strength and health winter/spring 02

This issue of Strength and Health begins our secondyear of on-line operations. The first year was an excitingone, with lots of positive feedback from readers and plentyof new contributions to keep each issue informative. Mysincere thanks to those writers who worked so hard in ourinaugural year. A special thanks to Cisco Adler, York'sDirector of Marketing, who creates the final product.

Whenever provided the opportunity, I emphasize S&H as agreat source of free, yet solid, information on training. It'seasy to forget that many newcomers to the fitness field donot have the background or history of training from theearly days. So, with an eye toward sharing some of York'srich history in The Iron Game, we plan to feature in com-ing issues the wall charts and text from the original Yorkbarbell courses.

Why feature anything from the distant past? Cisco and Ithink S&H readers will enjoy checking how far the indus-try has come since its early days. Exercise equipmentoptions, exercise techniques, and training philosophies con-tinually evolve. Yet despite all of these advances, glancearound most weight rooms or flip through popular musclemags and youll discover resistance training is still rifewith misinformation. Sometimes this simply reflects theneed to publish something different; sometimes the truthjust does not get handed down correctly from one source toanother.

Tackling the topic of training misinformation, Matt Brzyckiaddresses in this issue what constitutes the so-called HIT(High Intensity Training) philosophy. Much of what I hadheard of HIT training over the years is reflected in themyths dispelled in this article. As I told Matt, after elimi-nating these fallacies it seems most of us perform high-intensity training, although we may not consider it part ofthis particular philosophical movement.

The bottom line remains--there are many ways to train.Strength and Health will continue to showcase what worksfor coaches and athletes and explain why. As we begin oursecond year on-line, I hope you agree with our direction.

Harvey Newton,EditorStrength and Health Magazine

2Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002

Editors ColumnWinter/Spring 2002

by Harvey Newton

Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002 3

11 ComplexesThat SimplifyMIKE CLARK

4 Scientific Basis ofStrength TrainingMICHAEL MAC MILLAN, MD

13 Sport SpecificProgramDevelopment IIJohn Garhammer, PhDEric Burkhardt, MS,Eric Labombarda, MS,

18 The WarrenTravis BeltJan Dellinger

33 Floridas High SchoolWeightlifting ProgramHarvey Newton

36 The Kaleidoscope MindTim Winter, PhD

30 High-Intensity TrainingMatt Brzycki

3 Table ofContents

2 EditorsColumnHARVEY NEWTON

FeaturesWinter/Spring 2002

Editorial Advisory Board:Mike ClarkTracy FoberJohn Garhammer, PhDMike GattoneDana HealyDoug LentzCurt LordsBrian McGuireMike NitkaKyle Pierce

Editor-in-Chief:Harvey Newton

Managing Editor:Cisco Adler

Creative Design:Cisco Adler

Contributing Photographers:Cisco AdlerBruce Klemens

Publisher:Cisco Adler

Published by:

York Barbell CompanyBox 1707, York, PA 17405www.yorkbarbell.com

24 Research ReviewsEd McNeely

27 Building Towardthe SeasonDoug Lentz

I first used eccentric training tech-niques as early as 1972 while partici-pating in competitive powerlifting. Inthe ensuing years I began to questionhow and why this basic muscularproperty actually functions. As withmost areas of research, the more I dis-covered, the more questions arose.

By 1987, I was a full-time facultymember at the University of Florida,with a funded laboratory to studystrength and muscle. The followingsections review the basic principlesthat I have learned over the last 15years. I will, however, sum up theresults of my studies in the followingstatement: The future of strengthtraining will be the application of theprinciples of progressive resistanceexercise to the eccentrically activemuscle.

Eccentric BasicsFirst, let's clarify some terminology.Concentric and eccentric (pronouncedek-sentrik) refer to muscular force.Since concentric refers to the shorten-ing of a muscle, the term concentricmuscle contraction is appropriate.However, since eccentric muscleforce occurs during lengthening, itdoes not make sense to say, eccentricmuscle contraction. For this discus-sion, the terms eccentric muscle dis-traction, action, or activation may beused. The terms positive and nega-tive should always refer to the resist-ance or external load. Thus an eccen-tric muscle action is applied againstnegative resistance.

