strength and health

This issue of Strength and Health begins our second

year of on-line operations. The first year was an exciting

one, with lots of positive feedback from readers and plenty

of new contributions to keep each issue informative. My

sincere thanks to those writers who worked so hard in our

inaugural year. A special thanks to Cisco Adler, York's

Director of Marketing, who creates the final product.

Whenever provided the opportunity, I emphasize S&H as a

great source of free, yet solid, information on training. It's

easy to forget that many newcomers to the fitness field do

not have the background or history of training from the

early days. So, with an eye toward sharing some of York's

rich history in “The Iron Game,” we plan to feature in com-

ing issues the wall charts and text from the original York

barbell courses.

Why feature anything from the distant past? Cisco and I

think S&H readers will enjoy checking how far the indus-

try has come since its early days. Exercise equipment

options, exercise techniques, and training philosophies con-

tinually evolve. Yet despite all of these advances, glance

around most weight rooms or flip through popular “muscle

mags” and you’ll discover resistance training is still rife

with misinformation. Sometimes this simply reflects the

need to publish something different; sometimes the truth

just does not get handed down correctly from one source to

another.

Tackling the topic of training misinformation, Matt Brzycki

addresses in this issue what constitutes the so-called HIT

(High Intensity Training) philosophy. Much of what I had

heard of HIT training over the years is reflected in the

myths dispelled in this article. As I told Matt, after elimi-

nating these fallacies it seems most of us perform high-

intensity training, although we may not consider it part of

this particular philosophical movement.

The bottom line remains--there are many ways to train.

Strength and Health will continue to showcase what works

for coaches and athletes and explain why. As we begin our

second year on-line, I hope you agree with our direction.

Harvey Newton,

Editor

Strength and Health Magazine

2Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002

Editor’s ColumnWinter/Spring 2002

by Harvey Newton

Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002 3

11 ComplexesThat SimplifyMIKE CLARK

4 Scientific Basis ofStrength TrainingMICHAEL MAC MILLAN, MD

13 Sport SpecificProgramDevelopment IIJohn Garhammer, PhDEric Burkhardt, MS,Eric Labombarda, MS,

18 The WarrenTravis BeltJan Dellinger

33 Florida’s High SchoolWeightlifting ProgramHarvey Newton

36 The Kaleidoscope MindTim Winter, PhD

30 High-Intensity TrainingMatt Brzycki

3 Table ofContents

2 Editor’sColumnHARVEY NEWTON

FeaturesWinter/Spring 2002

Editorial Advisory Board:Mike Clark

Tracy Fober

John Garhammer, PhD

Mike Gattone

Dana Healy

Doug Lentz

Curt Lords

Brian McGuire

Mike Nitka

Kyle Pierce

Editor-in-Chief:

Harvey Newton

Managing Editor:

Cisco Adler

Creative Design:

Cisco Adler

Contributing Photographers:

Cisco Adler

Bruce Klemens

Publisher:

Cisco Adler

Published by:

York Barbell CompanyBox 1707, York, PA 17405www.yorkbarbell.com

24 Research ReviewsEd McNeely

27 Building Towardthe SeasonDoug Lentz

I first used eccentric training tech-

niques as early as 1972 while partici-

pating in competitive powerlifting. In

the ensuing years I began to question

how and why this basic muscular

property actually functions. As with

most areas of research, the more I dis-

covered, the more questions arose.

By 1987, I was a full-time faculty

member at the University of Florida,

with a funded laboratory to study

strength and muscle. The following

sections review the basic principles

that I have learned over the last 15

years. I will, however, sum up the

results of my studies in the following

statement: “The future of strength

training will be the application of the

principles of progressive resistance

exercise to the eccentrically active

muscle.”

Eccentric BasicsFirst, let's clarify some terminology.

Concentric and eccentric (pronounced

“ek-sentrik”) refer to muscular force.

Since concentric refers to the shorten-

ing of a muscle, the term “concentric

muscle contraction” is appropriate.

However, since eccentric muscle

force occurs during lengthening, it

does not make sense to say, “eccentric

muscle contraction.” For this discus-

sion, the terms “eccentric muscle dis-

traction, action, or activation” may be

used. The terms “positive” and “nega-

tive” should always refer to the resist-

ance or external load. Thus an eccen-

tric muscle action is applied against

negative resistance.

A true eccentric muscle distraction

only occurs when the muscle tries to

contract as forcibly as it can, but the

applied load is greater than the mus-

cular force and the muscle is forced to

lengthen. Therefore, the controlled act

of muscle lengthening or simply low-

ering an object voluntarily does not

constitute an eccentric muscular

action. Only when a supramaximal

load (i.e., overload) causes forced

lengthening is eccentric muscular

force generated.

Two Different Muscular ForcesThe evolution of muscle is directly

related to the physical world in which

we live. Muscle function is specifical-

ly adapted to the demands imposed by

gravity and needs required for sur-

vival.

The most obvious function of muscle

occurs when we consciously shorten

muscles to create movements to lift,

carry, push, pull, and manipulate the

environment. These are the concentric

muscle contractions.

There is, however, a less obvious

muscular function that affects us as


The Scientific Basisof Strength Training (Part II)Eccentrics and the Future of Strength

by Michael Mac Millan, MD

we move upright on the planet; the

storage and release of mechanical

energy through muscular force

absorption. This hidden ability occurs

when a shortened muscle is put under

load and absorbs force while gradual-

ly lengthening. The classic example

of this function is the act of simply

walking. Walking is essentially the

process of falling forward, but then

braking the fall by extending a leg in

front of you. The leg catches the body

and the knee bends, which lengthens

the quadriceps and slows the forward

falling motion. More obvious exam-

ples of muscles being loaded and

absorbing force occur when people

jump and land on their feet or fall and

catch themselves with an outstretched

arm. Although not in the scope of this

discussion, many athletic activities

(perhaps all) such as pitching, sprint-

ing, jumping, and catching require

eccentric muscle activation.

The different muscle functions are

attributable to the basic physical laws

of motion as described by Sir Isaac

Newton. Newton’s “Law of Inertia”

states that an object at rest tends to

stay at rest unless acted upon by an

outside force. This directly applies to

the exertion of muscular force against

a weight at the start of a concentric

muscle contraction. In the barbell

curl, the weight begins at rest with the

fully lengthened biceps muscle ready

to contract. If the muscular force

exceeds the inertia of the barbell,

movement is initiated. Therefore,

concentric contractions are used to

create, maintain, or increase motion in

an object.

The forced muscular lengthening seen

in eccentrically activated muscles,

however, involves an entirely differ-

ent physical law. In Newton’s “Law

of Acceleration,” an object that is

already in motion tends to stay in

motion unless acted upon by an out-

side force. In weight training, objects

that have been raised (by concentric

muscular contractions) are now pulled

back down by the force of gravity.

Only by a muscular force being exert-

ed against the descending weight can

it be prevented from accelerating back

down. Thus a basic, functional differ-

ence between concentric and eccen-

tric muscular actions is that each

interacts with physical objects

through distinctly different laws of

motion.

There are implications of these physi-

cal interactions that also have practi-

cal significance. One implication is

the direction of the applied force in

relation to the direction of the object.

In concentric contractions, the object

(in this case a barbell) moves in the

same direction as the muscular exer-

tion. This in turn has two corollaries

in terms of controlling the maximum

force encountered by the muscle. If

the weight is overpowered by the

muscular force it will simply begin to

move away faster and faster as the

muscular force increases. This pre-

vents dangerously high levels of mus-

cular force from developing. In the

worst case scenario, when muscular

force is applied against an immovable

mass, the force rises to its maximum

level and then goes no higher. In all

these situations, the forces encoun-

tered by the muscle are self-generat-

ed; therefore it is impossible for the

muscle to be injured.

In eccentric muscle action the direc-

tion of the object and the direction of

the force are completely opposite. By

definition, the object’s weight exceeds

the force capacity of the muscle.

Therefore, the maximum force levels

are now determined by the mass and

acceleration of the externally applied

load and not by muscular force.

Determining and controlling the

resistance in eccentrics is extremely

critical in providing a stimulus intense

enough to result in structural growth,

but not above the threshold of tissue

injury.

The other implication of Newton’s

Law is the different relationship

between force and velocity in con-

centrics and eccentrics. When a mus-

cle exerts increasing concentric force

against an object, the velocity of the

object as it moves away from the

force increases as well. However, in

keeping up with the quickly retreating

object, the muscle is unable to main-

tain high force levels. Therefore, the

faster an object is moved by a concen-

tric muscle contraction, the lower the

muscle's force exerted on the object.

Eccentrics have an opposite effect. If

the applied load exceeds the muscle

force by just a small amount, the mus-

cle lengthens slowly. With increased


weight, the muscle is compelled to

lengthen more rapidly. Also, since the

weight is heavier the muscular force

increases at the same time that the

muscle is lengthening more rapidly.

Therefore, heavier and heavier

weights lead to faster and faster

lengthening velocities, but with

increasing internal muscular tension

as well.

Thus it has been shown how con-

centrics and eccentrics have entirely

different interactions with the physi-

cal world. Concentrics are designed to

initiate and maintain motion in

objects and eccentrics function to

reduce and absorb the energy from

objects in motion.

Concentric and Eccentric MechanismsAs discussed in Part I, in the contract-

ed state the actin and myosin bonds lie

across from each other and form a

strong, intrinsically stable chemical

bond. However, for the muscle fibril

to shorten, three steps must occur to

all of the actin-myosin sites along the

myofibril. The first step is the dissoci-

ation of the existing actin-myosin

bond. Then the myosin molecule must

undergo a change in its shape that

allows it to “lean” more closely to the

next actin molecule in line. This

allows a new actin-myosin linkage to

be made. Shortening then occur as

the myosin molecule changes back to

its original shape and pulls the actin

and myosin molecules into alignment.

Therefore, the process of shortening is

highly complex, energy dependent,

and based on chemical bonds that dis-

sociate easily. In fact, a maximally

contracting muscle can never generate

force levels that can cause damage to

the structural components of the mus-

cle.

Once formed, however, the bond

between actin and myosin is actually

quite stable. This bond does not

require cellular energy to maintain it

and the myosin molecule itself is in a

stable form and not easily deformed.

In fact, the amount of force that is

needed to break these bonds actually

exceeds the strength of the muscle fil-

ament itself. Thus the physical energy

supplied by an outside force applied

to lengthen a muscle often causes

structural deformation during the

process of lengthening.

As a result, molecular systems have

evolved to accommodate the laws of

motion. Muscle force during shorten-

ing is less than force during lengthen-

ing because it is harder to create a new

bond than to break an existing bond.

Limited force production is beneficial

during shortening contractions,

because the body can exert a maximal

effort without a high risk of tissue

damage. However, when exposed to

high externally applied loads the mus-

cles are capable of high force absorp-

tion that can protect the body from

physical trauma. Muscular dampen-

ing of impact force is undoubtedly

critical in preventing injury and slow-

ing osteoarthritic degenerative

processes.

Eccentric Muscular Force andHypertrophyPart I confirmed that muscle tissue

undergoes many physiologic changes

when exposed to chronic, strenuous,

concentric contractile force. However,

the level of force that the muscle can

internally generate is insufficient to

create the changes necessary for mus-

cular growth and hypertrophy.

As we have described, once an actin-

myosin bond is established and acti-

vated, only a strong external force can

break the bond and cause muscular

lengthening. Under maximal stimula-

tion, these bonds can actually exceed

the tensile strength of the muscular

filaments themselves. In this situa-

tion, as the muscle sustains higher and

higher loads eventually the actin

fibers separate from their attachments,

microtears occur sporadically

throughout the muscle and the myofil-

ament framework deforms. These

events are strong physiologic signals

for the process that results in hyper-

trophy.

