abbreviations and units (1)

Scientific English

Augusta University, June 7, 2017

Donald L. Hill, PhD

Education Research Coordinator

Comprehensive Cancer Center

University of Alabama at Birmingham

1

Scientific English

Scientific English

DONALD (DON) L. HILL, PhD




E-mail: [email protected]

2

Scientific English

Donald L. Hill

Education

Middle Tennessee State College, Murfreesboro, TN,

BS, Science

Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, PhD,

Biochemistry

University of California, Berkeley, CA, Postdoctoral

Research Assistant

3

Scientific English

Donald L. Hill

Professional Positions (part 1 of 2)

US Air Force

Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, AL

Research Biochemist

Senior Biochemist

Head, Membrane Biochemistry Section

Head, Biochemical Pharmacology Division

Associate Director, Biochemistry Research

Director, Biochemistry Research

Vice President, Biochemistry Research

Distinguished Scientist

Manager, Bioanalytical Chemistry Group

4

Scientific English

Donald L. Hill

Professional Positions (part 2 of 2)

University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL

Part-time faculty, College of General Studies

Adjunct Assoc. Professor of Pharmacology &Toxicology

Adjunct Senior Scientist, UAB Center for AIDS Research

Senior Scientist, UAB Comprehensive Cancer Center

Senior Scientist, UAB Center for AIDS Research

Professor, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology

Education Research Coordinator, Division of Preventive Medicine, 2008-2017

Education Research Coordinator, Comprehensive Cancer Center, 2017-present

5

Scientific English

Donald L. Hill

Experience:

Chemical disposition and site of action of cancer chemopreventive agents, antitumor agents, antiviral agents, and xenobiotics.

Professional activities:

Advisory Committee on Clinical Investigations, American Cancer Society

Ad hoc reviewer: NCI Chemo-Dietary Study Section, Department of Defense, Komen Foundation

Reviewer for numerous scientific journals

Publications:

More than 175, including two books:

Hill, D.L. The Biochemistry and Physiology of Tetrahymena. Academic Press (translated into Japanese).

Hill, D.L. A Review of Cyclophosphamide. Charles C Thomas.

6

Choice and Use of Words

Scientific English is not the same as literary English.

The fewer words you use to express an idea, the more effect the idea will have. Make every word count.

The more words, the less the meaning, and how does that profit anyone? - Ecclesiastes

Don’t use long words when short ones will do.

Don’t use the same word repeatedly.

Scientific English

7

Application of Principles

Poor: The reality is that products purchased

from these types of places are often

processed …

Principle: Unnecessary words.

Better: Products purchased from these

places are often processed …

Scientific English

Scientific English

Weak and/or vague words:

study (as a verb)

examine, explore

characterize

potential

attempt

suggest

affect, impact

might, can, could, possibly, eventually

some

several

9

Scientific English

Suggested words to be used instead of ‘study’:

analysis

evaluation

experiments

inquiry

survey

investigation

research effort

work

10

Scientific English

Example of weak words:

Poor: Herein, we have tried to

introduce the pharmacophores of

some anti-cancer agents ...

Better: As described herein, we

introduced the pharmacophores of

anti-cancer agents ...

11

Scientific English

Powerful words indicating action:

• strategy

• create

• determine, establish, identify

• elucidate

• achieve

• enhance

• decrease/increase

• improve

• produce

12

Overused (and imprecise) words

Scientific English

Poor Better

novel previously undefined

unique unusual, distinctive

critical, crucial essential, necessary

major (omit)

recently (omit)

using by use of, with

role (state involvement)

impact (state type of effect)

important (state involvement)

specifically in particular

13

Scientific English

Example:

Weak: These studies enhance knowledge

in the field of diabetes.

Better: These results are expected to

provide a new approach to therapy for

diabetic patients.

14

Scientific English

The findings

of this study

might

possibly

perhaps

be novel,

eventually.

15

Scientific English

Sentence Structure

The average length of effective sentences

is 15-20 words.

Variety in sentence structure changes the

rhythm in a paragraph and keeps the

reader’s attention.

16

Scientific English

Poor: The remaining fluid was drawn off

and the kidneys washed.

