THE TEXTUALIZATION OF PRECEDENT1The municipal law of Englandmay with sufficient propriety be divided into two kinds; the lexnon scripta, the unwritten or common law; and the lex scripta, the written, or statute law. --Sir illiam !lackstone"Peter ! Tiers"aLo#ola La$ %c&ool'1' %! Al(an# %treetLos An)eles, Cali*ornia '++1,-./1012031113/H. 4+,1'3413355Peter!Tiers"a6lls!e781 T&an9s to Hei7i :roo9s an7 Dale ;i" *or researc& assistance!/ 1 -illia" :lac9stone, #ommentaries i* it can e=en (ecalle7 t&at>$as necessaril# oral! O=er ti"e, as $ritin) s#ste"s e"er)e7, la$ &as increasin)l#co"e to (e $ritten 7o$n, to t&e extent t&at c8rrent le)islation is $ritten text al"ost (# 7e*inition!T&8s, $&ile it is possi(le to le)islate $it&o8t $ritin), o8r le)al s#ste" clearl# conte"plates t&atle)islation (e $ritten!T&e Article t&ere*ore explores so"e o* t&e 7i**erences (et$een spo9en an7$ritten lan)8a)e! Alt&o8)& in one sense $ritin) is "erel# a tec&nolo)# *or recor7in) speec&,recent researc& &as re=eale7 t&at t&ere are "an# conseF8ences o* 7ra*tin) so"et&in) in $ritten*or", as oppose7 to expressin) it orall#!-e t&en t8rn to t&e next sta)e in t&e e=ol8tion o* le)al 7oc8"ents. text8aliBation!:#te$tuali%ationI re*er to t&e pro78ction o* an a8t&oritati=e text, one in $&ic& t&e enact"ent orexec8tion o* t&e text is &el7 to comprise t&e transaction, rat&er t&an "erel# (ein) evidence o* it!-&enle)al transactions$ere*irst$ritten7o$n, o*ten(#scri(esorot&ers, t&e$riterpro78ce7 a recor7 o* an e=ent t&at $as per*or"e7 (# t&e spo9en $or7 ?an7 8s8all# acco"panie7(# certain rit8als@!%8c& recor7s $ere not re)ar7e7 as a8t&oritati=e text!T&e oral transaction $as$&at "attere7! T&escri(e$as "erel#ano(ser=er, an7t&erecor7"erel#e=i7ence! :8te=ent8all#, t&e $ritin) (eca"e trans*or"e7 into t&e le)al act itsel*! T&e recor7 (eca"e t&e act!T&8s, a "o7ern $ill 7oes not consist o* sa#in) so"et&in) to a priest at #o8r 7eat&(e7! It is a5$ritten 7oc8"ent si)ne7 (# t&e person en)a)in) in t&e transaction, $&o is 7ee"e7 to Dspea9Et&ro8)& t&at text, e=en i* s&e 7i7 not &ersel* $rite it!Except in 8n8s8al cases, $&at t&e testator"a# &a=e sai7 to ot&er people11or e=en to &er la$#er11"atters not a $&it! Li9e$ise, le)islationconsists o* t&e stat8tes>t&e $ritten text11t&at le)islators enact!T&ose stat8tes are not C8st reportso* $&at t&e le)islators 7eci7e7 or inten7e7!T&e# are no lon)er C8st evidence o* t&e la$, in ot&er$or7s!T&e# are t&e la$!T&is process o* text8aliBation &as a n8"(er o* conseF8ences!One o* t&e "ost i"portantis t&at t&e text is re)ar7e7 as t&e a8t&oritati=e state"ent o* t&e transaction in F8estion!T&8s, $&att&e le)islators "a# &a=e sai7 or &a7 in t&eir &ea7s $&en t&e# enacte7 a stat8te (eco"es secon7ar#or so"eti"es e=en irrele=ant!T&is o(=io8sl# &as i"portant i"plications *or &o$ s8c& texts areinterprete7, an7 to a lar)e extent acco8nts *or t&e rise o* t&e plain "eanin) r8le an7 ot&er "oretext8al "o7es o* interpretation!In Part III $e exa"ine t&e ot&er "aCor so8rce o* la$ in