As the muscle filaments stretch and

deform, fine thread-like proteins that

attach to the walls of specialized

repair cells called “satellite cells” sig-

nal that repair proteins are to be man-

ufactured. These cells increase their

protein synthesis rates up to 250 times

the norm.

This increased availability of structur-

al proteins, however, is useless unless


the newly synthesized filaments can

be incorporated into the existing mus-

cle fiber framework. So, the second

consequence of microtears in the

muscle is that the frayed ends of the

damaged filaments become sites of

attachment for the newly synthesized

muscle protein.

These attachment points grow into

new, branching strands and induce the

formation of new sarcomeres that

improve the force producing capabili-

ties of the muscle.

This process explains why anabolic

steroids by themselves have only a

limited ability to improve strength.

Without the use of heavy resistance

training to create microtears, there

will be no potential attachment sites

for any proteins that are synthesized.

Thus the increased protein synthesis

seen with anabolic steroids is without

value unless heavy resistance training

is performed simultaneously.

It must be emphasized that simple

structural deformation and microtears

occur at low levels of eccentric over-

load. If the weight of the applied

resistance dramatically increases, it

can reach the point that macrodamage

or structural injury occurs. This fact

becomes crucial in choosing the level

of negative resistance for eccentric

muscle training. The resistance quan-

tity should be carefully controlled so

that it is sufficient to forcibly lengthen

the muscle, but not of such a magni-

tude that actual muscle injury occurs.

The Amount of Resistance forEccentric Muscular TrainingTo safely train muscles eccentrically,

three criteria are absolutely necessary.

First, the resistance must be quantifi-

able so the exact amount of the

applied load is known. Second, there

should be no fluctuations (the applied

load must remain at a consistent

amount). Third, the negative resist-

ance should be incrementally

adjustable, so resistance can be accu-

rately increased during training.

When choosing a resistance to begin

effective eccentric muscular training,

the muscular force must maximally

oppose the resistance. Logically, the

safest (i.e., lowest) resistance level

that will still result in forced lengthen-

ing is the maximum voluntary con-

traction (MVC) of the involved mus-

cle. By definition the muscle is struc-

turally capable of resisting this

amount of applied load, yet it is still

sufficient to cause muscular deforma-

tion. As the muscle adapts to the

heavy resistance, safe, incremental

increases can be made to bring about

more and more adaptive responses.

Once the level of resistance is estab-

lished, the nature of the resistance

must also be taken into account. It is

very dangerous if the load is applied

erratically. This can cause peak forces

that can exceed a threshold for injury

and cause “macrodamage” or muscle

tearing. You not only must control the

amount of resistance and the rate of

load application, but also guard

against unexpected variations in resis-

tive force caused by friction, impact,

and stored elastic energy.

Another critical factor to consider

when exposing a muscle to supramax-

imal loading is that the internal force

generated by the muscle changes as

the length of the muscle changes.

Practically, this means that as the load

is applied along the length of the mus-

cle, it encounters different levels of

resistive force. How the various types

of external resistance respond to these

changing levels of force is important.

The first class of external resistance

includes sources in which the applied

force has elastic properties. Examples

of resistance of this type include

pneumatic pressure, electromagnetic

force, and materials with spring qual-

ities. It is characteristic of these

forces to deform or compress when

encountering an opposing force. The

elastic force actually accumulates or

stores this energy, then releases it,

occasionally suddenly, when the

stored energy exceeds the applied

force. This can be very detrimental

when applied against an eccentrically

lengthening muscle. A sudden release

of stored elastic energy could in fact

lead to unintended muscular macro-

damage. In addition, the application

of elastic force is difficult to quantify.

Pneumatic pressure, spring tension,

and electromagnetic field strength are

measured in units that do not reflect

the actual applied force they create,

i.e., pounds per square inch, watts,


etc. Elastic resistance forms do not

allow the resistance to be increased in

controllable increments as muscular

adaptation progresses.

Another class of externally applied

resistance is referred to as isokinetic.

In isokinetic devices, a motorized or

hydraulic movement arm powers

against the muscle group to be

trained. The speed of the movement

arm is kept at a pre-selected set rate.

However, the force exerted by the

device is completely unresponsive to

the resistance created by the lengthen-

ing muscle. The internal muscle force

rises higher and higher until the mus-

cle is forced to lengthen. Therefore

every stroke of the movement arm is

equivalent to a maximal eccentric

force and thus the risk of tissue injury

is high.

The final types of resistance are based

on inertial weight. One form of iner-

tial resistance specifically advocated

as a form of eccentric exercise is

termed “plyometric.” Plyometric

exercise utilizes the acquired momen-

tum of an object as stored energy,

which is then dissipated by an eccen-

trically lengthening muscle. An exam-

ple of a plyometric exercise is a stand-

ing athlete catching a dropped, heavy

medicine ball in his waiting hands.

The caught ball has its acceleration

suddenly dampened by creating a

sharp spike of force in the involved

biceps muscle. The muscle lengthens

and the ball slows and stops. As a

rational means of applying gradual

incremental loads for safe, effective

resistance, plyometric exercise is use-

less. In practicality, the applied force

of a dropped ball (or jumping body) is

completely unknown and only mar-

ginally reproducible. Obviously

incremental increases are impossible.

Basic free weight and weight stack

resistances are the dominant types of

resistance used for eccentric training

today. They utilize the property of

inertia as it applies to Newton’s “Law

of Acceleration.” In this application,

the object in motion is a descending

weight and the outside force acting on

it is the eccentrically active muscle.

When a muscle exerts force against a

descending weight there are two vari-

ables that can be manipulated to pre-

serve safety and increase effective-

ness.

The safety of inertial resistance is pro-

vided by the property of mass deceler-

ation. In other resistance systems such

as elastic or isokinetic devices, when

increasing internal muscular force is

countered by yet further applied load,

even higher eccentric muscular ten-

sion must develop. In other words, the

resistance is unresponsive to the mus-

cular force.

However, with an appropriately

selected inertial weight, the force

capacity in the muscle (force changes

with length) does not result in higher

muscle force because the speed of the

descending weight slows down. One

key element of safety for inertial

resistance, as used in eccentric muscle

distraction, is that if the muscular

force rises, the resistance simply

slows down and does not continue to

lengthen the muscle at higher and

higher forces. Thus this responsive-

ness of inertial resistance vastly

increases its safety.

Once you have identified a resistance

type that creates force that stimulates

muscle growth without risking signif-

icant injury, how do you control the

force to keep in step with the increas-

ing strength capabilities of the mus-

cle? It is very difficult to practically

use resistance systems that base

increases on relative values. Some

systems use a percentage of the posi-

tive resistance or on a maximal effort.

Eccentrics do not have a fixed ratio

compared to other measures and uti-

lizing these percentages is fraught

with potential error. The major effec-

tiveness of inertial resistance lies in

the ability to simply add more weight

as the force producing capacity of the

muscle increases. This allows rational

decisions based on the actual proper-

ties of the eccentric phase itself.

Thus it appears that basic inertial

resistance provided by free weights

and weight stacks has the ideal prop-

erties to eccentrically load and train

muscle. By varying the speed of

descent, muscle damage is prevented.

By incrementally increasing weight

over time, it effectively stimulates

muscle hypertrophy.

Theoretical Steps for EccentricallyEnhanced Strength TrainingThe stated goal of this article was to


apply the principles of progressive

resistance exercise to not only the

concentric phase, but also to the

eccentric phase of the training repeti-

tion. The determination of the ideal

resistance for each phase of the repe-

tition is based on the one repetition

maximum (1RM) for the lifting

motion involved. Since the primary

goal of strength training is to achieve

maximum muscular force output

through physiologic and structural

adaptation, high resistance levels are

desirable. Therefore, a typical starting

weight for the concentric phase would

be 80% of 1RM for a target repetition

range of approximately six.

In the eccentric phase, the chosen

resistance should be heavy enough to

forcibly lengthen the trained muscles,

so it must be greater than the 1RM.

However, the chosen weight should

not be so great as to risk structural

harm to the muscle. For this reason

the initial starting negative resistance

should be equal to the 1RM (100% 1

RM). The arbitrary value of 100%

RM is considered the optimum

amount for safety and efficacy.

For example, consider a lifter whose

maximum bench press (1RM) is

300lbs. If this individual wishes to

commence training with an enhanced

eccentric program, he would use

240lbs as his concentric resistance

while performing the eccentric stroke

with 300lbs.

Successful completion of a target set

of 6 reps necessarily means the lifter

raised 240lbs all 6 times. Successful

completion of the eccentric strokes

requires that each time the bar is low-

ered with 300lbs, the lifter resists the

descent over a time of not less than 3

seconds.

Once a successful set is completed,

the lifter makes decisions about

increasing the weight. Since we have

clearly shown that eccentric mechan-

ics are different from concentric, the

choices of weight increase should also

be independent. The lifter can choose

to raise the concentric weight, the

eccentric, or both for his/her next

training session. The principles of

progressive resistance exercise can

and should be applied to both the lift-

ing and lowering phases of the repeti-

tion cycle.

The Effects of Eccentric Training onConcentric StrengthThis is probably the most frequently

asked question concerning eccentric

training. Past research was flawed by

the use of inadequate or even danger-

ous resistance systems. However,

when inertial resistance with eccentric

progressive resistance exercise train-

ing programs are studied, the effects

are unequivocal.

I served as the principal investigator

for the first study that examined pro-

gressive resistance eccentric exercise

of the quadriceps in 20 subjects. After

16 weeks the strength gains (meas-

ured isometrically) were 22% higher

in the eccentrically trained group.

Another study performed in the

Department of Athletic Training at the

University of Florida examined the

hamstring muscles. This muscle

group functions eccentrically. The

results were even more startling, with

a 33% increase over the group trained

with standard methods.

We also carried out a short study

involving highly trained athletes. We

were able to demonstrate a 5%

increase in bench press strength after

only six weeks of enhanced eccentric

training (the equivalent of increasing

from a 300 lb maximum to a 315 lb

maximum in an accomplished lifter).

In 2001, the University of Northern

Arizona compared the effects of

eccentric training to standard weight

training techniques on the perform-

ance of vertical leap. Again the eccen-

trically trained group outperformed

the standard training group, this time

by 8%.

From both a theoretical and scientific

standpoint, the targeted training of the

eccentric phase of the repetition cycle

with progressive eccentric resistance

predictably results in superior

strength gains over any existing

method.

Present Availability of EccentricallyEnhanced Resistance SystemsThe “trick” of transitioning from a

light concentric resistance to a heavier

eccentric resistance during a repeti-

tion has been very difficult to accom-

plish. Non-inertial systems utilizing


counter-electromotive force and

pneumatic pressure have been in the

market for over 10 years, but lack the

proper requirements for safe, effective

exercise.

Presently the most common tech-

niques involving eccentric training

utilize spotters and generally result in

“negative only” exercise where assis-

tants raise a heavy weight and the

lifter lowers it slowly. One piece of

equipment allows a single repetition

to be performed. Weight hooks are

placed on the ends of a bar set up for

bench press. The lifter lowers the bar

and hook combination until the hooks

hit the floor and disconnect. The

lighter bar is then raised back up con-

centrically.

Two systems have been developed,

but are not available on a retail basis.

Both satisfy all requirements for iner-

tial resistance in which separate levels

of resistance can be chosen for the

positive phase and the negative phase.

One uses pneumatic actuators to

attach and detach weights that are

added to increase resistance during

eccentric lowering. This device was

developed in Sweden and is called

“Agaton.”

Another device uses a counterbalance

to offset the weight of a heavy bar. At

the top of the repetition cycle the

counter-balance is disengaged and the

lifter feels the full weight of the bar-

bell. The lifter lowers the bar to the

bottom position where the counter-

balance is re-loaded onto the lifting

cable, thus making the bar lighter so

that it can be raised concentrically.

