of Cognitive Development Four major periods (stages) of cognitive development:

sensorimotor (birth to age 2), preoperational (ages 2 to 7), concrete operational (ages 7 to 11), formal operations (ages 11 to 12 or older)

Sensorimotor stage Preschoolers Capacity for symbolic thought Egocentric thinkers who have difficulty adopting perspectives of

others Fooled by appearance as demonstrated on conservation tasks

Famous conservation liquid quantity task Child shown two short, wide glasses with equal levels of water Water from one glass poured into a taller, thinner glass Tricked by height of tall glass into thinking that that glass now has more

water (ignore width and focus on height) Fait to appreciate the concept of reversibility and believe that if water

poured from tall glass into short glass, it would overflow


Stages of Cognitive Development Concrete operations stage

School-aged children Use trial-and-error strategy Perform metal operations in their heads on concrete objects (thus the term

“concrete operations”) Can solve conservation tasks Difficulty with abstract and hypothetical concepts

Formal operations stage Adolescents Can think abstractly and define abstract terms (e.g., justice in terms of

fairness versus the cop on the corner) Can formulate hypotheses in their head and will eventually adopt systemic

and experiential ways to test these hypotheses Can devise “grand theories” about others

School refusal discussed in terms of thoughts concerning home life and school and an assessment of current stage of development (e.g. preoperational logic that murder on television may occur in school) (Exploration Box on Piaget’s explanation of school refusal)


Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths of Piaget’s approach

Pioneer with long-lasting impact on thinking about human development

Many of Piaget’s concepts accepted (e.g., children active in own development, change in thinking can be qualitative, development occurs through an interaction between nature and nurture)

Much of the description of intellectual development supported through research

Very influential in education and childrearing practices Weaknesses of Piaget’s approach

Too little emphasis on motivation and emotion Questioning of stage model Underestimated children’s cognitive skills Too little emphasis on role of others in influencing cognitive

development


Other Perspectives on Cognitive Development Sociocultural perspective and information-processing approach

challenged some of Piaget’s ideas Lev Vgotsky’s sociocultural perspective- development shaped by

organism growing in culture Russian psychologist who took issue with Piaget’s notion of universal stages

of cognitive development Cognitive development shaped by sociocultural context that occurs and grows

out of interactions with members of the culture Tools of thought in a culture, especially in the form of language, shapes

behavior Cognitive development varies by social and historical context Children are social beings who develop through guided participation by others

(e.g. parents, teacher) in culturally important activities Information-processing theory

Dominant approach to cognitive development beginning in the 1980s Likens mind to computer software and hardware Focus on fundamental processes like memory, decision-making, and attention Developmental changes in capacity and speed of information processing and

information in memory are important

Systems Theories

Contextual, Systems and Contextual Theories Some systems theories called contextual theories because they

emphasize interaction between human and the contexts in which they develop

Some systems theories called system/dynamic theories because they claim that develop arises from ongoing transactions in which changing organism and changing environment affect each other

Changes over lifespan arise from ongoing transactions and mutual influences between organism and changing world Development takes a variety of paths

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model illustrates a systems perspective Individuals with biological characteristics interacts with four environmental

systems Thelen’s theory of motor development is an example of a dynamic theory Gottlieb’s viewed in context of evolutionary history and interaction

between individual and environment Bronfenbrenner began by focusing environment and realized the importance of

biological factors Gottlieb began by focusing on biological factors (genetic influences) and realized

the importance of environment factors

Systems Theories

Evolutionary Theory and Ethology Gottlieb’s perspective influenced by Darwin’s work on

animal and human development in the context of evolutionary theory Darwin maintained that genes aid in adapting to the environment

and are passed on to future generations Evolutionary theory prompted research into how characteristics and

behaviors may have helped our ancestors adapt

Ethology- studies evolved behavior of species in natural environment Behavior adaptive in particular environments Must study behavior of animals in natural context Observe or experimentally study species-specific behavior

Attachment theory is viewed in terms of psychoanalytic and ethological theory

Evolutionary psychology- application of evolutionary theory to understanding the thinking and behavior of humans