A true eccentric muscle distractiononly occurs when the muscle tries tocontract as forcibly as it can, but theapplied load is greater than the mus-cular force and the muscle is forced tolengthen. Therefore, the controlled act

of muscle lengthening or simply low-ering an object voluntarily does notconstitute an eccentric muscularaction. Only when a supramaximalload (i.e., overload) causes forcedlengthening is eccentric muscularforce generated.

Two Different Muscular ForcesThe evolution of muscle is directlyrelated to the physical world in whichwe live. Muscle function is specifical-ly adapted to the demands imposed bygravity and needs required for sur-vival.

The most obvious function of muscleoccurs when we consciously shortenmuscles to create movements to lift,carry, push, pull, and manipulate theenvironment. These are the concentricmuscle contractions.

There is, however, a less obviousmuscular function that affects us as


The Scientific Basisof Strength Training (Part II)Eccentrics and the Future of Strengthby Michael Mac Millan, MD

we move upright on the planet; thestorage and release of mechanicalenergy through muscular forceabsorption. This hidden ability occurswhen a shortened muscle is put underload and absorbs force while gradual-ly lengthening. The classic exampleof this function is the act of simplywalking. Walking is essentially theprocess of falling forward, but thenbraking the fall by extending a leg infront of you. The leg catches the bodyand the knee bends, which lengthensthe quadriceps and slows the forwardfalling motion. More obvious exam-ples of muscles being loaded andabsorbing force occur when peoplejump and land on their feet or fall andcatch themselves with an outstretchedarm. Although not in the scope of thisdiscussion, many athletic activities(perhaps all) such as pitching, sprint-ing, jumping, and catching requireeccentric muscle activation.

The different muscle functions areattributable to the basic physical lawsof motion as described by Sir IsaacNewton. Newtons Law of Inertiastates that an object at rest tends tostay at rest unless acted upon by anoutside force. This directly applies tothe exertion of muscular force againsta weight at the start of a concentricmuscle contraction. In the barbellcurl, the weight begins at rest with thefully lengthened biceps muscle readyto contract. If the muscular forceexceeds the inertia of the barbell,movement is initiated. Therefore,concentric contractions are used tocreate, maintain, or increase motion in

an object.

The forced muscular lengthening seenin eccentrically activated muscles,however, involves an entirely differ-ent physical law. In Newtons Lawof Acceleration, an object that isalready in motion tends to stay inmotion unless acted upon by an out-side force. In weight training, objectsthat have been raised (by concentricmuscular contractions) are now pulledback down by the force of gravity.Only by a muscular force being exert-ed against the descending weight canit be prevented from accelerating backdown. Thus a basic, functional differ-ence between concentric and eccen-tric muscular actions is that eachinteracts with physical objectsthrough distinctly different laws ofmotion.

There are implications of these physi-cal interactions that also have practi-cal significance. One implication isthe direction of the applied force inrelation to the direction of the object.In concentric contractions, the object(in this case a barbell) moves in thesame direction as the muscular exer-tion. This in turn has two corollariesin terms of controlling the maximumforce encountered by the muscle. Ifthe weight is overpowered by themuscular force it will simply begin tomove away faster and faster as themuscular force increases. This pre-vents dangerously high levels of mus-cular force from developing. In theworst case scenario, when muscularforce is applied against an immovable

mass, the force rises to its maximumlevel and then goes no higher. In allthese situations, the forces encoun-tered by the muscle are self-generat-ed; therefore it is impossible for themuscle to be injured.

In eccentric muscle action the direc-tion of the object and the direction ofthe force are completely opposite. Bydefinition, the objects weight exceedsthe force capacity of the muscle.Therefore, the maximum force levelsare now determined by the mass andacceleration of the externally appliedload and not by muscular force.Determining and controlling theresistance in eccentrics is extremelycritical in providing a stimulus intenseenough to result in structural growth,but not above the threshold of tissueinjury.

The other implication of NewtonsLaw is the different relationshipbetween force and velocity in con-centrics and eccentrics. When a mus-cle exerts increasing concentric forceagainst an object, the velocity of theobject as it moves away from theforce increases as well. However, inkeeping up with the quickly retreatingobject, the muscle is unable to main-tain high force levels. Therefore, thefaster an object is moved by a concen-tric muscle contraction, the lower themuscle's force exerted on the object.