Better: The remaining fluid was drawn

off, and the kidneys were washed.

Parallel Construction

17

Paragraph Structure

Part 1 of 3

A paragraph should have 4-5 related sentences and

cover about one-half of a double-spaced, typed page.

Paragraphs usually contain 50-250 words, averaging

about 100 words.

A paragraph should be unified, containing one set of

information.

An effective paragraph could have an “hourglass”

structure, with the content moving from general (wide),

to specifics (narrow) to the conclusion (wide).

Scientific English

18

Paragraph Structure

Part 2 of 3

The topic sentence, usually placed at the

beginning, introduces the subject and main

thought.

Other sentences support the topic sentence, and

flow to the end of the paragraph.

It is advisable to use the same tense and voice

throughout a paragraph.

Paragraphs should connect with the preceding and

following paragraphs.

Scientific English

19

Paragraph Structure

Part 3 of 3

Techniques for linking paragraphs (and sentences)

Addition: moreover, further, furthermore, in addition

Comparison: similarly, likewise

Contrast: however, nevertheless, conversely, in contrast, otherwise

Cause/result: therefore, consequently, thus

Repetition: in other words

Exemplification: for example

Summary: in brief, in sum, finally

Scientific English

20

Use of Commas

Part 1 of 4

Before the words and, but, for, or, nor, yet, and still when

joining independent clauses.

Example: A PA28γ mutant without amino acids 76-103 did not

bind to MDM2, but a mutant lacking amino acids 66-161 did

bind.

Between all terms in a series, including the last two.

Example: PA28γ, REGγ, PSMe3, and Ki antigen are names for

the same protein.

Scientific English

21

Use of Commas

Part 2 of 4

To set off parenthetical openers.

Example: Here, we show that PA28γ serves as a cofactor.

Before and after parenthetical insertions (two commas).

Example: Over-expression of PA28γ, but not PA28β, reduced the level of p53 protein.

Scientific English

22

Scientific English

Part 3 of 4

Poor: Included are the optimum instrument settings

for temperature humidity rainfall and performance.

Better: Included are the optimum instrument

settings for temperature, humidity, rainfall, and

performance.

Use of Commas

23

Scientific English

Part 4 of 4

Poor: The kidney is an essential organ. It has the

capacity to secrete substances selectively. This

allows it to maintain proper composition of the

blood and other body fluids.

Better: The kidney, an essential organ, has the

capacity to secrete substances selectively,

allowing it to maintain proper composition of the

blood and other body fluids.

Use of Commas

24

Use of Semicolons

Use a semicolon between two main clauses not linked by a

conjunction. That is, subject + predicate ; subject + predicate.

Example: A PA28γ mutant lacking amino acids 66-161 bound to

MDM2; a mutant without amino acids 76-103 did not bind.

Use a semicolon to separate a series of items that themselves

contain commas.

Example: Expression of methylation in relation to TNM stage

was as follows: stage 1, 1/1; stage 2, 2/14; stage 3, 5/18; and

stage 4, 7/20.

Scientific English

25

Use of Colons

Use a colon to call attention to what follows.

Example: Expression of methylation in relation to TNM

stage was as follows: stage 1, 1/1; stage 2, 2/14;

stage 3, 5/18; and stage 4, 7/20.

Example: To detect unmethylated DNA, PCR was

accomplished with the following conditions: starting

at 95°C for 12 min, followed by 35 cycles of 94°C

for 30 sec.

Scientific English

26

Improper Language Use

Poor: Dr. Jones established that MDM2 was over-

expressed by use of Western blots. Western blots

measure the amount of protein present. The

amount of this protein relates to the capacity of

cells to divide.

Principles: Repetition of words and ‘choppy’

sentences

Better: By use of Western blots, which measure the

amount of protein present, Dr. Jones established

that MDM2 was over-expressed and thereby

determined the capacity of the cells to divide.

Scientific English

27

Use of Parentheses

Use parentheses as follows:

For citations: (Zhang et al., 2012)

For abbreviations: The purpose was to determine the

relationship between expression of methylation of the

gene promoter and metastasis in hepatocellular

carcinomas (HCCs).

