sustainable energy development in turkey

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Sustainable Energy Development inTurkeyS. Karagoz a & K. Bakirci aa Department of Mechanical Engineering, Atatürk University,Erzurum, TurkeyPublished online: 30 Nov 2009.

To cite this article: S. Karagoz & K. Bakirci (2009) Sustainable Energy Development in Turkey, EnergySources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy, 5:1, 63-73, DOI: 10.1080/15567240802053343

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Energy Sources, Part B, 5:63–73, 2010

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DOI: 10.1080/15567240802053343

Sustainable Energy Development in Turkey

S. KARAGOZ1

and K. BAKIRCI1

1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey

Abstract Turkey’s demand for energy and electricity is increasing rapidly. Turkeyis heavily dependent on expensive imported energy resources that place a big burden

on the economy, and air pollution is becoming a great environmental concern inthe country. As would be expected, the rapid expansion of energy production and

consumption has brought with it a wide range of environmental issues at the local,regional, and global levels. With respect to global environmental issues, Turkey’s

carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have grown along with its energy consumption. Stateshave played a leading role in protecting the environment by reducing emissions of

greenhouse gases. In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be one of themost efficient and effective solutions for clean and sustainable energy development

in Turkey. Turkey’s geographical location has several advantages for extensive useof most of these renewable energy sources. This article presents a review of the

sustainable energy policies and utilization of the renewable energy sources in Turkey.

Keywords energy utilization, renewable energy, sustainable development, Turkey

Introduction

Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved quality of life

in all countries as in the case of Turkey. Much of the world’s energy, however, is

currently produced and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if technology

were to remain constant and if overall quantities were to increase substantially. The

need to control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and other gases and substances

will increasingly need to be based on efficiency in energy production, transmission,

distribution, and consumption in the country. Electricity supply infrastructures in many

developing countries are being rapidly expanded as policymakers and investors around

the world increasingly recognize electricity’s pivotal role in improving living standards

and sustaining economic growth (Kaygusuz, 2007).

There is a growing concern that long-run sustainable development may be compro-

mised unless measures are taken to achieve balance between economic, environmental,

and social outcomes. This article looks at three specific issues of sustainable development

that are of particular importance for Turkey: addressing climate change, reducing air

pollution, and ensuing sustainable use of natural resources. In each case, indicators are

presented to measure progress and the evolution of potential problems, and an assessment

is made of government policies in that area. Since the early 1980s, Turkish energy policy

has concentrated on market liberalization in an effort to stimulate investment in response

to increasing internal energy demand. Turkey’s new government has continued this policy

Address correspondence to Dr. Sendogan Karagoz, Department of Mechanical Engineering,Atatürk University, 25240 Erzurum, Turkey. E-mail: [email protected]

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64 S. Karagoz and K. Bakırcı

Table 1

Total final energy production in Turkey (Mtoe)

Energy sources 2005 2010 2020 2030

Coal and lignite 20.69 26.15 32.36 35.13

Oil 1.66 1.13 0.49 0.17

Gas 0.16 0.17 0.14 0.10

Nuclear — — 7.30 14.60

Hydropower 4.16 5.34 10.00 10.00

Geothermal 0.70 0.98 1.71 3.64

Solar/wind/other 0.22 1.05 2.27 4.28

Total production 27.59 34.82 54.27 67.92

Source: MENR, 2007.

despite lower energy demand induced by the 2001 economic crisis. This article also

provides an overview of the renewable energy and sustainable development in Turkey.

Energy Utilization in Turkey

Turkey is an energy importing country; more than half of the energy requirement has

been supplied by imports. Oil has the biggest share in total primary energy consumption.

Due to the diversification efforts of energy sources, use of natural gas that was newly

introduced into the Turkish economy, has been growing rapidly. Turkey has large reserves

of coal, particularly of lignite. The proven lignite reserves are 8.0 billion tons (Table 1).

The estimated total possible reserves are 30 billion tons. Turkey, with its young population

and growing energy demand per person, its fast growing urbanization, and its economic

development, has been one of the fast growing power markets of the world for the last

two decades (see Figures 1 and 2). It is expected that the demand for electric energy in

Figure 1. Turkey’s primary energy production during 2005–2030.

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Sustainable Energy Development 65

Figure 2. Turkey’s primary energy consumption forecast 2005–2030.