Eccentrics have an opposite effect. Ifthe applied load exceeds the muscleforce by just a small amount, the mus-cle lengthens slowly. With increased


weight, the muscle is compelled tolengthen more rapidly. Also, since theweight is heavier the muscular forceincreases at the same time that themuscle is lengthening more rapidly.Therefore, heavier and heavierweights lead to faster and fasterlengthening velocities, but withincreasing internal muscular tensionas well.

Thus it has been shown how con-centrics and eccentrics have entirelydifferent interactions with the physi-cal world. Concentrics are designed toinitiate and maintain motion inobjects and eccentrics function toreduce and absorb the energy fromobjects in motion.

Concentric and Eccentric MechanismsAs discussed in Part I, in the contract-ed state the actin and myosin bonds lieacross from each other and form astrong, intrinsically stable chemicalbond. However, for the muscle fibrilto shorten, three steps must occur toall of the actin-myosin sites along themyofibril. The first step is the dissoci-ation of the existing actin-myosinbond. Then the myosin molecule mustundergo a change in its shape thatallows it to lean more closely to thenext actin molecule in line. Thisallows a new actin-myosin linkage tobe made. Shortening then occur asthe myosin molecule changes back toits original shape and pulls the actinand myosin molecules into alignment.Therefore, the process of shortening ishighly complex, energy dependent,and based on chemical bonds that dis-

sociate easily. In fact, a maximallycontracting muscle can never generateforce levels that can cause damage tothe structural components of the mus-cle.

Once formed, however, the bondbetween actin and myosin is actuallyquite stable. This bond does notrequire cellular energy to maintain itand the myosin molecule itself is in astable form and not easily deformed.In fact, the amount of force that isneeded to break these bonds actuallyexceeds the strength of the muscle fil-ament itself. Thus the physical energysupplied by an outside force appliedto lengthen a muscle often causesstructural deformation during theprocess of lengthening.

As a result, molecular systems haveevolved to accommodate the laws ofmotion. Muscle force during shorten-ing is less than force during lengthen-ing because it is harder to create a newbond than to break an existing bond.Limited force production is beneficialduring shortening contractions,because the body can exert a maximaleffort without a high risk of tissuedamage. However, when exposed tohigh externally applied loads the mus-cles are capable of high force absorp-tion that can protect the body fromphysical trauma. Muscular dampen-ing of impact force is undoubtedlycritical in preventing injury and slow-ing osteoarthritic degenerativeprocesses.

Eccentric Muscular Force andHypertrophyPart I confirmed that muscle tissueundergoes many physiologic changeswhen exposed to chronic, strenuous,concentric contractile force. However,the level of force that the muscle caninternally generate is insufficient tocreate the changes necessary for mus-cular growth and hypertrophy.

As we have described, once an actin-myosin bond is established and acti-vated, only a strong external force canbreak the bond and cause muscularlengthening. Under maximal stimula-tion, these bonds can actually exceedthe tensile strength of the muscularfilaments themselves. In this situa-tion, as the muscle sustains higher andhigher loads eventually the actinfibers separate from their attachments,microtears occur sporadicallythroughout the muscle and the myofil-ament framework deforms. Theseevents are strong physiologic signalsfor the process that results in hyper-trophy.

As the muscle filaments stretch anddeform, fine thread-like proteins thatattach to the walls of specializedrepair cells called satellite cells sig-nal that repair proteins are to be man-ufactured. These cells increase theirprotein synthesis rates up to 250 timesthe norm.

This increased availability of structur-al proteins, however, is useless unless


the newly synthesized filaments canbe incorporated into the existing mus-cle fiber framework. So, the secondconsequence of microtears in themuscle is that the frayed ends of thedamaged filaments become sites ofattachment for the newly synthesizedmuscle protein.

These attachment points grow intonew, branching strands and induce theformation of new sarcomeres thatimprove the force producing capabili-ties of the muscle.

This process explains why anabolicsteroids by themselves have only alimited ability to improve strength.Without the use of heavy resistancetraining to create microtears, therewill be no potential attachment sitesfor any proteins that are synthesized.Thus the increased protein synthesisseen with anabolic steroids is withoutvalue unless heavy resistance trainingis performed simultaneously.