To set off parenthetical material: For the two groups,

correlations between expression of thymidylate

synthase (determined by two different methods) and

response rate are expressed as relative ratios.

Scientific English

28

Capitalization

Part 1 of 2

Title Case = Initial upper-case letters for nouns and for

words of four or more letters (e.g., Prognostic Significance

of p53 Codon 72 Polymorphism Differs With Race in

Colorectal Adenocarcinoma)

Use the Title Case/capitals in the following:

• titles and subheadings

• titles of journals and books

• proper nouns, including trade names (e.g., Nanjing,

Sephadex)

• abbreviations previously defined (e.g., BMI, COPD)

Scientific English

29

Capitalization

Part 2 of 2

Use the Title Case (capitals) in the following:

• nouns followed by numbers (e.g., Day 1, Group 3)

• official names of departments (e.g., the Department

of Medicine at UAB) and courses (e.g., Chemistry

101) but not of disciplines (e.g., chemistry and

biology)

• references to sections of an article (e.g., see

Results; in Figure 1; see Appendix 3)

Scientific English

30

Use of Hyphens

Examples:

• down-regulation

• two-way analysis

• high-frequency waves

• 2-min intervals

• long- and short-term memory

• forty-six, ninety-nine

But:

• widely used

• randomly assigned

Scientific English

31

Use of Apostrophes

An apostrophe (’) denotes possession.

• Example: A scientist’s manuscript.

• Example: Two scientists’ publications.

An apostrophe is used in contractions: “it’s” for “it is.”

In scientific writing, try to avoid use of apostrophes.

• Poor: The DNA’s sequence.

• Better: The sequence of the DNA.

Scientific Writing

32

Prepositional Phrases

Try to use no more than two

prepositional phrases in a row.

Poor: A deficiency in the number of

people in this category ...

Better: A deficient number of people in

this category ...

Scientific English

33

Which and That

Part 1 of 2

Use the word “which,” preceded by a comma, to introduce a nonrestrictive clause (one that is not essential to the meaning of a sentence).

Example: The NF-κB signaling pathway, which is constitutively active, drives the malignant phenotype.

Use the word “that,” without a comma, to introduce a restrictive clause (one that is essential to the meaning of the sentence).

Example: A pathway that is constitutively active drives the malignant phenotype.

Scientific English

34

Which and That

Part 2 of 2

Poor: The skeleton has bumps, that project

from the surface of the animal.

Better: The skeleton has bumps that project

from the surface of the animal.

Scientific English

35


Misplaced modifier:

Poor: The patient was treated in the

emergency room by physicians after

being wounded.

Better: After being wounded, the patient

was treated in the emergency room by

physicians.

Scientific English

36


Misplaced modifier:

Poor: A fasting urine specimen was

collected.

Better: A urine specimen was collected

after the patient had fasted for 12

hours.

Scientific English

37


Use of passive voice:

Poor: Since the methodology was faulty,

the results of the experiment were

determined to be inconclusive.

Better: Because of faulty methodology,

the experiment showed inconclusive

results.

Scientific English

38


Use of passive voice:

Poor: No bacteria were observed using

dimethyl sulfoxide.

Better: When dimethyl sulfoxide was present,

no bacteria were evident.

Scientific English

39


Poor: Kaiso has been demonstrated to regulate

the cyclin D1 promoter by binding to

methylated CpG-dinucleotides.

Principles: Unnecessary words; passive voice.

Better: Kaiso regulates the cyclin D1 promoter

by binding to methylated CpG-dinucleotides.

Scientific English

40


Use of jargon:

Poor: The experiment was carried out in our lab

with dose preps provided by Dr. Anderson.

Better: The experiment was accomplished in our

laboratory with dose preparations provided by

Dr. Anderson.

Scientific English

41


Use of jargon and overuse of words:

Poor: It might be expected that treatment of

dogs with these shots would be effective.

Better: These inoculations should be effective

for treatment of dogs.

Scientific English

42


Noun strings:

Poor: Surface water quality protection

procedures ...

Better: Procedures to protect the quality

of surface water ...