Systems Theories

Gottlieb’s Epigenetic Psychobiological Systems Perspective Epigenetic Psychobiological Systems Perspective

Development product of interacting between biological and environmental forces in a larger system

Species change Starting point of epigenetic psychobiological systems

perspective is recognition that evolution has endowed us with genetic makeup (not tabula rasae)

Predisposition to develop in certain direction Genes and environments interact because humans actively

and deliberately change their environments New environments make different genes more critical to survival Genes associated with high tolerance for lactose milk have

become more prevalent as dairy farming has become more common

Systems Theories

Gottlieb’s Epigenetic Psychobiological Systems Perspective Epigenesis

Genes do not dictate, just make some outcomes more probable Epigenesis- process through which genes and environment co-act to

bring forth particular course of development Gottlieb’s emphasized

Activity of genes which turn on and off at different points in development Activity of neurons Organism’s behavior Environmental influences of all kinds

Gottlieb accused biologists of wrongly claiming genes dictate what happens in development and genetic factors more important than environment

Behavior cannot be explained by reducing it to simpler components (e.g., genes); need to appreciate that behavior and environment influence gene activity

Stimulation from the environment, gained partly through an infant’s exploratory behavior, not only produces neural activity and changes the brain but also affects the activity of the genes, which in turn influence the formation and function of the neural network necessary for further development and behavior

Systems Theories

Gottlieb’s Epigenetic Psychobiological Systems Perspective Epigenesis

Instinctive behaviors may not be expressed if environmental conditions do not exist

Duckling vocalizations: if duckling embryos are exposed to chicken calls before they hatch and prevented from vocalizing at birth (having no experience with hearing ducklike calls), they come to prefer the call of a chicken to that of a duck

Epigenetic psychobiological systems perspective helps us appreciate that development is driven by genetic, neural, behavioral, and environmental influences

The nature-nurture issue vanishes in Gottlieb’s perspective The developmental story cannot be predicted until we see what emerges

from epigenesist Bronfenbrenner and Gottlieb’s models are in close agreement School refusal could be the result of interaction between factors like

genetic predisposition toward anxiety, the amount of neural activity in response to a noisy and chaotic classroom, the behavioral ability to cope, and an environmentally gruff teacher (Exploration Box on Gottlieb’s perspective on school refusal)

Systems Theories

Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths of systems theories

Complex view of human development makes sense because human behavior is complex

Weaknesses of systems theories Fail to provide a picture of the course of

development (and may never be able to do so) Development may be more predictable than

Gottlieb’s theory implies May not be able to make exact predictions but can

talk in terms of attainments that are more or less probable

Theories in Perspective

Theoretical Perspectives Stage Theorists: Freud, Erikson, Piaget

Development guided in universal direction Influenced by biological/maturational forces that unfold

according to a master plan (assuming a normal environment), evolving through distinct or discontinuous stages

Parents subscribing to this theory would See selves as supporters of their child’s development Trust their child’s tendencies to seek learning experiences Not feel compelled to structure all their child’s experiences (basic

philosophy in Montessori schools)

Learning Theorists: Watson, Skinner, Bandura Emphasis on influence of environment over biological

factors Parents subscribing to this theory would

See themselves as “trainers” and take deliberate steps to shape their child’s development

Theories in Perspective

Theoretical Perspectives Systems Theorists: Vygotsky, Gottlieb

Focus on impact of both biology and environment with individual as an active agent

Potential exists for qualitative (stage) and quantitative change Parents subscribing to Gottlieb’s theory would

See themselves as partners in the developmental process and appreciate the fact that as they influence their child, their child is also influencing them

Change of World Views Our understanding of human development is ever changing Systems theories more prevalent today

Moved beyond black and white positions on nature and nurture influences Understand potential to develop in good and bad directions Understand that development is both continuous and discontinuous Understand that there are both universal and cultural and time-specific aspects

of human development Different theories make different assumptions and stimulate different

research Theories guide practice (Application Box on different theories’ take on

ways of reducing teenage pregnancy)

theories of human development chapter 2. main points developmental theories and the issues they...

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