It must be emphasized that simplestructural deformation and microtearsoccur at low levels of eccentric over-load. If the weight of the appliedresistance dramatically increases, itcan reach the point that macrodamageor structural injury occurs. This factbecomes crucial in choosing the levelof negative resistance for eccentricmuscle training. The resistance quan-tity should be carefully controlled sothat it is sufficient to forcibly lengthenthe muscle, but not of such a magni-tude that actual muscle injury occurs.

The Amount of Resistance forEccentric Muscular TrainingTo safely train muscles eccentrically,three criteria are absolutely necessary.First, the resistance must be quantifi-able so the exact amount of theapplied load is known. Second, thereshould be no fluctuations (the appliedload must remain at a consistentamount). Third, the negative resist-ance should be incrementallyadjustable, so resistance can be accu-rately increased during training.

When choosing a resistance to begineffective eccentric muscular training,the muscular force must maximallyoppose the resistance. Logically, thesafest (i.e., lowest) resistance levelthat will still result in forced lengthen-ing is the maximum voluntary con-traction (MVC) of the involved mus-cle. By definition the muscle is struc-turally capable of resisting thisamount of applied load, yet it is stillsufficient to cause muscular deforma-tion. As the muscle adapts to theheavy resistance, safe, incrementalincreases can be made to bring aboutmore and more adaptive responses.

Once the level of resistance is estab-lished, the nature of the resistancemust also be taken into account. It isvery dangerous if the load is appliederratically. This can cause peak forcesthat can exceed a threshold for injuryand cause macrodamage or muscletearing. You not only must control theamount of resistance and the rate of

load application, but also guardagainst unexpected variations in resis-tive force caused by friction, impact,and stored elastic energy.

Another critical factor to considerwhen exposing a muscle to supramax-imal loading is that the internal forcegenerated by the muscle changes asthe length of the muscle changes.Practically, this means that as the loadis applied along the length of the mus-cle, it encounters different levels ofresistive force. How the various typesof external resistance respond to thesechanging levels of force is important.

The first class of external resistanceincludes sources in which the appliedforce has elastic properties. Examplesof resistance of this type includepneumatic pressure, electromagneticforce, and materials with spring qual-ities. It is characteristic of theseforces to deform or compress whenencountering an opposing force. Theelastic force actually accumulates orstores this energy, then releases it,occasionally suddenly, when thestored energy exceeds the appliedforce. This can be very detrimentalwhen applied against an eccentricallylengthening muscle. A sudden releaseof stored elastic energy could in factlead to unintended muscular macro-damage. In addition, the applicationof elastic force is difficult to quantify.Pneumatic pressure, spring tension,and electromagnetic field strength aremeasured in units that do not reflectthe actual applied force they create,i.e., pounds per square inch, watts,


etc. Elastic resistance forms do notallow the resistance to be increased incontrollable increments as muscularadaptation progresses.

Another class of externally appliedresistance is referred to as isokinetic.In isokinetic devices, a motorized orhydraulic movement arm powersagainst the muscle group to betrained. The speed of the movementarm is kept at a pre-selected set rate.However, the force exerted by thedevice is completely unresponsive tothe resistance created by the lengthen-ing muscle. The internal muscle forcerises higher and higher until the mus-cle is forced to lengthen. Thereforeevery stroke of the movement arm isequivalent to a maximal eccentricforce and thus the risk of tissue injuryis high.

The final types of resistance are basedon inertial weight. One form of iner-tial resistance specifically advocatedas a form of eccentric exercise istermed plyometric. Plyometricexercise utilizes the acquired momen-tum of an object as stored energy,which is then dissipated by an eccen-trically lengthening muscle. An exam-ple of a plyometric exercise is a stand-ing athlete catching a dropped, heavymedicine ball in his waiting hands.The caught ball has its accelerationsuddenly dampened by creating asharp spike of force in the involvedbiceps muscle. The muscle lengthensand the ball slows and stops. As arational means of applying gradualincremental loads for safe, effective

resistance, plyometric exercise is use-less. In practicality, the applied forceof a dropped ball (or jumping body) iscompletely unknown and only mar-ginally reproducible. Obviouslyincremental increases are impossible.

Basic free weight and weight stackresistances are the dominant types ofresistance used for eccentric trainingtoday. They utilize the property ofinertia as it applies to Newtons Lawof Acceleration. In this application,the object in motion is a descendingweight and the outside force acting onit is the eccentrically active muscle.When a muscle exerts force against adescending weight there are two vari-ables that can be manipulated to pre-serve safety and increase effective-ness.