Scientific English

43


Noun strings:

Poor: renal lithium excretion

Better: renal excretion of lithium

Scientific English

44


Stacked modifiers:

Poor: The three patients had histologically

confirmed malignant metastatic intra-

abdominal tumors.

Better: In their abdomens, the three patients

had tumors that were histologically

confirmed to be malignant and metastatic.

Scientific English

45


Poor: Subcutaneous and metastasis xenograft

models were used for therapeutic efficacy

evaluation.

Principle: Stacked words (x2).

Better: Subcutaneous and xenograft models of

metastasis were used for evaluation of therapeutic

efficacy.

Scientific English

46


Inconsistent tense:

Poor: Dr. Grizzle evaluated the test results, which show that protein expression was enhanced.

Better: Dr. Grizzle evaluated the test results, which showed enhanced protein expression.

Scientific English

47


Indefinite pronouns:

Poor: When the instrument recorded the

value, it was out of the calibration

range.

Better: When the instrument recorded the

value, the instrument was out of the

calibration range.

Scientific English

48


Overuse of the verb “to be”:

Poor: This course is a presentation of guidelines for

scientific writing. It is intended to provide writers

with appropriate skills. At the end, scientists are to

prepare and submit a manuscript.

Better: This course, which presents guidelines for

scientific writing, provides writers with appropriate

skills so that, at the end, they are able to prepare

and submit a manuscript.

Scientific English

49


Which is better?

“800 mL of acetone was added to the preparation.”

“800 mL of acetone were added to the preparation.”

Questions:

Should a sentence begin with a number?

Is 800 mL singular or plural?

Answer:

A better construction is “Acetone (800 mL) was added to

the preparation.”

Scientific English

50

Concise Writing

Poor: The authors conclude that there is

evidence that the limiting diameter lies

between sixteen and twenty angstroms

in these cells taken from mammals.

Better: Thus, these mammalian cells have a

limiting diameter of 16-20 Å.

Scientific English

51

Concise Writing

Poor: Numerous strains of T. cruzi are

reported to cause chronic chagas’

disease.

Better: Various strains of Trypanosoma

cruzi cause Chagas disease.

Scientific English

52

Concise Writing

Poor: Figure 24 is a cichlid fish from a

Florida pond where metacercariae (at

arrow) were found in the gill cavity.

Better: Metacercariae (arrow, Figure 24)

were present in the gill cavity of a

cichlid fish found in a Florida pond.

Scientific English

53

Concise Writing

Poor: Glipizide, metformin and

thiazolidinediones have all three been shown

to be effective at lowering blood sugar in

larval zebrafish.

Better: In larval zebrafish, glipizide, metformin,

and thiazolidinediones lower blood sugar.

Scientific English

54


Poor: An excessive amount of solar radiation

received at a rapid rate has been shown by a

large body of data to have the capability of

inflicting epidermal damage.

Better: Too much sunlight burns the skin.

Scientific English

55

Undesirable in Scientific English

Use of “emotion-based” words:

Poor: Surprisingly, the MDM2 protein with a C-terminal

deletion down-regulated the p21 protein.

Poor: Unfortunately, the MDM2 protein with a C-terminal


Poor: Interestingly, the MDM2 protein with a C-terminal


Better: Nevertheless, the MDM2 protein with a C-

terminal deletion down-regulated the p21 protein.

Scientific English

56

Language Use

Use of ‘respectively’:

Poor: The drug concentrations in plasma were

10, 17, 23, and 87 ng/mL, respectively.

Better: The drug concentrations in plasma were

10, 17, 23, and 87 ng/mL.

Correct: The drug concentrations in plasma at 1,

2, 4, and 60 min were 10, 17, 23, and 87 ng/mL,

respectively.

Acceptable: The drug concentrations in plasma

at 1, 2, 4, and 60 min were 10, 17, 23, and 87

ng/mL.

