Symbols and Units

Symbols and units agree with SI standards (for conversion factors see page XI). The following list gives the most

important symbols used in the encyclopedia. Articles with many specific units and symbols have a similar list as

front matter.

Symbol Unit Physical Quantity

aB activity of substance BAr relative atomic mass (atomic weight)A m2 areacB mol/m

3, mol/L (M) concentration of substance B

C C/V electric capacitycp, cv J kg

1 K1 specific heat capacityd cm, m diameterd relative density (r/rwater)D m2/s diffusion coefficientD Gy (J/kg) absorbed dosee C elementary chargeE J energyE V/m electric field strengthE V electromotive forceEA J activation energyf activity coefficientF C/mol Faraday constantF N forceg m/s2 acceleration due to gravityG J Gibbs free energyh m heighth Ws2 Planck constantH J enthalpyI A electric currentI cd luminous intensityk (variable) rate constant of a chemical reactionk J/K Boltzmann constantK (variable) equilibrium constantl m lengthm g, kg, t massMr relative molecular mass (molecular weight)n20D refractive index (sodium D-line, 20

C)n mol amount of substanceNA mol

1 Avogadro constant (6.023 1023mol1)P Pa, bar* pressureQ J quantity of heatr m radiusR JK1mol1 gas constantR W electric resistanceS J/K entropyt s, min, h, d, month, a timet C temperatureT K absolute temperatureu m/s velocityU V electric potential

Symbols and Units IX

Symbols and Units (Continued from p. IX)

Symbol Unit Physical Quantity

U J internal energyV m3, L, mL, mL volumew mass fractionW J workxB mole fraction of substance BZ proton number, atomic numbera cubic expansion coefficienta Wm2K1 heat-transfer coefficient (heat-transfer number)a degree of dissociation of electrolyte[a] 102deg cm2g1 specific rotationh Pas dynamic viscosityq C temperaturek cp/cvl Wm1K1 thermal conductivityl nm, m wavelengthm chemical potentialn Hz, s1 frequencyn m2/s kinematic viscosity (h/r)p Pa osmotic pressurer g/cm3 densitys N/m surface tensiont Pa (N/m2) shear stressj volume fractionc Pa1 (m2/N) compressibility

*The official unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa).

X Symbols and Units

Conversion Factors

SI unit Non-SI unit From SI to non-SI multiply by

Masskg pound (avoirdupois) 2.205

kg ton (long) 9.842 104kg ton (short) 1.102 103

Volumem3 cubic inch 6.102 104m3 cubic foot 35.315

m3 gallon (U.S., liquid) 2.642 102m3 gallon (Imperial) 2.200 102

TemperatureC F C l.8 32

ForceN dyne 1.0 105

Energy, WorkJ Btu (int.) 9.480 104J cal (int.) 2.389 101J eV 6.242 1018J erg 1.0 107J kWh 2.778 107J kpm 1.020 101

PressureMPa at 10.20

MPa atm 9.869

MPa bar 10

kPa mbar 10

kPa mm Hg 7.502

kPa psi 0.145

kPa torr 7.502

Powers of Ten

E (exa) 1018 d (deci) 101

P (peta) 1015 c (centi) 102

T (tera) 1012 m (milli) 103

G (giga) 109 m (micro) 106

M (mega) 106 n (nano) 109

k (kilo) 103 p (pico) 1012

h (hecto) 102 f (femto) 1015

da (deca) 10 a (atto) 1018

Conversion Factors XI

Abbreviations

The following is a list of the abbreviations used in the text. Common terms, the names of publications

and institutions, and legal agreements are included alongwith their full identities. Other abbreviations

will be defined wherever they first occur in an article. For further abbreviations, see page IX, Symbols

andUnits; pageXVI, FrequentlyCitedCompanies (Abbreviations), and pageXVII, CountryCodes in

patent references. The names of periodical publications are abbreviated exactly as done by Chemical

Abstracts Service.

abs. absolutea.c. alternating currentACGIH American Conference of Governmental

Industrial HygienistsACS American Chemical SocietyADI acceptable daily intakeADN accord europeen relatif au transport

international des marchandises danger-euses par voie de navigation interieure(European agreement concerning theinternational transportation of dangerousgoods by inland waterways)

ADNR ADN par le Rhin (regulation concerningthe transportation of dangerous goods onthe Rhine and all national waterways ofthe countries concerned)

ADP adenosine 50-diphosphateADR accord europeen relatif au transport

international des marchandises danger-euses par route (European agreementconcerning the international transporta-tion of dangerous goods by road)

AEC Atomic Energy Commission (UnitedStates)

a.i. active ingredientAIChE American Institute of Chemical

EngineersAIME American Institute of Mining,

Metallurgical, and Petroleum EngineersANSI American National Standards InstituteAMP adenosine 50-monophosphateAPhA American Pharmaceutical AssociationAPI American Petroleum InstituteASTM American Society for Testing and