The safety of inertial resistance is pro-vided by the property of mass deceler-ation. In other resistance systems suchas elastic or isokinetic devices, whenincreasing internal muscular force iscountered by yet further applied load,even higher eccentric muscular ten-sion must develop. In other words, theresistance is unresponsive to the mus-cular force.

However, with an appropriatelyselected inertial weight, the forcecapacity in the muscle (force changeswith length) does not result in highermuscle force because the speed of thedescending weight slows down. Onekey element of safety for inertialresistance, as used in eccentric muscledistraction, is that if the muscular

force rises, the resistance simplyslows down and does not continue tolengthen the muscle at higher andhigher forces. Thus this responsive-ness of inertial resistance vastlyincreases its safety.

Once you have identified a resistancetype that creates force that stimulatesmuscle growth without risking signif-icant injury, how do you control theforce to keep in step with the increas-ing strength capabilities of the mus-cle? It is very difficult to practicallyuse resistance systems that baseincreases on relative values. Somesystems use a percentage of the posi-tive resistance or on a maximal effort.Eccentrics do not have a fixed ratiocompared to other measures and uti-lizing these percentages is fraughtwith potential error. The major effec-tiveness of inertial resistance lies inthe ability to simply add more weightas the force producing capacity of themuscle increases. This allows rationaldecisions based on the actual proper-ties of the eccentric phase itself.

Thus it appears that basic inertialresistance provided by free weightsand weight stacks has the ideal prop-erties to eccentrically load and trainmuscle. By varying the speed ofdescent, muscle damage is prevented.By incrementally increasing weightover time, it effectively stimulatesmuscle hypertrophy.

Theoretical Steps for EccentricallyEnhanced Strength TrainingThe stated goal of this article was to


apply the principles of progressiveresistance exercise to not only theconcentric phase, but also to theeccentric phase of the training repeti-tion. The determination of the idealresistance for each phase of the repe-tition is based on the one repetitionmaximum (1RM) for the liftingmotion involved. Since the primarygoal of strength training is to achievemaximum muscular force outputthrough physiologic and structuraladaptation, high resistance levels aredesirable. Therefore, a typical startingweight for the concentric phase wouldbe 80% of 1RM for a target repetitionrange of approximately six.

In the eccentric phase, the chosenresistance should be heavy enough toforcibly lengthen the trained muscles,so it must be greater than the 1RM.However, the chosen weight shouldnot be so great as to risk structuralharm to the muscle. For this reasonthe initial starting negative resistanceshould be equal to the 1RM (100% 1RM). The arbitrary value of 100%RM is considered the optimumamount for safety and efficacy.

For example, consider a lifter whosemaximum bench press (1RM) is300lbs. If this individual wishes tocommence training with an enhancedeccentric program, he would use240lbs as his concentric resistancewhile performing the eccentric strokewith 300lbs.

Successful completion of a target setof 6 reps necessarily means the lifter

raised 240lbs all 6 times. Successfulcompletion of the eccentric strokesrequires that each time the bar is low-ered with 300lbs, the lifter resists thedescent over a time of not less than 3seconds.

Once a successful set is completed,the lifter makes decisions aboutincreasing the weight. Since we haveclearly shown that eccentric mechan-ics are different from concentric, thechoices of weight increase should alsobe independent. The lifter can chooseto raise the concentric weight, theeccentric, or both for his/her nexttraining session. The principles ofprogressive resistance exercise canand should be applied to both the lift-ing and lowering phases of the repeti-tion cycle.

The Effects of Eccentric Training onConcentric StrengthThis is probably the most frequentlyasked question concerning eccentrictraining. Past research was flawed bythe use of inadequate or even danger-ous resistance systems. However,when inertial resistance with eccentricprogressive resistance exercise train-ing programs are studied, the effectsare unequivocal.

I served as the principal investigatorfor the first study that examined pro-gressive resistance eccentric exerciseof the quadriceps in 20 subjects. After16 weeks the strength gains (meas-ured isometrically) were 22% higherin the eccentrically trained group.

Another study performed in theDepartment of Athletic Training at theUniversity of Florida examined thehamstring muscles. This musclegroup functions eccentrically. Theresults were even more startling, witha 33% increase over the group trainedwith standard methods.