Scientific English

57

Words and Phrases to Avoid (1)

Avoid Preferred

in the event that if

due to the fact that because

it is often the case that frequently

in spite of the fact that although

so as to to

over (amount) more than

this study the present investigation

Scientific English

58


Avoid Preferred

take into consideration consider

at the present time now

in order to to

in a number of cases (state number)

in many cases often

in view of the fact that since

subsequent to after

it has been reported by Smith Smith reported

Scientific English

59


Avoid Preferred

paradigm pattern

causal factor cause

during the time that when or while

fewer in number fewer

in spite of the fact despite

with regard to concerning

it is often the case that (state how often)

a sufficient number of enough

Scientific English

60


Avoid Preferred

very (omit)

important (define)

importantly (omit)

more/most importantly (omit)

it has been found that (omit)

recent studies have indicated that (omit)

Scientific English

61


Avoid Preferred

a majority of most

one of the a

hopefully (omit)

above (as an adjective) (define)

aforementioned (define)

so as to to

subsequent to after

Scientific English

62


Avoid Preferred

significant substantial

for the purpose of for

on a daily basis daily

of great practical importance useful

It has long been known that . . . (look up the reference)

It is clear that much additional (omit)

work will be required before

there is a complete understanding.

Scientific English

63

Redundant words

Avoid Preferred

exact same same

possibly may may

possibly suggest suggest

total absence absence

true fact fact

eliminate completely eliminate

absolutely essential essential

refer back to refer to

pooled together pooled

Scientific English

64

Scientific English

Little Words

“the”, “a”, and “an”

“the mouse” and “a mouse”

“the experiment” and “an experiment”

Fundamentals of Chemistry and

The Fundamentals of Chemistry

65

Examples of Precise Word Choice

Poor: To allow penetration of the drug

into PC3 cells, we exposed them to a

phospholipid.

Better: To allow penetration of the drug

into PC3 cells, they were exposed to

L-α-phosphatidylcholine.

Scientific English

66


Improve the following sentence:

Poor: Reduced oxygen tension provides a favorable

environment for in vitro parasite development.

Better: Reduced oxygen tension provides a favorable

environment for parasite development in vitro.

Even better: In laboratory cultures, reduced oxygen

tension provides a favorable environment for

parasite development.

Scientific English

67

Examples of Precise Word Choice (2)

Note: “In in vitro experiments . . .” is

improper because of the overuse of

“in” and because “in vitro” is not an

adjective.

Note: The terms, in vitro and in vivo,

are generally ambiguous.

Scientific English

68

Abbreviations and Units (1)

Limit the use of abbreviations.

Use an abbreviation if the full name is long or if the abbreviation is known to researchers in the field.

Standard abbreviations (e.g., DNA, ATP, EDTA) do not require definition.

Do not abbreviate single words.

Define abbreviations at the first use.

If a term is used only once, do not abbreviate it.

Scientific English

69

Abbreviations and Units (2)

Figure, figure, Fig, Fig., fig, fig., Figure, figure, Fig, Fig., fig, or fig.?

“ml” or “mL”?

Poor: This disease occurs in mice, rats,

hamsters, etc.

Better: This disease occurs in rodents.

Scientific English

70

Scientific English

Numbers and Time

Single-digit numbers, especially those ≤10, are

normally written as words.

Numbers should be rounded appropriately: 2.17

~ 2.2; 2.15 ~ 2.2; 2.14 ~ 2.1.

Use consistent abbreviations for seconds,

minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, and

years.

71

72

Augusta University, June 7, 2017

Donald L. Hill, PhD




Preparation of Scientific Manuscripts

73

Overview: The Publication Process

Submit manuscript

Assignment and peer review

Editorial decisionRejection Revision

Acceptance

Publication

Research

Resubmission

Re-review

Rejection

74

Original research results

First report of the data

Allows peers to repeat the experiments (not necessarily the results)

Published in a journal or other public document

Qualities of a an Effective Manuscript (1)

75

Qualities of an Effective Manuscript (2)

Characteristic format (generally):

IMRaD [Introduction, Methods (& Materials),

Results, and Discussion]

• Introduction: What was studied and why?

• Methods: How was it studied?

• Results: What were the findings?

• Discussion: What do the findings mean?

75

76

Title (1)

Points to consider – part 1 of 2:

It is usually written in “Title Case,” with upper-

case letters for nouns and other words of more

than four letters.