Again, once the bar reaches the top

position the counter-balance is again

detached and further repetitions can

be performed. This system was devel-

oped at the University of Florida and

is called “Negator.”

The Future of Strength TrainingSoon there will be available systems

to allow athletes to perform eccentri-

cally enhanced exercise in virtually

every strength-training environment:

free weights, selectorized equipment,

leverage machines.

With the advent of routinely heavy

eccentric exercise, athletes will

become bigger, faster, more powerful,

and less susceptible to injury. Muscles

with enhanced eccentric capabilities

will impact track and field, football,

basketball, and all sports in which

speed and/or power is required.

From a rehabilitation standpoint,

enhanced eccentrics will reduce re-

injury rates in the low back, calves,

adductors, quadriceps, and especially

the hamstrings. The widespread use of

eccentric training will be the most sig-

nificant fundamental improvement in

weight training since the invention of

the plate loaded barbell.

Michael Mac Millian is presently in private prac-

tice at the Jewett Orthopaedic Clinic (Orlando,

FL). He is the author of 8 published articles on

applied muscle physiology and served as an

associate professor of orthopaedic surgery at

the University of Florida, 1987-98. Mac Millian

was the captain of the North Carolina State

University powerlifting team, 1971-73.


For some years, the use of exercise

complexes has been popular with

strength and conditioning coaches. An

exercise “complex” is a combination

of several exercises done without rest.

This requires one of two techniques:

1) move successively through the first

rep of each exercise in the complex,

then directly to the second rep, or 2)

perform all the repetitions of the first

exercise, then move to the second lift.

A complex may consist of a group of

lifts that resemble one another in

terms of muscle/joint action or a

series of lifts that simply use a like

resistance.

The use of complex training pays

great dividends down the road, plus

they may just make your training a lot

simpler. A complex usually consists of

3-6 exercises; each performed 3-6

reps. If that sounds like a lot of work,

that’s the idea. Perform a series of

related exercises one after another to

achieve a fast training effect for con-

ditioning or general strength prepara-

tion you will build onto later.

Aggie Complex Training A good example of a complex that we

use is the squat complex. This com-

plex builds a base for future training,

develops general fitness, and helps

teach correct technique for many

leg/hip movements. On this complex,

I use 5 different exercises with 6 reps

each. I utilize several variations of the

squat complex, but the following is a

good starting point.

• Step -up 6 reps each leg

• Lunge 6 reps each leg

• Squat/push press 6 reps

• Squat 6 reps

• Squat jump 6 reps (body

weight only)

As you can imagine, performing a

total of 42 continuous reps in these

dynamic movements produces a

sharp, fast training response.

Generally, I have our athletes do from

2-4 sets of a complex, with adequate

recovery between bouts. Here is an

example of another, more challeng-

ing, variation of a lower body com-

plex.

• Step Ups 6 reps each leg

• Split Squats 6 reps each leg

• Side to Side Squats 6 reps each leg


Mike Clark, Texas A&M University

ComplexesThat Simplify

• Overhead Squats 6 reps

• Front Squats 6 reps

When to Use Complex TrainingComplexes are very useful at the

beginning of a new training year or

anytime you need a general training

effect. Because of the volume of work

performed, complexes have a great

conditioning effect, as well as a gen-

eral strength and muscle-building

effect. Don't repeat a complex during

any 1-week period of training, but you

could use 2 or 3 different kinds of

complexes within the week. For

example, use a snatch complex on

Monday, a shoulder complex on

Wednesday, and a squat complex on

Friday.

Combining complexes with your reg-

ular training program gives a quick

training adaptation ("shock") that

might be just what you needed to

make further progress. Complex train-

ing is also useful when time con-

straints restrict the amount of time

available for resistance training.

An important concern is the selection

of a proper resistance. Experiment a

bit with variations in exercise order

and resistances used. You don't want

your first exercise to be too easy or

your last one too heavy. Remember

the cumulative effect of fatigue when

utilizing complex training.

Use Your ImaginationThere are many different kinds of

complexes, so try different combina-

tions and exercise in order to meet

your specific needs. I use many exer-

cises to create a large variety of dif-

ferent kinds of complexes. You can

even combine complexes if you like.

Here are some more examples of dif-

ferent complexes we use successfully

at Texas A&M.

DB Shoulder Complex

• Lateral raise 6 reps

• Front raise 6 reps

• Bent-over lateral raise 6 reps

• Upright row 6 reps

• Curl and press 6 reps

DB or BB Snatch Complex

• High hang power snatch 6 reps

• Upright row 6 reps

• Bent-over row 6 reps

• Front squats 6 reps

• Low hang snatch 6 reps

Combo Snatch and Clean Complex

• Stiff-leg muscle clean 6 reps

• Hang close-grip snatch 6 reps

• Upright row catch 6 reps

• Front squat 6 reps

• Low hang snatch 6 reps

Snatch 3x3x3

• Hang snatch 3 reps

• Press behind neck 3 reps

• Overhead squat 3 reps

As you can see, the possibilities are

endless, so the only limitation is your

imagination. I even have a chest com-

plex for our players to use once in a

while. Remember, not all complexes

have to have 5 exercises and they do

not have to use 6 reps per exercise.

Remember, if you want to reach high

goals you must build a large base first.

Complexes are a very good way to

build such a base.

Good luck and train hard!

Mike Clark is the president of the Collegiate

Strength & Conditioning Coaches' association

(CSCCa). He is certified as a master strength

and conditioning coach and has coached at

Texas A&M for the past 12 years.


In Part 1 (Fall '01 S&H) we dis-

cussed some basic concepts related

to the development of biomechani-

cally specific sport training pro-

grams. This second installment cov-

ers the important consideration of

how muscles obtain energy via

metabolic processes needed for

sport training and competition.

Together, the principles of biome-

chanical and metabolic specificity

can be used to construct high quali-

ty training programs for improved

sport performance.

Energy for muscular activity can be

supplied from three metabolic path-

ways. The first is the ATP-CP ener-

gy system, also called the high ener-

gy phosphate or immediate energy

source system (see the Applications

section below for more details). This

system provides a lot of energy

quickly, but is also depleted rapidly.

It is most important for very high

power physical activity, such as

sprinting, jumping, lifting heavy

weights, and throwing. For maximal

and near maximal physical exertions

that last up to 30 seconds, this sys-

tem provides most of the needed

energy.

The second system is the lactic acid

(LA) system, also called fast glycol-

ysis or anaerobic glycolysis. It pro-

vides a moderate amount of energy

per unit of time (moderate power

output) and provides most of the

energy needed for strenuous physi-

cal exertions lasting 2-3 minutes,

such as an 800m run or a round in

boxing. The undesirable waste prod-

ucts produced when the LA system

is active must be removed or all

metabolic processes within muscle

are disrupted. This involves the third

energy system which, unlike the

first two, requires oxygen and is

called the aerobic system.


by John Garhammer, PhDEric Burkhardt, MSEric Labombarda, MS

Sport Specific ProgramDevelopment (Part II)

The aerobic system provides energy

for many hours of continuous muscu-

lar activity. However, the rate of ener-

gy production is much lower than the

previous two “anaerobic” (meaning

no oxygen) energy systems.

Interval training is a method of select-

ing the duration and intensity of active

exercise periods and the rest intervals

between them such that the desired

energy system is stressed and devel-

oped.

Aerobic Conditioning

Unfortunately, many coaches think of

conditioning their athletes only in

terms of the oxidative energy system

using aerobic exercise. Most of this

problem can be directly traced to the

popularity of aerobic exercise as used

in fitness training.

The aerobic exercise craze grew large-

ly from the work of Cooper1

in the

1960s. It has become the major com-

ponent of the fitness industry via aer-

obic dance classes and videos, and a

large variety of aerobic exercise

equipment, such as stationary bicy-

cles, treadmills, steppers, and rowing

machines. The mainstay of aerobic fit-

ness enthusiasts remains jogging and

distance running, as is evident from

the multitudes that enter organized

runs from 5km to marathons.

Exercise physiology and related text-

books, whether dating back more than

20 years2

or published recently3, con-

tain scientific estimates indicating the

primary metabolic sources of energy

for a large variety of sport and recre-

ational activities. A quick look at this

information clearly shows that the

vast majority of college and profes-

sional sports are predominantly anaer-

obic. For example, Mathews and Fox2

estimate that football is 90% anaero-

bic, basketball 85%, baseball 80%,

volleyball 90%, and tennis 70%. The

qualitative rankings published by the

NSCA3support the same conclusion.

For these and similar sports, develop-

ment of the high energy phosphate

and lactic acid energy systems should

be emphasized through sport-specific

conditioning, such as interval training,

rather than the aerobic energy system

using continuous activities, such as

low intensity, long duration running or

cycling.

Not only is aerobic training non-spe-

cific to most sports metabolically, it is

non-specific biomechanically. Take

running as an example activity. The

range of motion at the hip and knee

joints during jogging and slow dis-

tance running is limited - about 35

degrees at the hip and 52 degrees at

the knee. During sprint running,

which is a key to success in most

sports, the range of motion at these

joints is much larger, about 60 degrees

at the hip and 80 degrees at the knee.

In additional to this consideration,

which is directly related to the range

of lengthening and shortening of

involved muscles and possible differ-

ences in which muscles are utilized,

another neural control factor must be

considered.

The type of motor units recruited by

the nervous system during training

has a major influence on neuromuscu-

lar control, muscle coordination, and

performance during sport competi-

tion. Fast, short duration activities

during exercise specifically train the

neuromuscular system and fast twitch

muscle tissue for the demands of com-

petition. Slower, long duration activi-

ties emphasize use and development

of slow twitch muscle tissue, and non-

specific neural control patterns.

Running longer total distances can

also be detrimental to lower extremity

joints, especially for heavier athletes,

and for taller athletes due to leverage

considerations.

When using a stationary bicycle for

aerobic conditioning, not only are the

joint ranges of motion and temporal

patterns at the hip and knee different

compared to both slow and fast run-

ning speeds, but this exercise is non-

weight bearing. Body weight is sup-

ported largely by the seat, which may

be desirable in certain rehabilitation

situations, but not in sport-specific

conditioning. For example, how many

sports do not involve balance and sup-

port of body weight during fast move-

ments?

Finally, it should be mentioned that

short duration, high intensity bouts of

exercise produce a hormonal environ-

ment that is conducive to building

muscular strength and power. Aerobic

training does not produce this desir-

able hormonal response4.


Aerobic metabolism is needed for

recovery from anaerobic exercise, but

it is best to develop and enhance this

through the on - off activity sequence

found in most sports, when muscle and

blood lactate levels are high and must

be reduced. This is where interval

training techniques are most valuable.

The “Applications” section below pro-

vides some examples.

Most of the above information has

been well known for decades. So, why

today, at the dawn of the new millenni-

um, do so many coaches of highly

anaerobic sports insist on including

large amounts of continuous activity,

aerobic exercise in their athletes’ train-

ing programs?

There are several possibilities:

1. Weight control - coaches of female

athletes in particular see aerobic exer-

cise (coupled with diet restriction) as

the most productive method to have

their athletes lose or maintain body

weight. In reality, for comparable

workout sessions based on oxygen

consumption rates, lower intensity,

continuous aerobic exercise has a

lower total metabolic cost (exercise

and recovery) than higher intensity

anaerobic weight training5.

2. Aerobic training is part of a fitness

craze that has continued for decades. It

is an activity familiar to most of the

general population, including coaches.

It is easy to conduct and supervise aer-

obic workouts for both small and large

numbers of athletes. Higher intensity,

anaerobic interval training is not as

familiar to many coaches and can take

longer to plan and conduct, especially

for large numbers of athletes.

3. Many coaches insist on having their

team condition with methods they

themselves used years before.

Although there may be no scientific

justification for these methods, tradi-

tion rules. This is particularly difficult

to change when a coach's past experi-

ences include winning championships.