Turkey will be 300 billion kWh by the year 2010 and 580 billion kWh by the year 2020.

Turkey’s electric energy demand is growing about 6–8% yearly due to fast economic

growing (MEF, 2007; MENR, 2007; IEA, 2005; DPT, 2001).

In 2005, primary energy production and consumption has reached 28 and 96 mil-

lion tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe), respectively (Tables 1 and 2). The most significant

developments in production are observed in hydropower, geothermal, solar energy, and

coal production. Turkey’s use of hydropower, geothermal, and solar thermal energy has

increased since 1990. However, the total share of renewables in total primary energy

supply (TPES) has declined, owing to the declining use of non-commercial biomass and

the growing role of natural gas in the system. Turkey has recently announced that it

will reopen its nuclear program in order to respond to the growing electricity demand

while avoiding increasing dependence on energy imports. As of the end of 2005, installed

Table 2

Total final energy consumption in Turkey (Mtoe)

Energy sources 2005 2010 2020 2030

Coal and lignite 35.46 39.70 107.57 198.34

Oil 34.60 51.17 71.89 102.38

Gas 19.40 49.58 74.51 126.25

Nuclear — — 7.30 14.60

Hydropower 4.16 5.34 10.00 10.00

Geothermal 1.89 0.97 1.71 3.64

Solar/wind/other 0.22 1.05 2.27 4.28

Total primary energy consumption 95.73 147.81 275.25 459.49

Source: MENR, 2007.

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capacity and generation capacity of power plants reached 41,457 MW and 163,234 GWh,

respectively (MEF, 2007; MENR, 2007).

The TPES in Turkey grew by 3.0% per year between 1990 and 2005, the fastest

growth rate among IEA Member countries. Coal (hard C lignite) is the dominant fuel,

accounting for 37.2% of TPES in 2005. Oil (28%) and gas (20.3%) also contributed

significantly. Renewable energy, mostly biomass, waste, and hydropower, accounted for

13%. Hydropower represented 4.5% of TPES in 2005. Biomass, primarily fuel wood

consumed by households, represented almost 9%. The economic downturn in Turkey in

2000–2005 caused TPES to decline by 6.0%. But energy demand is expected to more than

double by 2010, according to Turkish government sources (MEF, 2007; MENR, 2007;

IEA, 2005). On the other hand, gas accounted for 43.8% of total electricity generation

in 2005, coal accounted for 26.58%, and oil accounted for about 5%. Hydropower is the

main indigenous source for electricity production and represented 25% of total generation

in 2005. Hydropower declined significantly relative to 2000 due to lower electricity

demand and to take-or-pay contracts in the natural gas market (MEF, 2007).

Renewable Energy in Turkey

Renewable energy supply in Turkey is dominated by hydropower and biomass, but

environmental and scarcity-of-supply concerns have led to a decline in biomass use,

mainly for residential heating. Total renewable energy supply declined from 1990 to 2004,

due to a decrease in biomass supply. As a result, the composition of renewable energy

supply has changed and wind power is beginning to claim market share. As a contributor

of air pollution and deforestation, the share of biomass in the renewable energy share

is expected to decrease with the expansion of other renewable energy sources. Table 3

shows renewable energy supply in Turkey (MEF, 2007; MENR, 2007).

Hydropower

There are 436 sites available for hydroelectric plant construction, distributed on 26 main

river zones. The total gross potential and total energy production capacity of these sites are

nearly 50 GW and 112 TWh/yr, respectively, and about 30% of the total gross potential

may be economically exploitable. At present, only about 35% of the total hydroelectric

power potential is in operation. The national development plan aims to harvest all of the

hydroelectric potential by 2010. The contribution of small hydroelectric plants to total

electricity generation is estimated to be 5–10% (MENR, 2007; IEA, 2005; TEIAS, 2005;

DSI, 2006; Yüksek and Kaygusuz, 2006). On the other hand, the Southeastern Anatolia

Project (GAP) is one of the largest power generating, irrigation, and development projects

of its kind in the world, covering 3.0 million ha of agricultural land. This is over 10% of

the cultivable land in Turkey; the land to be irrigated is more than half of the presently

irrigated are in Turkey. The GAP project on the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers encompasses

22 dams and 19 hydroelectric power plants. Once completed, 27 billion kWh of electricity

will be generated and irrigating 1.7 million hectares (Yüksek et al., 2006; GAP, 2005).