Use specific terms (key words).

Use the fewest words possible to describe the

contents of the manuscript.

The first noun should be powerful.

Sentence titles, which are now often used, can

appear to be dogmatic.

77

Title (2)

Points to consider – part 2 of 2:

It is generally appropriate to choose the title when

the manuscript is almost complete.

Many people (and abstracting services) will read the

title.

Titles should (almost never) contain abbreviations,

chemical formulas, or proprietary names.

78

Title (3)

Poor: Action of Streptomycin on

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Better: Inhibition of Mycobacterium

tuberculosis by Streptomycin

Poor: Suppression of Non-transmissible

Pneumonia in Mice Induced by Newcastle

Disease Virus

Better: Suppression of Non-transmissible

Pneumonia Induced in Mice by Newcastle

Disease Virus

79

Title (4)

Do not include in the title:

Abbreviations other than well-accepted

standards such as, DNA, RNA, and RT-PCR

Punctuation other than commas

The words “study,” “critical,” or “first”

Extensive prepositional phrases

(of…in…of…)

80

Title (5)

Example:

Poor: The Use of Microbiological and

Enzymatic Assays in Studies on the

Disposition of 2'-Deoxycoformycin in the

Mouse

Better: Disposition of 2’-Deoxycoformycin in

Mice as Determined by Microbiological and

Enzymatic Analyses

81

Title (7)

Exercise:

Improve the following title:

Poor: Assay for TCGF in Leghorn

Chickens in the US

Better: An Analytical Method for T-

Cell Growth Factor in Chickens

82

Abstract (1)

General Suggestions:

● It is a “window” that reveals the contents

of the manuscript.

● Except for some structured abstracts

(more common nowadays), it is a single

paragraph.

● It has limited length, often <250 words.

Abstract (2)

Should contain:

the background (1-3 sentences)

the hypothesis (1 sentence)

the purpose of the effort

model systems used

general methods

a short description of the results

the meaning of the work

84

Abstract (3)


It should be complete without reference to the text.

All key findings should be included.

It should ordinarily be written after a semi-final

draft of the manuscript has been prepared.

In contrast to a meeting abstract, the abstract for a

manuscript should ordinarily not include data

values.

85

Abstract (4)


Citations should not be included unless ...

Few abbreviations are included.

Terms included in the abstract are included in

databases for literature searches.

Contents should attract the interest of the editor and

reviewers.

Editors will often use the abstract to determine

whether the manuscript should be reviewed.

Readers may read only the abstract.

86

Include in this section:

A brief review of the field (~1 paragraph), including a

description of areas that are unclear or

uncharacterized.

An introduction to the present report (~1 paragraph),

including the hypothesis, models, and conclusions

A simple figure (perhaps), e.g., the structure for a

newly identified chemical that has been published.

A brief comparison of the present results to the

current knowledge, concluding with the contribution

to health.

Background/Introduction (1)

87

This section should be short – ≤500 words.

•Discuss any unknown factors and controversies that

exist with respect to the rationale for the studies.

•Much should be written in the present tense.

• It is best written in the active voice, which gives

writing a sense of strength, energy, and direction.

(The active voice is also 20-30% shorter than the

passive voice.)


88

The first sentence should stimulate the

interest of the reader.

Poor: The purpose of this article is to show

that case management can be a cost-

effective approach in patient care.

(unnecessary words)

Better: Case management is a cost-effective

approach in patient care.


89

Materials and Methods (1)


For beginning authors, this section, which is easiest

to write, can be written first.

Much of this section is written in the past tense,

passive voice.

Often used subheadings are: Chemicals and

reagents; Instruments; Subjects; Animal models and

treatments; Analytical methods; Statistical analyses.

90



Sources of main materials.

Experimental animals, plants, and microorganisms

identified by genus, species, strain, and age.

Treatment routes and durations.

Descriptions of new techniques/models or

changes in standard techniques.

91


For human subjects, the criteria used for their

selection, a statement indicating that informed

consent was obtained, and that your IRB

approved the investigation.

For animals, a statement that your experiments

were in compliance with the animal regulations or

your institution .