It must be remembered that some

teams win despite less than optimal

conditioning due the genetic quality of

athletes on the team and the organiza-

tional and technique skills of the coach.

However, also remember that optimal

conditioning provides each athlete the

best opportunity to reach his or her true

athletic potential, which translates into

the team having the best chance for

success.

4. Some coaches use aerobic training,

such as jogging, as a major component

of their personal exercise program. It is

easy to “kill two birds with one stone”

by taking their team members with

them for a run. Unfortunately, in most

cases like this the team’s sport is

almost entirely anaerobic.

APPLICATIONS

In order to better understand the meta-

bolic demands of popular collegiate

sports, the authors collected work-rest

interval data for men’s and women’s

Division One volleyball and basketball

competitions. These data correspond

well with those previously reported

(2,3), and are presented in Table 1 (see

next page).

Conditioning for Volleyball

The work-rest interval data for volley-

ball clearly indicate that the predomi-

nant source of energy for muscular

work is supplied by the immediate, or

ATP-CP energy system. It should also

be noted that the intensity of muscular

effort during the work intervals ranges

from low to maximal. For example,

immediately after a serve, defensive

players must wait and read the offense

as they pass and set. During these

moments, the defensive players are

working at a relatively low intensity.

However, once the offense sets the ball

and “attacks,” the intensity level of the

defense increases dramatically. For

example, the middle blockers must

perform a maximum vertical jump,

while back row players may have to

“explode” laterally over a short dis-

tance to dig the ball.

Conditioning for volleyball should

focus on developing these metabolic

pathways. The immediate energy sys-

tem involves 3 chemical reactions:

Intense exercise bouts of a few seconds

in duration and up to 30 seconds stress

the above metabolic pathways. One of

the adaptations to this type of exercise

is an increase in muscle tissue concen-

trations of the 3 enzymes – myosin

ATPase, creatine kinase, and myoki-

nase – that catalyze these reactions.


According to Table 1, the average

work interval in volleyball is less than

10 seconds but it can last up to 30 sec-

onds. Choosing the proper rest inter-

val length is equally important. Rest

interval length should consider the

half-life for recovery of the immedi-

ate energy system metabolites, which

is about 20 seconds. For example,

after a maximal 10-second exercise

bout, it will take about 20 seconds to

recover 50% of the immediate energy

source. In 40 seconds 75% will have

been recovered, and in 60 seconds

about 87.5% of the immediate energy

source will be replenished. If the next

exercise bout begins before adequate

replenishment takes place, only a sub-

maximal effort is possible, since the

involved muscles must derive some

energy from other sources with lower

power production potential (i.e., fast

glycolysis).

Practical ApplicationWhen the competitive season ends, it

may be wise for the volleyball athlete

to take a few weeks of active rest.

When the off-season conditioning

program commences, conditioning

drills can be more general in nature.

This might include running sprints

ranging from 50-150m with work-rest

ratios in the 1:5 to 1:10 range. For

example, an initial off-season sprint-

conditioning workout for volleyball

might start with 2 sets of 5 reps at 150

meters. Assuming the work intervals

take about 18 seconds, the rest inter-

vals between reps may need to be as

long as 180 seconds, but probably not

shorter than 90 seconds. As the ath-

lete adapts to the program, rest inter-

vals can be reduced until a work-rest

ratio closer to 1:3 (i.e., ~ 50-second

rest intervals for 150 meter sprints) is

achieved. As the program progresses,

a greater percentage of the total con-

ditioning volume shifts toward shorter

sprint distances so that work times

and power outputs become closer to

those needed for volleyball.

Rest periods between intervals (reps)

should be inactive to allow the most

rapid recovery of the ATP-CP energy

sources. Aerobic mechanisms are

important for recovery, which

explains the heavy breathing after an

intense bout of anaerobic exercise.

Any light activity that occurs during

the rest intervals will “compete” with

aerobic replenishment of immediate


Table 1

energy sources, thus interfering with

the recovery process forcing a reduc-

tion in quality of the next work inter-

val.

Some volleyball coaches may ignore

this concept with poorly designed

practice drills that involve repetitive,

high intensity volleyball skills with

low intensity movement planned

between reps. These drills are set up

so that continuous movement is pro-

longed for several minutes. This is

done with the intention of eliciting a

conditioning effect. Unfortunately,

these coaches do not realize that the

conditioning effect they are producing

is not specific to volleyball.

A well-designed volleyball condition-

ing program should consider not only

the work-rest time intervals, but spe-

cific movement patterns as well.

Volleyball is a sport characterized by

very high power outputs and move-

ment speeds. Jumping and quick

defensive movements require explo-

sive actions of the ankle, knee, and

hip. Hitting, blocking, and pushing

one’s body up off the floor after div-

ing for a loose ball require upper body

strength and power. In addition, these

movements cannot be made effective-

ly unless torso musculature contracts

forcefully to stabilize the spine.

As the season approaches, coaches

can begin to replace the sprint work-

outs described above with condition-

ing drills that incorporate more vol-

leyball-specific movements.

Consider the following list of exercis-

es that relate closely to the movement

demands of volleyball:

Plyometrics: 1) Single legged hops up stairs. 2)

Double legged hops over barriers. 3) Lateral

hops over a barrier. 4) Multi-directional hops.

Jumps: 1) Maximum vertical jumps. 2) Block

jumps.

Lifts: 1) Heavy squats (i.e., 3 reps at 80%1RM).

2) Push press/jerk (note: mechanically similar

to blocking). 3) Power clean or snatch. 4)

Jumping back squat at 30%1RM (note: this load

allows high power outputs).

Agility: 1) Side shuffling. 2) Multi-directional

movements in a specified pattern.

Upper Body: 1) Clapping push-ups. 2) Squat

thrusts, or Burpees.

From this list, the coach could choose

a series of 2 to 4 exercises that the ath-

lete performs in rapid succession.

Repetition number for each exercise

should be chosen so that if a maxi-

mum effort is made on each rep, the

total time to complete the complex is

consistent with the work interval data

from Table 1.

In these workouts (Table 2), the ath-

lete performs the exercises listed for

the number of reps indicated. The

completion of 5 double legged hops, 3

squat thrusts, and 3 side shuffles is

equal to one rep and should be done as

fast as possible (i.e., 20 seconds). A

complete (no activity) 60-second rest

should be taken between reps in order

to maximize ATP-CP recovery. The

number of reps per set can range from

5 to 10 with a complete 3- to 5-minute

recovery period between sets. Two to

4 sets are performed per workout.

It is important that the athlete com-

plete each rep with a high quality of

effort. Many athletes may not be

motivated to do this and it may be dif-

ficult for the strength and condition-


Example of a conditioning workout for a libero:

Example of a conditioning workout for a middle blocker:

Table 2. Sample volleyball workouts

ing coach to detect whether the athlete

is making a maximal effort. A simple

way to ensure work effort quality is to

conduct the conditioning workouts as

relay races. The work-rest ratio will

always be one less than the number of

athletes participating in each group, or

“team.” For example, if a work-rest

ratio of 1:3 is desired, 4 athletes will

be needed per “team” to compete

against one another during the relay.

A team of 12 athletes could be divid-

ed into 3 teams with 4 athletes each.

Since it takes about the same amount

of time for each athlete to perform a

rep, an approximate 1:3 work-rest

ratio can be achieved.

Conditioning for BasketballThe work-rest interval data from

Table 1 for basketball suggest that the

primary energy sources are also

anaerobic. Work times for basketball,

however, are much longer than vol-

leyball, indicating heavy reliance on

the lactic acid system. Some condi-

tioning training, however, should tar-

get the immediate energy system,

using work-rest times similar to those

described for volleyball above.

In addition, a large portion of the con-

ditioning volume should be devoted

to the development of the anaerobic

(fast) glycolysis system (lactic acid).

Glucose from blood, or glycogen

stored in muscle can be broken down

anaerobically into lactic acid to pro-

vide energy. The rate of energy pro-

duction that can be provided via fast

glycolysis is high, but not as high as

the ATP-CP system. The advantage

this system has over the ATP-CP sys-

tem is that its total energy supply is

larger, capable of supporting relative-

ly high intensity work for up to about

3 minutes. As phosphate supplies in

muscle diminish after 20–30 seconds

of maximal exercise, the body begins

to rely heavily on fast glycolysis in

order to sustain the highest possible

power output.

Fast glycolysis, however, has its prob-

lems. When fast glycolysis supplies

energy at its maximum rate, large

quantities of lactic acid are produced.

Ultimately, heavy usage of the fast

glycolysis energy system results in

lactic acid levels that force a reduction

in exercise intensity, since high levels

of lactic acid eventually interfere with

the muscle’s contractile machinery. At

this point, the only way to continue

exercising is to reduce the intensity to

a level that can be sustained aerobi-

cally. The maximal rate of energy that

can be produced aerobically only

allows power outputs of about

20–30% of the anaerobic maximum.

Clearly, this is well below what is

required for quality performance in

most sports.

A conditioning program designed to

increase the rate and quantity of ener-

gy supplied via fast glycolysis must

obviously stress the body to make the

appropriate adaptations. This is not a

difficult thing to do when the physiol-

ogy of the fast glycolysis is under-

stood. It is known that fast glycolysis

becomes the dominant energy source

as ATP-CP energy supplies are deplet-

ed after about 30 seconds of maximal

effort, and dominates for 2-3 minutes.

Use this knowledge to develop the

time frames for the work intervals.

Rest interval decisions must consider

the time needed for the body to recov-

er to a level that permits the perform-

ance of another high intensity work

bout that taxes the fast glycolysis sys-

tem.

Recommended work-rest ratios typi-

cally range from 1:2 to 1:5, depending

on the conditioning level of the ath-

lete. Rest intervals should now

include light exercise since lactate can

be metabolized aerobically by the

lightly exercising muscles, and also

by the heart. Active recovery results

in faster lactate removal and permits a

higher quality of work during the

ensuing work interval.

The primary conditioning exercise

mode for basketball is running, both

straight and with quick directional

changes. Thus, the vast array of

equipment available for endurance

and cardiovascular fitness training is

not adequate for specific basketball

conditioning. Treadmills have limita-

tions due to the high agility compo-

nent required in basketball. Straight-

line running must be heavily compli-

mented with movements that dupli-

cate the demands of the sport.

Basketball requires many rapid

changes in direction, acceleration, and

deceleration. With a basic under-

standing of the sport and a creative

imagination, an almost limitless com-

bination of conditioning drills can be

developed – all of which, can be done

more effectively without expensive

equipment.


Football and TennisInformation comparable to that pre-

sented in Table 1 above has been pub-

lished for professional football6. It

shows average work intervals of

about 5 seconds and average rest

intervals of about 30 seconds. Clearly

football is an ATP-CP energy system-

dependent sport, with aerobic metabo-

lism needed only for recovery.

Published reports analyzing tennis

support similar conclusions7.

ConclusionAs pointed out earlier, many coaches

mistakenly prescribe traditional long-

duration, steady state aerobic exercise

for basketball, football, and other

anaerobic sport athletes. Some believe

that an “aerobic base” must be devel-

oped in order to maximize endurance

and recovery between high intensity

interval bouts. However, coaches

need to understand that there is never

a situation when any single energy

system provides 100% of the energy

for exercise.

Sprints lasting 1.5 to 3 minutes do

require a significant portion of energy

to be supplied aerobically. Although

not maximally taxed, the aerobic sys-

tem is being trained, and in a way that

is specific to a sport where short-dura-

tion high intensity intervals are most

commonly performed. In addition,

high-intensity interval training

involves the aerobic system for recov-

ery during the rest periods between

work intervals. The argument can be

made then, that the aerobic system is

being stressed in a way that is very

specific to the sport. Coaches who

feel they are missing out on an impor-

tant fitness component by not includ-

ing aerobic conditioning with their

athletes may rest easier knowing that

little or no relationship exists between

aerobic capacity and anaerobic per-

formance or recovery parameters4.