Biomass

Among the renewable energy sources, biomass is important because its share of total

energy consumption is still high in Turkey. Since 1980, the contribution of the biomass

resources in the total energy consumption dropped from 20 to 10% in 2005. Biomass in

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Table 3

Renewable energy supply in Turkey

Renewable energy sources 1990 1995 2000 2002 2005

Primary energy supply

Hydropower (ktoe) 1,991 3,057 2,656 2,897 4,067

Geothermal, solar, and wind (ktoe) 461 654 978 1,142 1,683

Biomass and waste (ktoe) 7,208 7,068 6,457 5,974 5,325

Renewable energy production (ktoe) 9,660 10,779 10,091 10,013 11,074

Share of total domestic production (%) 38 40 38 40 48

Share of TPES (%) 18 17 12 13 12

Generation

Hydropower (GWh) 23,148 35,541 30,879 33,684 47,287

Geothermal, solar, and wind (GWh) 80 86 109 153 490

Renewable energy generation (GWh) 23,228 35,627 30,988 33,837 47,777

Share of total generation (%) 40 41 25 26 29

Total final consumption

Geothermal, solar, and wind (ktoe) 392 580 910 1,048 1,385

Biomass and waste (ktoe) 7,208 7,068 6,457 5,974 5,325

Renewable total consumption (ktoe) 7,600 7,648 7,367 7,022 6,710

Share of total final consumption (%) 18 15 12 12 10

Source: IEA, 2005; MENR, 2007.

the forms of fuelwood and animal wastes is the main fuel for heating and cooking in many

urban and rural areas. Using vegetable oils as fuel alternatives has economic, environ-

mental, and energy benefits for Turkey. Vegetable oils have heat contents approximately

90% of that of diesel fuel. A major obstacle deterring their use in the direct-injection

engine is their inherent high viscosities, which are nearly ten times that of diesel fuel. The

overall evaluation of the results indicated that these oils and biodiesel can be proposed

as possible candidates for fuel. Organic wastes are of vital importance for the soil, but

in Turkey most of these organic wastes are used as fuel through direct combustion.

Animal wastes are mixed with straw to increase the calorific value, and are then dried

for use. This is the principal fuel of many villages in rural regions of Turkey, especially

in mountainous regions (Acaroglu et al., 1999; Kaygusuz and Türker, 2002; Demirbas,

2004; Balat, 2005; Bilgen et al., 2007; Bilen et al., 2007).

Turkey is a developing country with rich agricultural potential, but the amount of

utilization is very low. In agricultural residues, the total residues amount calculated in dry

base has been measured approximately between 40–53 million tons. If it is accepted that

80% of cereal can be used and its average humidity rate is 15%, then the total amount of

agricultural residues used in power plants would be the average between 30–35 million

tons.

Biogas systems are considered to be strong alternatives to the traditional space

heating systems (stoves) in rural Turkey. The economics of biogas systems are compared

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with traditional heating systems fuelled by wood, coal and wood mixture, and dried

animal waste in three different climatic regions in the country. The technical data used

in the analysis are based on the experimental results. Seven different comparisons are

made between the biogas and traditional systems. The payback periods, cumulated life-

cycle savings, and the cost of biogas are calculated for a wide range using two unstable

economic parameters, discount and inflation rates. The quality of the model and the

assumptions are discussed. The results provide evidence of the economic viability of

biogas systems over the traditional space heating systems of rural Turkey in many

instances (MEF, 2007; MENR, 2007).

Geothermal Energy

Turkey is one of the countries with significant potential in geothermal energy and about

4,500 MW of geothermal energy usable for electrical power generation in high enthalpy

zones may exist. Heating capacity in the country runs at 350 MWt equivalent to 50,000

households. These numbers can be heightened some seven-fold to 2,250 MWt equal

to 350, 000 households through a proven and exhaustible potential. Turkey must target

1.2 million households, which is equivalent to 7,700 MWt. Geothermal central heating,

which is less costly than natural gas could be feasible for many regions in the country.