Information on statistical analyses performed and

the number of observations in each group.


92

Results (1)

General Guidelines :

Present in a logical order.

Present only selected data.

Tell a story that supports the conclusion.

Write in the past tense.

Provide sufficient interpretation of data but leave analysis

and comparison of findings for the Discussion section.

Avoid duplication of information in the text and in tables

and figure legends.

93

General suggestions for tables – part 1 of 2:

Should be understood without referring to the text.

In general, use no more than one table per 1000 words

of text.

Numbers should show no more decimal places than

are essential for precision and accuracy.

Align decimals in columns.

Captions (generally not sentences) should be concise,

contain key words, and be parallel for all tables.

Illustrations (1)

94

Example for referring to a table:

Poor: Table 1 shows that animals dosed

with 4-HPR developed fewer

adenocarcinomas.

Better: Animals dosed with 4-HPR

developed fewer adenocarcinomas

(Table 1).

Illustrations (3)

95

General suggestions for graphs – part 1 of 3:

Graphs should convey information better than text

or a table.

Graphs should be understood without referring to

the text.

Graphs show trends, overall patterns, and

interactions between variables.

Graphs demonstrate change over time or

concentration.

Illustrations (4)

Illustrations (5)


Graphs do not emphasize individual

values.

Graphs should avoid wasted space.

The independent variable is on the x-axis,

and the dependent variable on the y-axis.

Plot the curves so that they are not

excessively flat or steep.

96

97

Illustrations (6)


Captions should be concise, contain key words,

and parallel for all graphs. Captions should not be

sentences.

The number of curves on a graph should be ≤ 5.

It is generally better to use symbols (●, ■, ▲)

than line patterns.

The curves should be bold and easy to see; the

axes and tic marks can be less bold, but still be

easy to see.

97

98

Discussion (1)


The primary function is to relate the present work to

previous reports and to point to future efforts.

An introductory statement can describe – again – the

purpose of the experiments.

The topics should be parallel to those in the Results.

The main purpose is to present principles,

relationships, and generalizations.

The length is generally about 1/4 of the text.

99

Discussion (2)


Use the present tense for other published work,

and past tense for the present work

Prepare the Discussion in the context of the

Background/Introduction.

Avoid reiteration of Results, but present

conclusions based on the results.

100

Discussion (3)


Show how your data agree with previous

results; point out exceptions.

State the contribution of the results.

Limited speculation is acceptable.

Identify future studies that are needed.

101

Discussion (4)


The conclusions should be logically

derived from the data presented.

Identify possible sources or error and

inadequacies in the work.

Present a strong ending.

102

References (1)


Limit the number of citations. For most publications (except

reviews), < 50 citations are adequate.

Include primary citations.

Cite reviews rather than each article covered by the review.

Instead of listing numerous references for a prior

discovery, it is acceptable to state, “as summarized by . . .”

or “as reviewed by . . .”

Avoid excessive self-citation.

Include citations of pertinent manuscripts published by

others. (Remember who your reviewers might be!)

103

References (2)


Check references for accuracy.

Include references to unpublished data in the text.

Example: (D. L. Hill, unpublished data)

Check abbreviations: Is it Journal of the American

Chemical Society, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., J. Am.

Chem. Soc., J.A.C.S., or JACS?

Standard abbreviations for journals can be found at

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=journals

104

References (3)


Do not cite more than three references per statement.

For a topic with a large number of possible references,

cite the one reporting the initial discovery and a recent

reference, or cite one or two reviews.

Sample references can be found at

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/uniform_requirements.html

Check a recent journal article for style of references.

105

References (4)

Follow the format for the selected journal. The following

style is used by some journals:

Halpern SD, Ubel PA, Caplan AL. Solid-organ

transplantation in HIV-infected patients. N Engl J

Med. 2002 Jul 25;347(4):284-7.

Note: If the journal carries continuous pagination

throughout a volume (most do), the month, day, and

issue number can be omitted, as follows:

Halpern SD, Ubel PA, Caplan AL. Solid-organ

transplantation in HIV-infected patients. N Engl J

Med. 2002;347:284-7.

abbreviations and units (1)

Documents