Coaches should also be aware of the

negative impact that aerobic training

can have on anaerobic performance,

such as decreased power output, due

to oxidative related adaptations in fast

muscle tissue.

REFERENCES1. Cooper, K. The New Aerobics, Bantam, New

York, 1970.

2. Mathews, D.K. and E.L. Fox. The

Physiological Basis of Physical Education and

Athletics. W.B. Saunders Company, 1976, page

242.

3. Essentials of Strength Training and

Conditioning (T.R. Baechle & R.W. Earle, edi-

tors). Human Kinetics, 2000 (2nd edition), page

142.

4. Hoffman, J.R., Epstein, S,. Einbinder, M., and

Weinstein, Y. The Influence of Aerobic Capacity

on Anaerobic Performance and Recovery

Indices in Basketball Players. Journal of

Strength and Conditioning Research, 13(4), pp.

407 – 411, 1999.

5. Burleson, M.A., et al. Effect of weight train-

ing exercise and treadmill exercise on post-

exercise oxygen consumption. Medicine &

Science in Sports & Exercise, 30(4), pp. 518-

522, 1998.

6. Plisk, S. Tactical Metabolic Training: Part 1.

Strength and Conditioning, 19(2), pp. 44-53,

April 1997. (see Figure 4)

7. Christmass, M.A., et al. A metabolic charac-

terization of singles tennis. Journal of Sports

Science 11:543, 1993.


Continuing the virtual tour of the York

Barbell Museum’s exhibits and arti-

facts we launched in the last Strength

and Health, let’s turn our attention to

the Warren Lincoln Travis one-of-a-

kind championship belt. Nearly 100

years ago, this belt recognized Travis

as the “World’s Strongest Man.”

The Belt's OriginIn 1906, Richard Fox, owner of the

popular sporting newspaper, The

Police Gazette, was sure a head-to-

head lifting “shoot-out” between

fabled French-Canadian powerhouse

Louis Cyr and the renowned muscular

strength idol of the Ziegfeld Follies,

Eugen (correct original spelling)

Sandow, was a match-maker’s dream.

In an attempt to further facilitate this

clash between the two biggest names

of the strongman genre in that day,

Fox prepared a diamond-studded,

gold and silver “championship belt,”

which would officially recognize the

victor as the “strongest man in the

world.”

In truth, this belt was befitting of such

a prestigious title, as its rumored

worth just after the turn of the 20th

Century was $2,500, a sizable piece

of change nearly 100 years ago.

Historian Dave Willoughby reported

this figure as well (The Super

Athletes, p. 81), so this appraisal

seems valid.

Try as he might, though, Fox could

not induce Sandow to accept the chal-

lenge. In all fairness, Sandow was

several body weight classes lighter

than Cyr. Plus, a loss is a loss in the

eye of the public, so it's hard to pic-

ture Sandow recognizing any reason

to participate.

Travis Steps UpEnter Warren Lincoln Travis. By the

fall of 1906, Fox’s promotional

aplomb prompted him to approach

Travis about accepting this lavish belt

and defending it against all worthy

comers for a period of 10 years. In an

article in the August 1937 Strength &

Health, Travis listed two simple con-

ditions Fox placed on its acceptance:

1) Each man (Travis and challenger)

had the right to choose five or six lifts

apiece, and

2) The belt had to be defended any-

where in the world designated by the

challenger, with the understanding a

side bet or gate percentage could be

arranged.

Of course, Travis took Fox up on his

offer and did defend the belt for 10

years, after which it became his per-

sonal property.


by Jan Dellinger, York Barbell Company

The Warren Travis Belt

Readers probably wonder why Fox

tapped Travis after the Cyr versus

Sandow match-up failed to material-

ize? It’s not as though Travis was a

total unknown in 1906, not by a long

shot. At 20 years of age in 1896,

Travis (real name Roland Morgan)

was lucky enough to receive personal

training instruction from Professor

Louis Attila. The invaluable nature of

his teaching can be summed up by

noting that the list of professional

strongmen who benefited from

Attila’s marvelous guidance reads like

a "Who’s Who" from the Golden Age

of Strongmanism.

Plus, Travis had already put in his

apprenticeship, giving exhibitions in

gyms and training halls of New York

City and Long Island under the

moniker, “The Brooklyn Strongboy.”

Long before 1906, he had graduated

to working first-line theaters and ven-

ues, as well as earning distinction via

other avenues. For example, Fox

became an admirer of Travis’ in 1903

when the latter won a prominent har-

ness and back lift championships. In

fact, Fox was so impressed with

Travis’ prowess on this occasion that

he presented him with a diamond

medal.

No doubt the final cementing bond

between Fox and Travis was a shared

admiration for the exploits of Louis

Cyr. Noted writers like Siegmund

Klein and Earle Liederman contend

that Travis definitely patterned him-

self after the Canadian behemoth.

Travis Charts a New CourseWhen one realizes that Warren

Lincoln Travis was still giving spo-

radic exhibitions upon his death at age

65 (in 1941), it seems hard to believe

he was able to overcome the challenge

of rising young strength stars and

retain the championship belt Fox

bestowed on him 35 years before.

Suffice it to say that when the belt

became his personal property, the

conditions under which challenges

would be accepted changed radically.

For example, disputants to his World's

Strongest Man title belt had to put up

$10,000 (that is not a misprint) for the

right to meet him in a contest.

However, Travis would put up the

same sum. Apparently Travis had his

fair share of eccentricities. He rou-

tinely carried $10,000 in large bills in

his watch pocket in anticipation of an

immediate challenge. In the October

1956 issue of S&H, longtime New

York City gym owner Sig Klein main-

tained that when Travis visited his

gym, which he did with regularity, he

always had the $10 grand on his per-

son.

The other prime stipulation laid down

by Travis was that the winner of such

challenges would be determined on

the basis of total gross weight lifted in

all tests combined. Bearing in mind

that he was most adept at ultra-heavy

tonnage lifts like the back lift, hand

and thigh lift, hip lift, deadlift, and

other movements involving “big num-

bers,” this tilted the playing field

decidedly in his favor.

The dollar requirement specifically

prohibited strongmen new to this

country from bothering Travis.

Moreover, the second requirement

had the net effect of freezing out the

terrific barbell/dumbbell lifters.

Strongmen Ruled SupremeThis issue of money is not lost on vis-

itors to our museum who often inquire

about the earning power of these top

drawer strongmen in the early part of

the 20th century. As a long-running

attraction/matinee idol of the Ziegfeld

Follies, it’s hard to envision anyone

surpassing Sandow’s reported $1,500-

$2,000 weekly.

On the other hand, the honors for

greatest single weekly take would

seemingly go to Siegmund Breitbart.

Historian David Webster reported in

his book, Sons of Samson, that during

Christmas week of 1923, Breitbart

performed before more than 85,000

spectators and earned $7,000.

Even in the 21st century, this is an

eye-popping remuneration for a

week’s work to most. Bear in mind,

though, Breitbart did not command

this sum every week. Still, those stel-

lar drawing cards that played the

higher profile venues with more fre-

quency clearly did well.

The fact that Travis walked around

with $10,000 on his person (and let’s

not forget the jeweled medal and belt

from Fox), suggests that he did not

suffer in the pay scale derby either.

Still, during his long run as a Coney


Island performer Travis generally

earned his fortune one nickel at a

time. In fact, this was the individual

price of admission to the Coney

Island Circus Sideshow (which

included Travis) pre-World War I,

according to Earle Liederman in the

June 1963 S&H.

However, after WW I things perked

up for Travis as Sig Klein reported

(October 1956 S&H) that in 1924 the

going rate to see Travis was up to 25

cents a head.

Please realize Travis averaged nearly

20 shows daily and showed up for

work nearly every day of the week.

Upon considering the style of act he

did, combined with how often he per-

formed his act, Travis should have

received the diamond belt just for sur-

viving this grind for so many decades!

Travis, Always the ShowmanDue to his flamboyant and eccentric

personality, there are a couple of

unique mysteries concerning Travis

that could be explored. One that begs

to be addressed is the odyssey his

beloved belt traveled before residing

in the York museum.

Upon his death in 1941, he left a

rather odd will, especially regarding

the belt, which amounted to a chal-

lenge to future strongmen he envi-

sioned vying for it. A partial quote of

the passage pertaining to the belt’s

disposition (as it appeared in the

August 7, 1941 New York Times) out-

lines the following wishes: “I direct

that a certain diamond-jeweled gold

and silver belt presented to me…be

offered in open competition and be

awarded to the man who at least will

have equaled the record made by the

testor herein by performing the fol-

lowing ten feats:” Travis laid out what

he felt were his 10 best lifts and stip-

ulated that they were to be done with-

in 30 minutes.

1) Within 30 seconds, clean and press a 100-

pound barbell 10 times while seated;

2) bring a pair of 90lb dumbbells along the sides

of the body to the shoulders and slowly press

them overhead;

3) teeth lift 350lbs from the floor (hands held

behind the back);

4) single finger lift with 350lbs from floor eight

times in five seconds;

5) a single finger lift from the floor with 560lbs

once;

6) two-hand grip lift, straddling the weight, from

floor, 700lbs, 20 times in 10 seconds;

7) a single hand and thigh lift from the floor with

1600lbs;

8) back lift 3660lbs once;

9) a single harness lift with 3580lbs; and

10) back lift 2000lbs 250 repetitions in seven

minutes.

Obviously, Travis slanted the criteria

toward a clone of himself—a

strength-endurance oriented specialist

who was adept at shallow range reps

with “tonnage-style” lifts. Hence, the

rep versus time requirement of certain

feats, as well as the overall time limit.

No TakersWhile the gauntlet had seemingly

been thrown down, assuming Travis

was genuinely looking for a succes-

sor, I find no evidence that suggests

anyone took on the challenge. Why?

The Golden Age of Strongmanism

had largely passed, and along with it

the practice of the hip, harness, and

hand-and-thigh lifts. Olympic-style

weightlifting and bodybuilding were

gaining popularity among the bur-

geoning generation of the 1940s. And

let’s not forget that threatening nation-

al distraction known as World War II,

which prompted so many lasting

changes within our culture.

Over the ensuing 20 years after

Travis’ death, the “trail” of his belt

faded into oblivion. That was, until

the April 1961 issue of S&H (page

26), which carries a photo and the

caption that it was on display in the

York Barbell Museum.

Who possessed the Travis belt

between 1941 and 1961? To date, no

amount of detective work has pro-

duced a definitive answer. However,

the “Iron Grapevine” section of the

February 1962 S&H offers a strong

clue. Mentioned therein is the dona-

tion of a fluted, thick-handled dumb-

bell to our museum by one-time New

York City gym owner/Iron Game per-

sonality Harry Shafran. Also men-

tioned is the extensive collection of

strongman paraphernalia and memo-

rabilia in Shafran’s possession, much

of it once the personal property of

Warren Lincoln Travis.


Again, no irrefutable proof, but

nonetheless a plausible explanation as

to how our museum may have come

by the awesomely gigantic Travis

dumbbell spotlighted in our last edi-

tion, as well as his glitzy champi-

onship belt.

In closing, the various attributions

included were done for more than

mere journalistic sourcing. As readers

probably surmised, Travis was a gen-

uine “character” in just about every

sense of the word. Hence, the articles

authored by Sig Klein and Earle

Liederman, in particular, in which

they relate various interactions with

Travis down through the years are not

only entertaining, but give more

insight as to how quirky Travis really

was.

Jan Dellinger has been Associate Editor for

Strength and Health and Muscular

Development during his 25 years at York

Barbell. He has published in Hard Training,

Hardgainer, and Varsity, along with serving as a

contributor for Maximize Your Training by Matt

Brzycki.