En)lis&1spea9in) co8ntries. t&eco""on la$, as 7e=elope7 in case la$ or prece7ent!Tra7itionall# t&e co""on la$ $as priBe7 asD8n$ritten la$E (# )reat co""on1la$ la$#ers li9e Co9e, Hale, an7 :lac9stone! In contrast tot&e $ritten nat8re o* stat8tor# la$, t&e 8n$ritten stat8s o* t&e co""on la$ $as &el7 to en7o$ it$it&"8c&"ore*lexi(ilit#t&anle)islation! Inlar)epart, t&e*lexi(ilit#o*t&eco""onla$7eri=e7 *ro" t&e *act t&at C87)es 7i7 not enact t&e r8les an7 principles o* t&e co""on la$ in t&e$a# t&at t&e le)islat8re enacte7 r8les o* (e&a=ior t&ro8)& its le)islation!Instea7, t&e principles o*t&e co""on la$ &a7 to (e 7eri=e7 (# "eans o* le)al reasonin) *ro" C87icial opinions!An7 t&oseopinions ?or DC87)"ents,E as t&e# are 8s8all# calle7 in En)lan7@ &a=e tra7itionall# (een iss8e7orall#, alt&o8)& t&ere $as )enerall# a la$#er in co8rt $&o later create7 a $ritten report o* t&eprocee7in)s! Until recentl#, t&e oral tra7ition o* En)lis& C87)es re"aine7 F8ite =ital an7, I $illar)8e, &as in*l8ence7 &o$t&eir opinions an7 t&e notion o* prece7ent "ore )enerall# are8n7erstoo7! Part IJ s8r=e#s &o$ t&e notion o* prece7ent &as (een c&an)in) in t&e Unite7 %tates!Asoppose7 to En)lis& practice, appellate opinions in t&e Unite7 %tates are in=aria(l# $ritten 7o$n(# t&e C87)es t&e"sel=es!T&ere is al"ost al$a#s a sin)le opinion t&at spea9s in a 8ni*ie7 =oice*or t&e "aCorit#!T&ere is a clear &ierarc o* co8rts, $&ere lo$er co8rts "8st *ollo$ prece7entsesta(lis&e7 (# &i)&er co8rts!oreo=er, "an# A"erican C8ris7ictions &a=e a7opte7 a r8le t&at to*8nction as prece7ent, an opinion "8st not C8st &a=e (een $ritten, (8t it "8st &a=e (een or7ere7,to (e p8(lis&e7 ?or certi*ie7 *or p8(lication@!Co"(ine7 $it& ot&er *actors, li9e t&e co7i*ication"o=e"ent, t&ese practices &a=e le7 to t&e co""on la$in t&e Unite7 %tates (eco"in)increasin)l# text8al, i* not #et *8ll# text8aliBe7! T&e article concl87es in Part J (# consi7erin) t&e conseF8ences o* t&ese 7e=elop"ents,especiall# as t&e# in*l8ence t&e notion o* $&at $e "ean $&en $e sa# t&at t&e co""on la$ isDcase la$E or )o=erne7 (# Dprece7ent!E Not s8rprisin)l#, t&e sit8ation is (ein) in*l8ence7 (#rapi7 c&an)es in t&e tec&nolo)# o* $ritin) an7 p8(lication!An interestin) possi(ilit#, s8))este7(# a7=ocates o* a(olis&in) c8rrent li"itations on t&e citation o* 8np8(lis&e7 opinions, is to tr# toret8rn to a "ore pristine =ersion o* t&e co""on la$, $&ere all C87icial 7ecisions can *8nction asprece7ents!Can $e reall# t8rn (ac9 t&e cloc9KI* $e can, s&o8l7 $e 7o soKI o**er no clear ans$ers or nor"ati=e C87)"ent a(o8t $&et&er, on a "ore )eneral le=el,text8aliBin) prece7ent is )oo7 or (a7! Per&aps si"pl# raisin) a$areness o* t&e iss8e $ill &a=eso"e =al8e!I* not&in) else, (etter 8n7erstan7in) t&e process $ill &elp 8s 7eci7e $&en to pro"otet&e pro78ction o* a8t&oritati=e text8al state"ents o* le)al r8les, an7 $&en to 7isco8ra)e it!II. )tatutes as *ritten +awAlt&o8)& $e ten7 to t&in9 o* stat8tes as F8intessentiall# $ritten, it &as not al$a#s (een so!At one point, stat8tes $ere lar)el# oral, an7 t&e $ritten recor7 t&at $as "a7e o* t&e" $as "erel#e=i7entiar#! :8t o=erti"e, stat8tes(eca"eincreasin)l#text8aliBe7, atren7t&at ena(le7, orper&aps e=en ca8se7, a correspon7in)l# text8al interpretation!T&ese 7e=elop"ents in stat8tor# la$ "i)&t initiall# not see" =er# rele=ant to t&e notion o*prece7ent!Het as t&is article pro)resses, I $ill ar)8e t&at case la$ &as (een 8n7er)oin) =er#si"ilarc&an)es78rin)t&epast cent8r#ort$o, partic8larl#int&eUnite7%tates! Hencet&is7i)ression! I &ope to s&o$ t&at t&e &istor# o* stat8tes in so"e critical respects parallels c8rrent7e=elop"ents in o8r 8n7erstan7in) o* t&e concept o* prece7ent, t&e ot&er "ain so8rce o* la$ int&e co""on1la$ s#ste"!'.(awmaking in 'nglo-Sa$on EnglandO8r le)al s#ste"can(e sai7to&a=e (e)8ninearl#:ritain! T&e earliest 9no$nin&a(itants o* En)lan7, "ost o* $&o" $ere Celtic,$ere essentiall# preliterate!T&e Ro"ans,$&oocc8pie7:ritain*or se=eral cent8ries, &a7a$rittenlan)8a)e, Latin, $&ic&$as 8se73extensi=el#*orle)al p8rposes! Latinlar)el#7isappeare7$it&t&e7epart8reo*t&eRo"ans,&o$e=er!T&e An)lo1%axons, $&o arri=e7 soon a*ter t&e Ro"ans le*t, controlle7 "ost o* En)lan7(# t&e #ear ,++ A!D!Li9e t&e Celts, t&e# $ere lar)el# illiterate, alt&o8)& t&e# "a7e so"e li"ite78se o* t&e r8nic alp&a(et!5Aro8n7acent8r#later,t&e*irstC&ristian"issionariesarri=e7, reintro78cin)t&eLatinlan)8a)e! orei"portantl#*or o8r p8rposes, t&e#(ro8)&t $it&t&e"astron)tra7itiono*$ritin)!Not lon) t&erea*ter, t&e *irst $ritten En)lis& la$s appeare7!T&ese co"pilations $ere int&e An)lo1%axon lan)8a)e, also 9no$n as Ol7 En)lis&!, It is )enerall# accepte7 t&at t&ese earl#En)lis& le)al co7es $ere not le)islation in t&e "o7ern sense! E=en one o* t&e latest an7 "ostextensi=e An)lo1%axon co7es, t&at o* Cn8t t&e Dane, 7i7 little "ore t&an p8t existin) la$ into$ritten *or"!3

-ritin) $as clearl# not essential to la$"a9in) in t&is perio7! -&at "attere7 $as $&atc8sto" or $&at t&e 9in) an7 &is co8ncil 7eclare7 to (e t&e la$, not $&at so"e "on9 $rote 7o$non a piece o* parc&"ent!To F8ote Patric9 -or"al7. (egislation, co""it"ent o*t&ela$to$ritin), s&o$e7$&at t&ela$$as, $&et&erinc8sto" or as a res8lt o* ro#al a7C87ication or 7ecree!It $as not, at t&is sta)e, necessaril#t&e sa"e t&in) as making law!2

T&e An)lo1%axon co7es $ere t&ere*ore "ainl# records o* t&e la$, or evidence o* $&at t&ela$ $as!Unli9e "o7ern le)islation, t&e $ritten co7es 7i7 not constit8te t&e la$!T&ere is not asin)le la$s8it *ro" t&is perio7 in $&ic& one o* t&e participants re*erre7 to $ritten le)islation!4

!. 'fter the )orman #on*uestIn t&e cent8r# or so *ollo$in) t&e Nor"an ConF8est in 1+33, t&ere $as relati=el# littlele)islati=e acti=it#!-illia" t&e ConF8eror le)islate7>i* it can (e calle7 t&at>"ainl# (# $rits,$&ic& co8l7 (e loosel# 7e*ine7 at t&is sta)e as letters *ro" t&e so=erei)n to o**icials or s8(Cects,containin) co""an7s, pro&i(itions, 7eclarations, concessions, an7 si"ilar le)al acts!'

5 See generally Peter ! Tiers"a, (egal (anguage '112 ?1'''@!