MaterialsATP adenosine 50-triphosphateBAM Bundesanstalt fur Materialprufung

(Germany)BAT Biologischer Arbeitsstofftoleranzwert

(biological tolerance value for aworking material, established by MAKCommission, see MAK)

Beilstein Beilsteins Handbook of Organic Chem-istry, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York

BET Brunauer Emmett Teller

BGB1. Bundesgesetzblatt (Germany)BIOS British Intelligence Objectives Subcom-

mittee Report (see also FIAT)BOD biological oxygen demandbp boiling pointB.P. British PharmacopoeiaBS British Standardca. circacalcd. calculatedCAS Chemical Abstracts Servicecat. catalyst, catalyzedCEN Comite Europeen de Normalisationcf. compareCFR Code of Federal Regulations (United

States)cfu colony forming unitsChap. chapterChemG Chemikaliengesetz (Germany)C.I. Colour IndexCIOS Combined Intelligence Objectives Sub-

commitee Report (see also FIAT)CLP Classification, Labelling and PackagingCNS central nervous systemCo. CompanyCOD chemical oxygen demandconc. concentratedconst. constantCorp. Corporationcrit. criticalCSA Chemical Safety Assessment according

to REACHCSR Chemical Safety Report according to

REACHCTFA The Cosmetic, Toiletry and

Fragrance Association(United States)

DAB Deutsches Arzneibuch, DeutscherApotheker-Verlag, Stuttgart

d.c. direct currentdecomp. decompose, decompositionDFG Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft

(German Science Foundation)dil. dilute, dilutedDIN Deutsche Industrienorm (Germany)DMF dimethylformamideDNA deoxyribonucleic acid

XII Abbreviations

DOE Department of Energy (United States)DOT Department of Transportation

Materials Transportation Bureau(United States)

DTA differential thermal analysisEC effective concentrationEC European Communityed. editor, edition, editede.g. for exampleemf electromotive forceEmS Emergency ScheduleEN European Standard (European

Community)EPA Environmental Protection Agency

(United States)EPR electron paramagnetic resonanceEq. equationESCA electron spectroscopy for chemical

analysisesp. especiallyESR electron spin resonanceEt ethyl substituent (C2H5)et al. and othersetc. et ceteraEU European UnionEVO Eisenbahnverkehrsordnung

(Germany)exp (. . .) e(. . .), mathematical exponentFAO Food and Agriculture Organization

(United Nations)FDA Food and Drug Administration

(United States)FD&C Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act

(United States)FHSA Federal Hazardous Substances Act

(United States)FIAT Field Information Agency, Technical

(United States reports on the chemicalindustry in Germany, 1945)

Fig. figurefp freezing pointFriedlander P. Friedlander, Fortschritte der

Teerfarbenfabrikation und verwandterIndustriezweige Vol. 125, Springer,Berlin 18881942

FT Fourier transform(g) gas, gaseousGC gas chromatographyGefStoffV Gefahrstoffverordnung (regulations in

Germany concerning hazardoussubstances)

GGVE Verordnung in der BundesrepublikDeutschland uber die Beforderunggefahrlicher Guter mit der Eisenbahn(regulation in Germany concerningthe transportation of dangerous goodsby rail)

GGVS Verordnung in der BundesrepublikDeutschland uber die Beforderunggefahrlicher Guter auf der Strae(regulation in Germany concerning thetransportation of dangerous goods byroad)

GGVSee Verordnung in der BundesrepublikDeutschland uber die Beforderunggefahrlicher Guter mit Seeschiffen(regulation in Germany concerning thetransportation of dangerous goods bysea-going vessels)

GHS Globally Harmonised System of Chemi-cals (internationally agreed-upon system,created by theUN, designed to replace thevarious classification and labeling stan-dards used in different countries by usingconsistent criteria for classification andlabeling on a global level)

GLC gas-liquid chromatographyGmelin Gmelins Handbook of Inorganic

Chemistry, 8th ed., Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York

GRAS generally recognized as safeHal halogen substituent (F,Cl,Br,I)Houben-Weyl

Methoden der organischenChemie, 4th ed., Georg Thieme Verlag,Stuttgart

HPLC high performance liquidchromatography

H statement hazard statement in GHSIAEA International Atomic Energy AgencyIARC International Agency for Research on

Cancer, Lyon, FranceIATA-DGR International Air Transport

Association, Dangerous GoodsRegulations

ICAO International Civil AviationOrganization

i.e. that isi.m. intramuscularIMDG International Maritime Dangerous

Goods CodeIMO Inter-Governmental Maritime Consul-

tive Organization (in the past: IMCO)Inst. Institutei.p. intraperitonealIR infraredISO International Organization for