In recent years a debate has raged

about whether one set to failure is as

effective as a multiple set training

routine. Proponents of either system

are quick to site studies that favor

their arguments and harshly criticize

studies they disagree with. A recent

study examined the effects of one set

of 6-9 reps to failure compared to

three sets of 6-9 reps to failure. In this

study, 27 female subjects with at least

six months of regular strength training

experience were split into three

groups: a single set group (SS), a mul-

tiple set group (MS), and a control

group (C). All subjects underwent

two-1RM test sessions prior to the

six-week training program and a

posttest three days after the program.

They were tested on bilateral leg

extension and seated chest press.

Training was done twice a week for

six weeks. The subjects performed a

whole body workout consisting of leg

extensions, leg curls, abdominal

crunches, seated chest press, and lat

pulldowns. The rest interval between

sets for the MS group was two min-

utes. When a subject was capable of

doing nine or more repetitions of an

exercise, the weight was increased

2.5-5kg for the next workout.

Leg extension strength increased sig-

nificantly for both the MS and SS

groups (15% and 6%, respectively).

Seated chest press was significantly

increased for the MS group only

(10%). The percentage strength

improvement for both the leg exten-

sion and seated chest press were sig-

nificantly greater for the MS group

than the SS group.

This study clearly supports the idea

that multiple sets are better for

strength improvement than a single

set to failure. The reasons for this are

unclear. The authors of the study sug-

gest that fatigue induced by multiple

set training may be part of the training

stimulus.

Another possible explanation for the

improvement in strength with multi-

ple sets is improved neuromuscular

performance. Even though the sub-

jects all had some experience with

strength training and had presumably

gone through the steepest part of the

skill learning curve with these exer-

cises, skill improvement cannot be

ruled out. Even top-level athletes con-

tinue to refine and improve their skill

after years of training. Since there was

no measure of coordination or motor


Research Reviews

by Ed McNeely

unit recruitment patterns in this study,

we can’t be sure of the role learning

played in the strength improvement.

Schlumberg, A., Stec, J., and Schmidtbleicher,

D. (2001). Single- vs. Multiple-set Strength

Training in Women. Journal of Strength and

Conditioning Research. 15(3): 284-289.

The stimulus that causes muscles to

increase size or strength as a result of

resistance training is still unclear.

Various metabolic mechanisms have

been suggested as well as muscle

fiber splitting and satellite cell activa-

tion. One popular theory holds that

exercise induced muscle damage

stimulates growth as muscles repair.

Twenty-six healthy, active young

adults (19 male, 7 female) participat-

ed in a study to determine if a single

bout of eccentric training that elicited

muscle damage would have any effect

on the adaptation to subsequent train-

ing.

The subjects trained elbow flexors

three times per week using 4 sets of

10 reps at 75% of their 1RM. Each

arm was trained independently. Prior

to training the subjects underwent

1RM testing on each arm as well as

isometric MVC testing at five joint

angles. One arm for each subject was

randomly chosen to undergo a single

bout of maximal eccentric work. The

eccentric session consisted of one

maximal eccentric repetition every 10

seconds for 10 minutes, making a

total of 60 maximal eccentric contrac-

tions.

Two days following the eccentric

training session there was a 14.9%

decrease in strength in the eccentric

trained arm. This is common of mus-

cles that have undergone severe mus-

cle damage following exercise.

Following the nine-week training pro-

gram both the control arm (C) and the

eccentric arm (E) increased 1RM

strength by 41.6% and 42.4% respec-

tively. Isometric strength was

increased by 16.6% for the C arm and

18.4% for the E arm. While there was

no difference in the post-treatment

strength testing between the arms, the

C arm showed a significantly greater

improvement in strength during the

first 5 weeks of the program.

The results of this study show that a

single bout of eccentric training does

not improve the effectiveness of sub-

sequent mixed concentric-eccentric

training. What is interesting to note is

that the eccentric trained arm had

slower strength increases for the first

five weeks, but had to have greater

strength increases in the last four

weeks for the two arms to have equal

strength increases. It would be inter-

esting to see if the eccentric arm

would have continued to increase

faster in a longer study.

The results of this study do have some

implications for athletic performance.

Since there was a slower increase in

strength in the eccentric arm for five

weeks following the eccentric session,

it may be advisable for athletes to

avoid this type of training in their

final preparation for competition.

Folland, J., Chong, J., Copeman, E., and Jones,

D. (2001). Acute muscle damage as a stimulus

for training-induced gains in strength. Medicine

& Science in Sport & Exercise. 33(7): 1200-

1205.

Participation in high-level competi-

tive sport can be very rewarding, but

it also has it drawbacks. Almost every

sport has the potential to put the com-

petitors health at risk, either through

direct competition or because of the

nature of the training program. While

most of us are aware of the acute

injuries and accidents that happen in

sport, there has been very little

research that looks at the long term

health risks associated with competi-

tive sport. A recent epidemiological

study from Finland compared mortal-

ity rates of elite powerlifters to a

group of controls. The 62 male sub-

jects were powerlifters were who had

placed first through fifth in the

Finnish championships between 1977

and 1982. All subjects were in the

82.5-125kg weight categories. They

were all born between 1931 and 1958;

their average age during their compet-

itive career was 35.1 years and aver-

age weight was 107.4kg. A control

group was randomly chosen from the

Finnish Finrisk survey of 1982. The

subjects were all male aged 25-64

years. Death certificates were

obtained from the cause of death files

at Statistics Finland.

During the 12-year period of follow-

up, 12.9% of the powerlifters died

compared to only 3.1% of the con-

trols. While the powerlifters experi-

enced a mortality rate 4.6 times that of


the controls, there was no difference

in the proportion of heart disease or

cancer deaths between the two

groups. There was a higher rate of sui-

cide amongst the powerlifters.

The purpose of this study was not to

determine the reason for the higher

mortality rate among powerlifters, but

the authors speculate that it may be

due to steroid use. While steroid use

can contribute to heart and liver dis-

ease, more work needs to be done to

see if there is a relationship between

early mortality and steroid use. Since

the athletes in this study were from

the heavier weight categories, we can-

not rule out the effects of body mass

and diet on mortality. The average

weight 107.4kg is probably much

higher than the average weight of the

controls. While there are adaptations

to the heart as a result of strength

training, they are often not propor-

tional to the increases in body mass.

More work needs to be done to assess

the long-term health risks of compet-

ing in strength and power sports.

Parssinen, M., Kujala, U., Vartiainen, E., Sarna,

S., and Seppala, T. (2000). Increased prema-

ture mortality of competitive powerlifters sus-

pected to have used anabolic agents.

International Journal of Sports Medicine. 21:

225-227.

Holding a master's degree in science, Ed

McNeely has been a strength and physiology

consultant to 17 Canadian national and profes-

sional sports teams. He has presented interna-

tionally on athlete development and condition-

ing. He is the owner of Sports Performance

Institute, a company specializing in athlete

development and coaches' education.


Chambersburg, (PA) is a mostly rural

town of about 25,000, located in south

central Pennsylvania about 15 miles

from the Maryland border. The

Chambersburg Area Senior High

School is an AAAA school, about the

10th largest in the state.

The school has a rich heritage of soft-

ball and baseball success over the

years, with a repetitive record of plac-

ing players on full-ride D1 college

scholarships. Over the past several

years, boy's basketball success has

taken off and become a state power.

One of the key ingredients in the suc-

cess of these sport teams has been

their utilization of a conditioning pro-

gram offered locally at Results Fitness

Center.

Plans to offer similar services for the

high school's football team have met

with mixed results, but we see signs

of progress. Suffice it to say the

school's weight room is not exactly

state-of-the-art and is in need of

expansion and upgrades. And the

school has such a plan on the drawing

boards. But, in the meantime, what

can be done to help the kids get into

their best possible condition prior to

the season's kick-off?

Results PhilosophyAs Strength and Health readers

learned in the Winter and Spring 2001

issues, we base our sports condition-

ing programs almost exclusively on

multiple-joint, explosive movements

that mimic the joint and muscle action

that occurs on the field.

• We believe very strongly in squat-

ting for additional lower body

strength and power. These squats are

performed deep, but always in proper

form. This depends on the athlete's

ability to get into the correct position,

which our staff closely supervises.

• We do not use pulling straps for any

exercise. Most athletes need to

improve their gripping strength and

this is an easy way to accomplish this

goal.

• Players are exposed to the learning

sequence for clean, snatch, jerk, and

push press.

• Athletes do a number of combina-

tion lifts, all with relatively low repe-

titions and a medium load.

• We emphasize excellent technique

and a slow progression; the emphasis

is NOT on lifting heavy weights. Due

to the level of fitness brought to the

weight room in pre-season, we've

found there is no reason to rush

toward heavy weights.

The Football ProgramAs always, many of the football play-

ers are multi-sport athletes. This can


Building Towardthe Season

by Doug Lentz

make an entire yearly plan of peri-

odized strength training and condi-

tioning nearly impossible, but we

seek to accommodate the needs of

each season's sports. We use a basic

model of periodization, with initial

emphasis on technique (T), hyper-

trophy (H), strength (S), Anaerobic

Conditioning (AC), Power (P),

Speed and Agility (S&A).

One unique part of our football

training program is the use of an

unannounced "surprise day" work-

out, normally Wednesdays. We alter

the fixed workout program and

throw in activities or challenges that

benefit the athletes not only physi-

cally, but also psychologically. We

find a good deal of enthusiasm from

players, coaches, and staff when

these unpredictable workouts occur.

Similarly, during the other days'

workouts (normally Mondays and

Fridays) we vary many of the exer-

cises. Core movements (squat,

curls, etc.) may remain the same,

but some assistance movements

may change. This variety not only

breaks up the monotony associated

with regular training (a problem

sometimes with teenagers), but it

allows us to train or retain skills

needed for exercises that will come

in another cycle.

In an ideal world, not dealing with a

multi-sport athlete, our periodized

approach to football training looks

like this:


Preparation Phase (T, H, 5 wks)Day 1 Reps SetsDB Jumps 6 3Squats 12-10 3Bench press 12-10 3SLDL 12-10 3Bent-over row 12-10 3Back ext 12-10 3Abs 25 3Curls 12-10 3DB triceps ext 12-10 3Hip rolls 10-15 2Sidelying bends 10-15 2

Day 2 (unannounced)

Day 3DB Jumps 6 3Front squat 12-10 3Incline press 12-10 3DB step-ups 12-10 3DB press 12-10 3Lat pull-down 12-10 3Abs 25 3DB curl 12-10 3DB triceps ext 12-10 3

Phase I-A (H, 5 wks)Day 1 Reps SetsHang cleans 5-4 3Squat 10-8 3Bench press 10-8 3SLDL 10-8 3Bent-over row 10-8 3Back extension 10-8 3Blasters 20-30 2Curls 10-8 4Triceps ext 10-8 4Partner sidebends 10-15 2Neck 10 2

Day 2 (unannounced)

Day 3Hang Snatch 5-4 3Overhead Squat 10 2Squat 6-3 3Bench press 6-3 3Press 6-3 3Wide-grip pull-ups max 3Glute/Ham Raise 8-12 3Blasters 20-30 2Weighted dips 6-8 3Curls 6-3 3Neck 8-6 2

Phase I-B (S, 3 wks)Day 1Hang Clean 3 3Jerk 5 3Squat 8-6 3Bench press 8-6 3SLDL 8-6 3Bent-over row 8-6 3Back extension 8-6 3Curls 8-6 3Triceps ext 8-6 3Neck 8 2Blasters 30-35 2

Day 2 ("surprise")

Day 3Hang Snatch 3 3Overhead squat 8 2Squat 3-2 3Bench press 3-2 3SLDL 6-4 4Incline bench 6 3Bent over row 6 3Chin-ups 6 3Curls 6 3Neck 6 2High Chair 8 3Blasters 30-35 2

Phase II (A/C,P, 7-8 wks)Day 1Overhead squat 5 2Hang clean 5-2 3Squat 6-2 3Bench press 6-3 3SLDL 8-3 3Lat pull-down 10-6 3Trunk twist w/wgt 10-8 3DB triceps ext 10-6 3Curls 10-6 3Neck 8-6 2Weighted sit-ups 15-10 3

Day 2PlyometricsAgilities/Reaction"Fun" resistance exercises

Day 3Hang Snatch 5 3Front squat 5 3Incline bench 8-4 3SLDL 10-6 3Weighted chin-ups max 3Trunk twist w/wgt 10-8 3DB press 8-4 3Back extensions 8-6 3Curls 10 3DB triceps ext 10 3Neck 12-8 2Hanging leg raise 8-12 3Abs 40-50 2

Pre-Season TrainingResults offers Phase III training

(Speed & Agility/Power) during the

summer months. This 10-week pre-

season training consists largely of cir-

cuit training, in which we use combi-

nation lifts, explosive lifts, medicine

ball drills, plyometric training, and

some general resistance training exer-

cises.