In addition, 31,000 MW of geothermal energy potential is estimated for direct use in

thermal applications. The total geothermal energy potential of Turkey was about 2,268

MW in 1998, but the share of geothermal energy production, both for electrical and

thermal uses is only 1,229 MW. There are 26 geothermal district heating systems exists

now and main city geothermal district heating systems are in Gönen, Simav, and Kırsehir

cities (Hepbaslı and Ozgener, 2004; Kaygusuz and Kaygusuz, 2004; Kaya, 2006; MEF,

2007; MENR, 2007).

Solar Energy

Turkey lies in a sunny belt between 36ı and 42ı N latitudes. The yearly average solar

radiation is 3.6 kWh/m2-day and the total yearly radiation period is approximately 2,640

h, which is sufficient to provide adequate energy for solar thermal applications. In spite

of this high potential, solar energy is not now widely used, except for flat-plate solar

collectors. They are only used for domestic hot water production, mostly in the sunny

coastal regions. In 2005, about total 8.0 million m2 solar collectors were produced and

it is predicted that total solar energy production is about 0.390 Mtoe in 2005 (MENR,

2007). The global solar radiation incident on horizontal surface and bring sunshine hours

are measured by all recording stations in Turkey (Ulgen and Hepbaslı, 2004; MEF, 2007).

Although solar energy is the most important renewable energy source, it has not yet

become widely commercial even in nations with high solar potential such as Turkey.

Typical solar water heaters in Turkey are of the thermosyphon type and consist of

two flat-plate solar collectors, a hot storage tank, and a cold water storage tank, all

installed on a suitable frame. The cold-water tank is used to store water because, due to

shortage problems, the supply is intermittent. There are quite a large number of different

manufacturers producing collectors with varying types and performances (EIE, 2005;

MEF, 2007; MENR, 2007).

Turkey currently does not have an organized photovoltaic (PV) program. The gov-

ernment has no intention in PV production. PV cells are produced in various research

establishments in order to study the feasibility of local manufacturing. So far none of

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these studies yielded a positive result in order to justify a mass production facility

in Turkey. There are more than 30,000 small residential areas where solar powered

electricity would likely be more economical than grid supply. Another potential for the

PV market is holiday villages at the long coastal areas. These facilities are frequently

far from the main grid nodes and require additional power when solar insolation is high.

Unfortunately, energy demand in Turkey is so large that utilities are concentrating on large

conventional power plants and peak load facilities. The newest five-year development plan

being prepared foresees a more ambitious program and estimates approximately 50 MWp

installed power by the year 2010 (EIE, 2005).

Wind Energy

There are a number of cities in Turkey with relatively high wind speeds. These have

been classified into six wind regions, with a low of about 3.5 m/s and a high of 5 m/s at

10 m altitude, corresponding to a theoretical power production between 1,000 and 3,000

kWh/(m2.yr). The most attractive sites are the Marmara Sea region, Mediterranean Coast,

Agean Sea Coast, and the Anatolia inland. Turkey’s first wind farm was commissioned

in 1998, and has a capacity of 1.5 MW. Capacity is likely to grow rapidly, as plans

have been submitted for just under a further 600 MW of independent facilities. At the

start of 2007, total installed wind energy capacity of Turkey was only 80 MW. The

majority of proposed projects are located in the Çesme, Izmir, and Çanakkale regions.

Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration (EIE) carries out

wind measurements at various locations to evaluate wind energy potential over the

country, and have started to compile a wing energy atlas (TUBITAK, 2003; Ogulata,

2003; Akpınar and Akpınar, 2004; EIE, 2005; MEF, 2007; MENR, 2007).

Sustainable Development in Turkey

There is a growing concern that long-run sustainable development may be compromised

unless measures are taken to achieve balance between economic, environmental, and

social outcomes. This section looks at three specific issues of sustainable development that

are of particular importance for Turkey: addressing climate change, reducing air pollution,

and ensuing sustainable use of natural resources. In each case, indicators are presented

to measure progress and the evolution of potential problems, and an assessment is made

of government policies in that area. The section also considers whether institutional

arrangements are in place to integrate policy-making across the different elements of

sustainable development.

Climate Change

Turkey is a rapidly growing country whose income level is moving towards that of the

rest of the OECD area. This catch-up process has been associated with a rapid growth

of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Nonetheless, carbon emissions from any country

contribute equally to the pressure on the global climate. Consequently, the major issue

facing policy makers is how to contribute to reducing the burden on global resources at

a low cost and without jeopardizing the rapid growth of the economy (IEA, 2005; MEF,

2007).