StandardizationIUPAC International Union of Pure and

Applied Chemistryi.v. intravenousKirk-Othmer

Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology,3rd ed., 19911998, 5th ed., 20042007,John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken

(1) liquid

Abbreviations XIII

Landolt-Bornstein

Zahlenwerte u. Funktionen aus Physik,Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik u.Technik, Springer, Heidelberg 19501980; Zahlenwerte und Funktionen ausNaturwissenschaften und Technik,Neue Serie, Springer, Heidelberg,since 1961

LC50 lethal concentration for 50% of the testanimals

LCLo lowest published lethal concentration

LD50 lethal dose for 50% of the test animalsLDLo lowest published lethal doseln logarithm (base e)LNG liquefied natural gaslog logarithm (base 10)LPG liquefied petroleum gasM mol/LM metal (in chemical formulas)MAK Maximale Arbeitsplatzkonzentration

(maximum concentration at theworkplace in Germany); cf. DeutscheForschungsgemeinschaft (ed.): Maxi-male Arbeitsplatzkonzentrationen(MAK) und BiologischeArbeitsstofftoleranzwerte(BAT),WILEY-VCH Verlag, Weinheim(published annually)

max. maximumMCA Manufacturing Chemists Association

(United States)

Me methyl substituent (CH3)MethodicumChimicum

Methodicum Chimicum, Georg ThiemeVerlag, Stuttgart

MFAG Medical First Aid Guide for Use inAccidents Involving DangerousGoods

MIK maximale Immissionskonzentration(maximum immission concentration)

min. minimummp melting pointMS mass spectrum, mass spectrometryNAS National Academy of Sciences

(United States)NASA National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (United States)

NBS National Bureau of Standards(United States)

NCTC National Collection of Type Cultures(United States)

NIH National Institutes of Health(United States)

NIOSH National Institute for OccupationalSafety and Health (United States)

NMR nuclear magnetic resonanceno. numberNOEL no observed effect level

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission(United States)

NRDC National Research DevelopmentCorporation (United States)

NSC National Service Center (United States)NSF National Science Foundation

(United States)NTSB National Transportation Safety Board

(United States)OECD Organization for EconomicCooperation

and DevelopmentOSHA Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (United States)p., pp. page, pagesPatty G.D. Clayton, F.E. Clayton (eds.):

Pattys Industrial Hygiene andToxicology, 3rd ed.,Wiley Interscience,New York

PB Publication Board Report (U.S.report Department of Commerce, Scientific

and Industrial Reports)PEL permitted exposure limitPh phenyl substituent (C6H5)Ph. Eur. European Pharmacopoeia, Council of

Europe, Strasbourgphr part per hundred rubber (resin)PNS peripheral nervous systemppm parts per millionP statement precautionary statement in GHSq.v. which see (quod vide)REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation

and Restriction of Chemicals (EUregulation addressing the productionand use of chemical substances, andtheir potential impacts on both humanhealth and the environment)

ref. refer, referenceresp. respectivelyRf retention factor (TLC)R.H. relative humidityRID reglement international concernant le

transport des marchandises dangereusespar chemin de fer (international con-vention concerning the transportation ofdangerous goods by rail)

RNA ribonucleic acidR phrase risk phrase according to(R-Satz) ChemG and GefStoffV (Germany)

rpm revolutions per minuteRTECS Registry of Toxic Effects of

Chemical Substances, edited by theNational Institute of OccupationalSafety and Health (United States)

(s) solidSAE Society of Automotive Engineers

(United States)

XIV Abbreviations

SAICM Strategic Approach on InternationalChemicals Management (internationalframework to foster the sound man-agement of chemicals)

s.c. subcutaneousSI International System of UnitsSIMS secondary ion mass spectrometryS phrase safety phrase according to(S-Satz) ChemG and GefStoffV (Germany)

STEL Short Term Exposure Limit (see TLV)STP standard temperature and pressure (0C,

101.325 kPa)Tg glass transition temperatureTA Luft Technische Anleitung zur Reinhaltung

der Luft (clean air regulation inGermany)

TA Larm Technische Anleitung zum Schutzgegen Larm (low noise regulation inGermany)

TDLo lowest published toxic doseTHF tetrahydrofuranTLC thin layer chromatographyTLV Threshold Limit Value (TWA

and STEL); published annually bythe American Conference of Govern-mental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH),Cincinnati, Ohio

TOD total oxygen demandTRK Technische Richtkonzentration

(lowest technically feasible level)TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act

(United States)TUV Technischer Uberwachungsverein

(Technical Control Board of Germany)TWA Time Weighted AverageUBA Umweltbundesamt (Federal

Environmental Agency, Germany)Ullmann Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial

Chemistry, 7th ed., Wiley-VCH,Weinheim 2011; UllmannsEncyclopedia of IndustrialChemistry, 6th ed., Wiley-VCH,Weinheim 2002; UllmannsEncyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,5th ed., VCH Verlagsgesellschaft,

Weinheim 19851996; UllmannsEncyklopadie der Technischen Chemie,4th ed., Verlag Chemie, Weinheim19721984; 3rd ed., Urban undSchwarzenberg, Munchen 19511970

USAEC United States Atomic EnergyCommission

USAN United States Adopted NamesUSD United States DispensatoryUSDA UnitedStatesDepartment ofAgricultureU.S.P. United States PharmacopeiaUV ultravioletUVV Unfallverhutungsvorschriften der

Berufsgenossenschaft (workplacesafety regulations in Germany)

VbF Verordnung in der BundesrepublikDeutschland uber die Errichtung undden Betrieb von Anlagen zurLagerung, Abfullung und Beforderungbrennbarer Flussigkeiten (regulation inGermany concerning the constructionand operation of plants for storage,filling, and transportation of flammableliquids; classification according to theflash point ofliquids, in accordance with the classifi-cation in the United States)

VDE Verband Deutscher Elektroingenieure(Germany)

VDI VereinDeutscher Ingenieure (Germany)vol volumevol. volume (of a series of books)vs. versusWGK Wassergefahrdungsklasse (water hazard

class, Germany)WHO World Health Organization (United

Nations)Winnacker-Kuchler

Chemische Technologie, 4th ed., CarlHanser Verlag, Munchen, 1982-1986;Winnacker-Kuchler, Chemische Tech-nik: Prozesse und Produkte, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 20032006

wt weight$ U.S. dollar, unless otherwise stated

Abbreviations XV

Frequently Cited Companies(Abbreviations)

AirProducts

Air Products and Chemicals

Akzo Algemene Koninklijke ZoutOrganon

Alcoa Aluminum Company of AmericaAllied Allied CorporationAmer. American CyanamidCyanamid CompanyBASF BASF AktiengesellschaftBayer Bayer AGBP British Petroleum CompanyCelanese Celanese CorporationDaicel Daicel Chemical IndustriesDainippon Dainippon Ink and Chemicals Inc.DowChemical

The Dow Chemical Company

DSM Dutch Staats MijnenDu Pont E.I. du Pont de Nemours & CompanyExxon Exxon CorporationFMC Food Machinery & Chemical

CorporationGAF General Aniline & Film CorporationW.R.Grace

W.R. Grace & Company

Hoechst Hoechst AktiengesellschaftIBM International Business Machines

CorporationICI Imperial Chemical Industries

IFP Institut Francais du PetroleINCO International Nickel Company3M Minnesota Mining and

Manufacturing CompanyMitsubishi Mitsubishi Chemical IndustriesChemical

Monsanto Monsanto CompanyNippon Nippon Shokubai Kagaku KogyoShokubai

PCUK Pechiney Ugine KuhlmannPPG Pittsburg Plate Glass IndustriesSearle G.D. Searle & CompanySKF Smith Kline & French LaboratoriesSNAM Societa Nazionale MetandottiSohio Standard Oil of OhioStauffer Stauffer Chemical CompanySumitomo Sumitomo Chemical CompanyToray Toray Industries Inc.UCB Union Chimique BelgeUnionCarbide

Union Carbide Corporation

UOP Universal Oil Products CompanyVEBA Vereinigte Elektrizitats- und Bergwerks-

AGWacker Wacker Chemie GmbH

XVI Frequently Cited Companies (Abbreviations)

Country Codes

The following list contains a selection of standard country codes used in the patent references.

AT AustriaAU AustraliaBE BelgiumBG BulgariaBR BrazilCA CanadaCH SwitzerlandCS CzechoslovakiaDD German Democratic RepublicDE Federal Republic of Germany

(and Germany before 1949)*

DK DenmarkES SpainFI FinlandFR FranceGB United KingdomGR GreeceHU HungaryID Indonesia

IL IsraelIT ItalyJP Japan*

LU LuxembourgMA MoroccoNL Netherlands*

NO NorwayNZ New ZealandPL PolandPT PortugalSE SwedenSU Soviet UnionUS United States of AmericaYU YugoslaviaZA South AfricaEP European Patent Office*

WO World Intellectual PropertyOrganization

*For Europe, Federal Republic ofGermany, Japan, and theNetherlands, the type of patent is specified:

EP (patent), EP-A (application), DE (patent), DE-OS (Offenlegungsschrift), DE-AS (Ausleges-

chrift), JP (patent), JP-Kokai (Kokai tokkyo koho), NL (patent), and NL-A (application).

Country Codes XVII

Periodic Table

XVIII Periodic Table

symbols_and_unitsconversion_factorsabbreviations