Throughout the year our football

players also engage in goal-oriented

flexibility training and general condi-

tioning/speed development drills not

accomplished in the weight room

activities listed above. We manipulate

the volume and intensity of these

efforts throughout the year, seeking a

peak in performance just prior to the

kick-off of the football season.

One Remaining HurdleThe concept of a structured, in-season

conditioning program for football has

not yet been fully embraced and

accepted, so this remains a goal for

the future. However, if we can keep

players focused on the priorities tar-

geted throughout the rest of the year,

we end up with a stronger, faster,

more powerful and agile player resist-

ant to injury during the season.

Successful programs are not built

overnight. We have a ways to go, but

we ARE making progress. Stay tuned

for updates.

Doug Lentz is a USAW Senior Coach and cer-

tified strength and conditioning specialist who

serves as the director of athlete programs at

Results Fitness for Summit Health,

Chambersburg, PA. He is a local, regional, and

national speaker/writer on the subject of

improved athletic performance. His sports

background includes boxing, cycling, triathlon,

and weightlifting.


High-Intensity Training, or simply

HIT, is an approach to strength train-

ing used for decades by competitive

athletes in virtually every sport and

activity at the scholastic, collegiate,

and professional levels. Despite its

popularity, the principles behind HIT

are often misunderstood by many in

the strength and fitness community.

This article is an attempt to clarify

HIT concepts and eliminate the confu-

sion.

History 101After more than 22 years of tinkering

and countless prototypes, Arthur

Jones finally introduced and sold his

first Nautilus™ resistance training

machine in 1970. At roughly the same

time, he also suggested guidelines for

strength training that were quite dif-

ferent from traditional thinking.

Included in this information was the

notion that strength training should be

intense by design and brief by neces-

sity. For instance, Jones recommend-

ed doing “the minimum amount of

exercise that imposes the maximum

amount of growth stimulation” with

the goal of reaching “momentary

exhaustion” or “muscular failure”

within a prescribed number of repeti-

tions. Initially, he specified that no

more than 3 sets of each exercise

should be done. Jones also advocated

various repetition schemes including

as few as 6 and as many as 20, along

with a reverse pyramid of 3 sets con-

sisting of 10, 8, and 6 repetitions.

The term “High-Intensity Training”

appears as early as 1973 in an article

written by Jones. It’s also mentioned

in a 1975 article and several 1977

books authored by Ellington Darden,

PhD, a Nautilus™ employee. (The

acronym “HIT” became fashionable

in 1988 with the publication of the

HIT Newsletter.) The writings of

Darden showcased Nautilus™

machines and recommended one set

of 8–12 repetitions.

Because of the inextricable link

between this set/rep guideline and

Nautilus™, HIT has been character-

ized for more than a quarter of a cen-

tury as “one set of 8-12 reps on a

Nautilus™ machine.” Besides being a

gross oversimplification of HIT, this

statement promotes 3 main miscon-

ceptions concerning sets, repetitions,

and equipment.

SetsFact: HIT doesn’t always involve one

set of an exercise.It’s necessary to

understand that science has been

unable to determine exactly how

many sets of each exercise are neces-

sary for individuals to achieve opti-

mal increases in muscular size and

strength. But the overwhelming

majority of scientific evidence clearly

points to the fact that single-set train-

ing is at least as effective as multiple-

set training. An exhaustive literature

review in 1998 performed by Drs.

Ralph Carpinelli and Bob Otto of

Adelphi University and later reviews

by Carpinelli examined all studies

that compared different numbers of

sets (dating back to 1956).

Collectively, their research found five


by Matt Brzycki

High-Intensity Training:The Facts

studies that showed multiple-set train-

ing was superior to single-set training

and 56 that did not.

Many versions of HIT do indeed

involve one set of each exercise, but

there are some multiple-set applica-

tions (although the sets are generally

of much lower volume than that used

in traditional programs). For example,

Ken Mannie, Strength and

Conditioning Coach at Michigan

State University and a proponent of

HIT for nearly 25 years, prescribes a

myriad of protocols for his athletes.

Some routines call for 2, 3, and even

4 sets of the same exercise.

Sometimes the sets are performed in

succession, as in most traditional mul-

tiple-set protocols. At other times they

are segmented into push/pull, pre-

exhaust, or post-exhaust schemes.

According to Mannie, the number of

sets performed for each exercise is

determined by several factors includ-

ing the available equipment, the

emphasis of the workout (body seg-

ment or the particular lifts) or simply

as a matter of personal preference.

“For competitive lifters,” he adds,

“the fact that the congruent neuro-

muscular pathways must be fashioned

for skill encoding makes multiple-sets

a polestar variable.”

Rather than dwell on the number of

sets his athletes perform for each

exercise, Mannie focuses on the total

number of sets performed in a work-

out. In total-body workouts, MSU

athletes target their major muscles

with 15-18 sets per workout in the off-

season and 10-15 during the in-sea-

son. So, even though the number of

sets per exercise may vary from 1 to

4, the aggregate number of sets per

workout remains the same. Also,

Mannie pays close attention to bal-

ancing the workouts with adequate

stimulation in a variety of movement

planes for all of the anterior, posterior,

medial, and lateral compartments.

RepetitionsFact: HIT doesn’t always use 8-12

repetitions per set. Chip Harrison,

Strength and Conditioning Coach at

Penn State University and another

long-time advocate of HIT, frequently

manipulates the repetition schemes of

his athletes. Harrison notes, “It’s com-

mon for our athletes to use varied

loading schemes or repetition goals

throughout the course of a season or

over time in order to produce the

desired training response. While we

may invest a good bit of time using a

repetition range of 8-12, it’s just as

likely that our repetition goal will be

4-6 or 15-20.”

And consider Kim Wood, Strength

and Conditioning Coach of the

Cincinnati Bengals for more than 26

years. The dean of the NFL strength

and conditioning coaches, Wood has

been a proponent of HIT since the

early 1970s. He keeps it basic, a target

of 20 reps for the lower body, 10 for

the upper torso.

EquipmentFact: HIT doesn’t always incorporate

Nautilus™ machines(or any brand of

machine, for that matter). In order to

increase muscular size and strength, a

muscle must be loaded with some

form of resistance. The source of that

resistance really doesn’t matter. Mike

Bradley, the Assistant Strength and

Conditioning Coach at Stanford

University and yet another long-time

supporter of HIT, says, “The main

factors that determine gains in size

and strength are an athlete’s genetics

and level of effort, not the type of

equipment that is used.”

The truth is that HIT employs a wide

variety of equipment modalities to

load muscles including barbells,

dumbbells, machines (selectorized

and plate-loaded), stretch cords, sand-

bags, other human beings, and even

the lifter’s body weight (such as dur-

ing dips and chins). With this in mind,

Harrison recommends “a diverse and

varied selection of exercises and

choices of modality.”

Remember, all equipment choices

have advantages and disadvantages.

Machines can vary resistance accord-

ing to muscular needs, but they are

expensive and usually require a sepa-

rate machine for a separate function.

Free weights are inexpensive and

offer plenty of variety. As Bradley

points out, “Many different exercises

can be performed with free weights,

but how does one perform a leg curl

with a barbell or a neck exercise with

a dumbbell? This question may not be


important if you are a competitive

weightlifter but it is important if you

are an athlete who competes on the

field.”

So it’s best to stay open-minded when

choosing equipment. As Ken Mannie

advises, “Don’t handcuff yourself to a

set ideology or antiquated preju-

dices.”

What HIT IsSo what is HIT? Since it was first

popularized more than three decades

ago, there have been endless interpre-

tations, variations, and applications of

HIT. The fact of the matter is that

many strength and fitness profession-

als incorporate their own personal

twists and perspectives.

Nevertheless, most versions of HIT

do have several common denomina-

tors. As the name implies, HIT is

characterized by intense, aggressive

efforts. Each exercise is typically per-

formed to the point of muscular

fatigue or “failure.” A minimal num-

ber of sets are usually performed,

often only one set of each exercise,

but sometimes several sets.

Another characteristic of HIT is the

emphasis on progressive overload.

Whenever possible, an attempt is

made to increase either the repetitions

performed or the resistance used from

one workout to the next. HIT doesn’t

include fast-speed movements or

exercises. All repetitions are done

with a controlled speed of movement

so that momentum doesn’t play a sig-

nificant role in raising the resistance.

Finally, HIT is usually fast-paced,

involving a minimal amount of recov-

ery time between exercises.

HIT can be effective for anyone,

regardless of lifting experience or

aspiration, as long as it encourages

progressive overload and allows suffi-

cient recovery. The past three decades

have provided literally thousands of

examples of individuals, male and

female, from untrained beginners to

highly trained athletes, as empirical

evidence that HIT is extremely effica-

cious.

In summation, Chip Harrison states,

“HIT is an approach to programming

rather than an unalterable adherence

to some preconceived notion of exer-

cise volume, set, and rep schemes or

choice of training modality.”

Matt Brzycki has written more than 200 articles

on strength and fitness that have appeared in

more than 36 different publications. He is also

the author of several books, including A

Practical Approach to Strength Training, and the

editor of Maximize Your Training, a 455-page

book that features chapters written by more

than 30 strength and fitness professionals.


In 1953, with an eye toward creating a

new athletic opportunity in Florida

high schools, visionary Felton Luck

began the Florida High School

Weightlifting Championships. The

event, sanctioned by the Florida AAU

(then the governing body for the sport

in the US) consisted of the press, the

snatch, and the clean and jerk.

Such competitive opportunities for

youngsters were soon matched in

many other states around the country,

eventually leading to the creation of a

national championship title for

teenagers, not just high school stu-

dents. By the early 1960s local AAU

districts were encouraged to convert

high school meets to teenage events.

Not willing to simply let the original

meet disappear, the organizers of the

Florida High School Championships

initiated a major change. In 1964 the

snatch lift was eliminated and

replaced by the bench press. With this

hybrid mix of lifts from both

weightlifting and powerlifting, this

event no longer fell under the aus-

pices of AAU Weightlifting.

An invitational high school meet was

held in 1969 to showcase the new for-

mat. By 1975, the Florida High

School Activities Association official-

ly sanctioned this program and regis-

tered competitors from 14 schools at

the inaugural state championship

event. Soon, reflecting the interna-

tional weightlifting decision to elimi-

nate the press from competition in

1973, the FHSAA program was

trimmed to the bench press and clean

and jerk contest that remains today.

Florida High School Lifting TodayThe Florida high school sport of

weightlifting runs from January to

May, with weekly competitions at the

dual, tri-, district, regional, and state

levels. Of the more than 500 high

schools in the state, nearly 200 take

part in the sport. About 65% of these

participating schools register at least

one competitor in the state event. The

Florida State High School

Weightlifting Championships have

grown to nearly 700 competitors (in

2001 the Class A championships had

331 lifters, the 2A division saw 356

lifters).