The Turkish government is now in the process of developing a strategy to reduce the

growth of GHGs. This strategy will be elaborated in the context of Turkey’s adhesion

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to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Turkey

passed the national legislation to ratify the convention in January 2004 and adhesion will

take effect in May. Following adhesion, Turkey will have the obligation to implement

measures and polices to mitigate GHG emissions but will not be required to meet a

specific GHG emission target. Turkey will submit its first national communication to the

UNFCCC by the end of 2004, including the measures that it proposes to take to limit

emissions (Kaygusuz and Kaygusuz, 2002; IEA, 2005; MEF, 2007).

Turkey shares a number of features with some other OECD countries that suggest

it would be possible to considerably moderate the growth of GHGs with little or even

no cost. The proportion of energy derived from carbon-intensive coal and lignite is

one of the highest in the OECD area, reflecting ample reserves of lignite, while a

completely liberalized market in natural gas has not existed (IEA, 2005). Most greenhouse

gas emissions in Turkey come from the electricity generation sector that has been a

largely state-owned industry operating under non-commercial criteria. Subsidies have

been growing following a government decision to expand the industry in the late 1990s

after a period of cutbacks in employment and output. The import of natural gas has been

controlled by another state-owned enterprise that makes all contracts for the import of

gas (MEF, 2007; MENR, 2007).

The privatization of the electricity companies will also result in new pricing policies.

At present, demand for electricity is boosted by a high level of what is called “non-

technical” system losses. In practice, this phrase refers both to electricity that is consumed

through illegal connections to the network and non-payment of bills. Overall, a significant

proportion of electricity is provided without charge. The new distribution companies will

need to invest in new metering systems to ensure that these practices end. The problem

may be difficult to settle, in that the new distribution companies have different profiles of

losses, with illegal consumption rising to 50% in some areas. Enforcing normal contract

discipline, though, would further add to the de-coupling of carbon emissions form GDP

growth.

While fossil fuels are likely to become less carbon intensive, the supply of renewable

energy is unlikely to keep pace with the growth in the economy. First, consumers are

likely to switch away from animal waste as a fuel source as incomes grow, while wood

resources are limited by deforestation concerns. In addition, even with a planned tripling

of hydro capacity in the period from 2000 to 2020, the share of hydro in total electricity

generation will fall. In addition, the environmental consequences of such an expansion

will have to be carefully monitored as will overall costs as most of the expansion in

the period to 2010 is expected to come from small-scale hydro projects, which are often

linked to irrigation projects. However, the DSI (the government agency responsible for

managing the country’s water resources) has estimated that the great project of the GAP,

a combination of hydropower plants and irrigation systems, has benefits that outweigh

costs by a factor of over three to one (GAP, 2005).

Air Pollution

In Turkey, air pollution is a serious problem that has only recently come to the center of

policy concerns. The social and economic costs of air pollution in Turkey are likely to

be large. The latest OECD environmental performance review estimated that excessive

SO2 emissions in the early 1990s might have increased mortality by over 3,000 deaths

and restricted activity days by almost 7 million each year (IEA, 2005). A start has been

made in this area but the main issue for the authorities is to implement effective policies

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to address air pollution in a way that ensures a combination of minimum costs and

maximum benefits (MEF, 2007).

Emissions of CO2, SO2, and NOx have increased over the 1980s both in absolute

terms and relative to GDP. Since the end of the 1990s, natural gas usage has been rising

rapidly and this has helped concentrations of SO2 to decline markedly in some of the

major urban areas, such as Ankara, Izmir, and Istanbul, but they still remain at levels

that are double those found on the average in OECD metropolitan areas. Concentrations

in the rest of the country, as measured by a simple average of all monitoring stations,

are some 75% higher than in the three metropolitan areas. In addition there has been

little downward movement in the estimated concentrations of lead in the air, but levels

in Turkey are low compared to those found in a number of European countries (IEA,

2005; MEF, 2007).

The government introduced air quality legislation in 1986. This law set limits on

the emissions of SO2, NO2, and particulate matter from newly constructed power plants.

By comparison to European Union (EU) standards, which Turkey aspires to meet, the

level of the emission limits in Turkey are substantially above those in force for plants

in the European Union that are currently being licensed. For plants that will be licensed

from 2003 onwards, the differential in emission limits between Turkey and the EU varies

between a factor of 2 and 10 for different fuels and pollutants. Of more concern, almost

two-thirds of the installed capacity has no de-sulphurization equipment installed, as it was

built before the current regulations came into effect in 1986. These plants, established

in 1986, comprise permissible short- and long-term concentrations for four types of air

pollutants. The national standards allow somewhat higher concentrations in industrial

regions and considerably exceed the recommended air quality standards advocated by

the World Health Organization (WHO).

Pollution from motor vehicles has been accentuated by the slowness with which fuel

quality has been improved. Diesel and gasoline fuels have had high sulfur content. Until

April 2004, distribution companies were required to buy at least 60% of oil products

from domestic refineries and the previously state-owned refining company was slow in

making the investment to upgrade facilities both to reduce sulfur and lead content of fuel.

But the investment program for sulfur and lead abatement has accelerated and it should

be completed by 2007. In 2007, the usage of unleaded gasoline will be obligatory. The

diffusion of catalytic converters has been slow, with only 42% of the fleet equipped in

2003. Fleet renewal has been hindered by the level of special consumption tax on cars

that ranges between 25 and 75%, with the higher tax rate on larger cars but, in November

2003, a tax incentive was introduced for the replacement of cars more than 20 years old

by new vehicles using unleaded petrol.

Sustainable Use of Natural Resources

Climatic and geographical conditions already place considerable pressures on Turkey’s

water and land resources. These are likely to intensify in the future with continued rapid

economic development. The main issues in the sustainable use of natural resources is to

establish framework conditions that ensure that water and land resources are managed in

a way that is compatible with rising economic activity and living standards (DIE, 2005;

DSI, 2006).

Although it has been growing at a rapid rate over the past two decades, water

consumption as a share of total freshwater resources is relatively modest in Turkey at

around 17% of available resources. However, as in other countries, the national aggregate

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masks considerable regional variations in terms of the pressure on surface and ground

water resources. Agriculture is the most intensive user of freshwater, accounting for

three-quarters of all withdrawals. In some cases, this has also contributed to problems of

salinization and salt water intrusion, which can irreversibly damage land. Further pressure

on the land comes from soil erosion, which affects four-fifths of the land, mainly a result

of excessive deforestation and poor farming practices on land that is highly susceptible

to erosion (DIE, 2005; GAP, 2005; DSI, 2006; MEF, 2007).

Water rights are vested with the state according to the 1982 Constitution. Unless

otherwise specified, groundwater extraction from a depth of greater than 10 meters

requires a license. Allowances to extract water cannot be traded. For surface water,

only major users, such as hydro-power and thermal power stations, require permission

to extract water. There is no specific ordering of extraction rights in Turkish law, nor

is there an overall register of water rights. This situation has lead to conflicts between

existing users in the same water basin that the traditional customary rules and regulations

are unable to cope with, leaving excessive claims on available water (GAP, 2005; DSI,

2006; MEF, 2007).

Conclusions

Turkey, with its young population and growing energy demand per person, its fast growing

urbanization, and its economic development, has been one of the fast growing power

markets of the world for the last two decades. Turkey is heavily dependent on expensive

imported energy resources that place a big burden on the economy, and air pollution is

becoming a great environmental concern in the country. In this regard, renewable energy

resources appear to be one of the most efficient and effective solutions for clean and

sustainable energy development in Turkey. On the other hand, renewable energy supply

in Turkey is dominated by hydropower and biomass, but environmental and scarcity-of-

supply concerns have led to a decline in biomass use, mainly for residential heating. As a

contributor of air pollution and deforestation, the share of biomass in the renewable energy

share is expected to decrease with the expansion of other renewable energy sources, such

as solar and wind. Turkey has substantial reserves of renewable energy sources, including

approximately 1% of the total world hydropower potential. On the other hand, renewable

energy sources exception of large hydro are widely dispersed compared with fossil fuels,

which are concentrated at individual locations and require distribution. Hence, renewable

energy must either be used in a distributed manner or concentrated to meet the higher

energy demands of cities and industries.

Acknowledgment

The authors thank Dr. Kamil Kaygusuz for his valuable suggestions and assistance in

preparing this manuscript.

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