The growth of the sport has not been

without its problems. Simply con-

ducting 1-day meet for more than 300

lifters is a huge challenge. Multiple

platforms must be used to handle this


by Harvey Newton

Florida’s High SchoolWeightlifting Program

number of competitors. This presents

a series of logistical challenges,

including adequate judging and staff,

sufficient platforms and equipment,

and difficulties highlighting the truly

outstanding performances that take

place.

According to Denarvise Thornton,

Associate Director of Athletics for

FHSAA, "We need to develop a qual-

ifying system for the state meet that

will allow us to properly showcase the

event. Weightlifting is our only sport

without a qualifying procedure."

Mr. Thornton has other goals for the

sport, as well. "We'd like to feature the

state meet on television, as we do with

other sports. But the number of com-

petitors, at this stage, is prohibitive.

Part of our plan is to elevate

weightlifting's status among students,

coaches, faculty, and administration.

While weightlifting is a great and nec-

essary adjunct to improved perform-

ance in all sports, the sport of

weightlifting is a truly exciting stand-

alone sport. I want more people to

realize this."

A Gold Mine for Hot ProspectsIn 1987, USA Weightlifting recog-

nized the potential talent available in

Florida. Through a grant from the US

Olympic Foundation, a pilot program

modeled after the successful

Australian Schoolboy Clean and Jerk

Championships was conducted. By

enticing Florida high schools with

equipment rewards, the program drew

more than 2,300 competitors the first

year.

Top lifters and coaches were brought

to the Olympic Training Center in

Colorado Springs for a training camp.

USA Weightlifting "prospected" for

talented athletes and coaches who

could become future stars. The pro-

gram paid off handsomely. From the

initial crop of young lifters, Tim

McRae, Jeff Macy, and Brian Jacob

soon represented the USA at interna-

tional competitions, including the

Olympic Games. Several Florida

high school coaches also became reg-

ulars at national level meets around

the country, including Richard

Graham, Bob Smithers, and the late

Bill McDaniel.

Despite several efforts at expansion,

the USAW Clean & Jerk program fell

by the wayside. Florida still fields

contenders at national level

weightlifting competitions, but many

more "nuggets" remain undiscovered.

The Spruce Creek LegacySpruce Creek High School, located in

Port Orange, has long been the king-

pin of Florida high school weightlift-

ing. Although other Volusia County

high schools (DeLand, Seabreeze,

Mainland,) have produced strong state

and national lifters, Spruce Creek

remains the dynasty in the Sunshine

State.

The program began in 1975 under the

guidance of Coach Dave Ramey, now

retired. One of Ramey's former

lifters, 1984 State Champion Lane

Lowery, was groomed for the eventu-

al head coach position, which he

assumed in 1996.

This school's weightlifting program is

nothing short of phenomenal, with

470 students involved this season.

This includes nearly 150 student-ath-

letes competing for a spot on the jun-

ior varsity or varsity teams. Many

other students work out under the

supervision of Coach Lowery and his

staff primarily for improved sports

performance. Yet another group of

youngsters simply train to improve

their appearance. "All the boys want

to get bigger and stronger," says

Lowery. "The girls not on a varsity

sport team work out mostly for

improved appearance."

The Spruce Creek weight room is a

no-frills weightlifting training hall.

Ten dedicated lifting sites are conve-

niently located for the coaches' close

scrutiny. Borrowing from a popular

trend often seen overseas, there are no

actual platforms. Lifter and barbell

are conveniently located on a solid

runway/rubberized "non-platform"

area. Well-used power racks are

located at the rear of each workout

area.

Just Another Day in the Weight RoomLowery and his staff are always on the

lookout for talent. All students learn

the competitive lifts, in addition to

whatever personal training goals they

may have. "Obviously, most lifters

are interested in improving their

bench press," observed Lowery. "But,

we keep the workouts fairly simple

and focused. I have one mission--I

want each student to enjoy the

weightlifting experience and leave the

program a better individual." No one

could ask for more.


Each year 35-50 students letter in

weightlifting. An intense level of

competition exists, with inter-squad

meets (many times with other

schools) weekly at both the varsity

and JV levels. The overall top two

lifters in each weight category get to

represent the school on their official

team. This high level of inter-squad

competition keeps the starting roster

very fluid.

The first cycle of the team's in-season

workout reflects a huge volume of

work, with the following general out-

line:“A” Team Monday/Friday Sets RepsBench press 4 5Incline press 4 5Jerks (medium intensity) 4 5Rack press 3 3Close grip bench press 4 5Dips 4 8Triceps press 4 8Triceps pushdowns 4 8

Tuesday/ThursdayClean 5 5Squats or front squats 8 8-2Hang power clean 4 5Hang shrug 4 5Deadlift 4 5High pull/clean 4 5Back extension 3 15Plyometrics 9 3-5

WednesdayJerk (heavy) 4 5Incline 4 5Jerk (hold split) 3 3Push press 4 5Overhead supports 3 3Press behind neck 4 8DB press 4 8

A Wave of the Future?Some other states have ventured into

weightlifting, yet none command the

attention gained by Florida. And with

the recent popularity of women's par-

ticipation in the sport, the future

seems even brighter. Again,

Denarvise Thornton, "Member

schools currently have invitational

competitions for girls. The coaches

are working through the FHSAA poli-

cies for 'recognizing' a sport, which

could lead to the addition of a girls'

weightlifting program on the girls'

athletic calendar."

While the quantity of the state's pro-

gram is outstanding, the actual quality

issue is of concern. In recent years, far

too many (roughly 35%) competitors

have either produced sub-qualifying

performances or bombed at the State

meet. "Through the efforts of FHSAA

and Spruce Creek High School, we've

created a videotape that will help

inform coaches and judges of the finer

points of weightlifting," says

Thornton. It appears that far too many

teams do not take a systematic and

proven approach to competition.

Many lifters do not properly warm up

and their technical and tactical skills

lack refinement. Further education of

coaches and athletes on the sport's

finer points will go a long way toward

improving performance.

Unfortunately, most student-athletes

turn their back on the sport of

weightlifting upon graduation.

Without an outlet at the collegiate

level and little, if any, awareness

weightlifting programs nationwide,

most lifters move onto other activi-

ties. This talent pool has not drawn a

great deal of attention from USA

Weightlifting. With little, if any, expo-

sure to the snatch, the athletes are at a

bit of a disadvantage as far as USAW

programs. And although many colle-

giate strength coaches would prefer

that young college-bound players

have experience in both explosive

lifts, the bench press remains "king"

in Florida high school lifting.

There's a lot of Sunshine State talent

being overlooked by all concerned.

This program in many other countries

would serve as a feeder system lead-

ing to international competition.

Although piecing together this puzzle

remains a challenge, at least a very

large number of youngsters are

exposed to a rewarding sport. Perhaps

the future holds promise for all

involved.


What runs through the mind as we

prepare to workout or compete may

reflect thought processes similar to

the view through a kaleidoscope. The

images can be viewed in different

ways. How often have you heard an

athlete state, "I should have slept

more last night, I'm too tired to lift

today." Perhaps you have heard one of

your athletes at a critical point say, "If

I don't make this lift, I am a failure

and might as well quit."

Understanding how we feel about

ourselves, improving self-esteem, and

projecting a more positive self-image

can enhance athletic excellence.

Although we know preparation is the

key to excellence, some athletes

rationalize by saying, "I really haven't

missed many days of training, I

should be OK for the competition." In

reality, the athlete missed peak train-

ing periods. What do all these state-

ments reflect?

D. Burns, in the "”Feeling Good”

handbook (1989) identified some

common negative thoughts, entitled

cognitive distortions, we send our-

selves and that are seen in the sport

milieu as well. Burns' "top 10" distor-

tions are:

1) All-or-Nothing ThinkingThe individual sees things on a

dichotomy or as black vs. white. A

common view is, "I am either per-

fect" or "I am a failure."

2) Over-GeneralizingThis individual takes a particularly

negative event (missed lift) and

applies it broadly. "I didn't place in

this meet, perhaps I should quit."

3) Mental Filter This is manifested by the cognizant of

only specific detail. For example,

even though the coach has stated a

number of positive reinforcers, the

person dwells on the one or two nega-

tives.

4) Discounting the PositiveAfter a major accomplishment the

athlete reduces the value with a state-

ment such as, "I was just lucky today."

5) Jumping to ConclusionsThis "mind reader" predicts what will

occur negatively before it happens.

When the coach calls out, "Joe, get

over here," Joe immediately assumes

he will be yelled at.

6) Magnifying or MinimizingThe athlete may overemphasize the

significance of an event. Conversely,

they may reduce the importance of an

occurrence, such as the above-men-

tioned individual who missed some

key training days.

7) Emotional ReasoningEmotions are important, but they can

also lie to you. Remember taking a

test, sure you had aced it, but you got

the results back and were astounded

by the negative results? Or you

believed you did poorly on the test,

yet performed well, and then looked

overhead to give thanks?


TheKaleidoscope

Mindby Tim Winter, PhD

8) "Should on" ThemselfRemember the old saying, “If Should-

Of, Would-Of, and Could-Of lived

next door to each other, nothing

would get done.”

9) Labeling Yourself by FailureWhat is a loser or a jerk anyway?

10) Personalization and Blame The individual takes too much

responsibility for misfortunes or

attributes shortcomings to others.

Any of these sound familiar?

Toward a More Positive ImageWhat can be done to clear up these

twisted, fragmented, reflective mental

images? One of the most positive

steps is to literally increase aware-

ness. When you are upset about an

event, write it down and attempt to

record the automatic thoughts. By

recording these images you may be

surprised how hard we are on our-

selves. Play Sherlock Holmes--look at

the real evidence. So you made a mis-

take--are you truly a loser? What

things did you do well? Delimit the

specific vs. overgeneralizing.

Probably one of the most profound

approaches you may take is to talk to

yourself encouragingly as you would

a good friend or someone important.

We usually treat others nicer than we

talk to ourselves. How do you know

you can't do something until you try?

Test and challenge your negative

thinking. Learn to think in shades of

gray. Some days we have great work-

outs and sometimes poor, but where

are the other days?

Mentally, just like physically, we can-

not give 100% every day. Realize and

accept that this is OK. Rate your daily

performances and feelings on a con-

tinuum, rather than in a dichotomy.

We all have unique features that make

us individuals. In athletics and human

performance we sometimes need to be

reminded of this universal truth and

realize failure occurs to all. Who else

has bombed in a competition or

missed a critical lift? Look among the

crowd!

Changing the nomenclature on the

surface may appear cosmetic, but

actually can mean a very different

thing. I often ask my students, “What

is a ‘loser’?” A loser can be defined

operationally in many ways. What

about the individual who 'should' on

him- or herself? "Shoulding" on one-

self reflects that alter ego or "supervi-

sor's" voice in the back of the mind, as

if dealing with a coach, teacher, or

parent's expectation. The point is you

choose to do something, not them.

Like the Nike slogan, “Just do it.”

Last, we need to consider motivation.

Realize you are not going to make

everyone happy and that is OK. When

your coach recommends a new

approach or strategy, ask yourself,

“What do I gain by not trying?” vs.

giving it a shot.

We spend a lot of time planning those

daily workouts, attempting to peak at

major competitions. We devote time

and energy to closely monitoring

major competitors. Recognition of

irrational thoughts may be the com-

petitor you most closely need to

address. Kaleidoscopes are fun to

glance through, but we cannot steadi-

ly function with that type of image. A

mental plan to address cognitive dis-

tortions may stabilize the image seen

and sent by our athletes.

Dr. Tim Winter is the Director of the Sport

Science Institute in Shreveport, LA, where he

also serves as the Chair of the Department of

Kinesiology and Health Science at LSU-S.

Winter serves as the sports psychologist for the

USA Weightlifting Development Center located

at the University.


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