We also carried out a short studyinvolving highly trained athletes. Wewere able to demonstrate a 5%increase in bench press strength afteronly six weeks of enhanced eccentrictraining (the equivalent of increasingfrom a 300 lb maximum to a 315 lbmaximum in an accomplished lifter).

In 2001, the University of NorthernArizona compared the effects ofeccentric training to standard weighttraining techniques on the perform-ance of vertical leap. Again the eccen-trically trained group outperformedthe standard training group, this timeby 8%.

From both a theoretical and scientificstandpoint, the targeted training of theeccentric phase of the repetition cyclewith progressive eccentric resistancepredictably results in superiorstrength gains over any existingmethod.

Present Availability of EccentricallyEnhanced Resistance SystemsThe trick of transitioning from alight concentric resistance to a heaviereccentric resistance during a repeti-tion has been very difficult to accom-plish. Non-inertial systems utilizing


counter-electromotive force andpneumatic pressure have been in themarket for over 10 years, but lack theproper requirements for safe, effectiveexercise.

Presently the most common tech-niques involving eccentric trainingutilize spotters and generally result innegative only exercise where assis-tants raise a heavy weight and thelifter lowers it slowly. One piece ofequipment allows a single repetitionto be performed. Weight hooks areplaced on the ends of a bar set up forbench press. The lifter lowers the barand hook combination until the hookshit the floor and disconnect. Thelighter bar is then raised back up con-centrically.

Two systems have been developed,but are not available on a retail basis.Both satisfy all requirements for iner-tial resistance in which separate levelsof resistance can be chosen for thepositive phase and the negative phase.One uses pneumatic actuators toattach and detach weights that areadded to increase resistance duringeccentric lowering. This device wasdeveloped in Sweden and is calledAgaton.

Another device uses a counterbalanceto offset the weight of a heavy bar. Atthe top of the repetition cycle thecounter-balance is disengaged and thelifter feels the full weight of the bar-bell. The lifter lowers the bar to thebottom position where the counter-balance is re-loaded onto the lifting

cable, thus making the bar lighter sothat it can be raised concentrically.Again, once the bar reaches the topposition the counter-balance is againdetached and further repetitions canbe performed. This system was devel-oped at the University of Florida andis called Negator.

The Future of Strength TrainingSoon there will be available systemsto allow athletes to perform eccentri-cally enhanced exercise in virtuallyevery strength-training environment:free weights, selectorized equipment,leverage machines.

With the advent of routinely heavyeccentric exercise, athletes willbecome bigger, faster, more powerful,and less susceptible to injury. Muscleswith enhanced eccentric capabilitieswill impact track and field, football,basketball, and all sports in whichspeed and/or power is required.

From a rehabilitation standpoint,enhanced eccentrics will reduce re-injury rates in the low back, calves,adductors, quadriceps, and especiallythe hamstrings. The widespread use ofeccentric training will be the most sig-nificant fundamental improvement inweight training since the invention ofthe plate loaded barbell.

Michael Mac Millian is presently in private prac-tice at the Jewett Orthopaedic Clinic (Orlando,FL). He is the author of 8 published articles onapplied muscle physiology and served as anassociate professor of orthopaedic surgery atthe University of Florida, 1987-98. Mac Millianwas the captain of the North Carolina StateUniversity powerlifting team, 1971-73.


For some years, the use of exercisecomplexes has been popular withstrength and conditioning coaches. Anexercise complex is a combinationof several exercises done without rest.This requires one of two techniques:1) move successively through the firstrep of each exercise in the complex,then directly to the second rep, or 2)perform all the repetitions of the firstexercise, then move to the second lift.A complex may consist of a group oflifts that resemble one another interms of muscle/joint action or aseries of lifts that simply use a likeresistance.

The use of complex training paysgreat dividends down the road, plusthey may just make your training a lotsimpler. A complex usually consists of

3-6 exercises; each performed 3-6reps. If that sounds like a lot of work,thats the idea. Perform a series ofrelated exercises one after another toachieve a fast training effect for con-ditioning or general strength prepara-tion you will build onto later.

Aggie Complex Training A good example of a complex that weuse is the squat complex. This com-plex builds a base for future training,develops general fitness, and helpsteach correct technique for manyleg/hip movements. On this complex,I use 5 different exercises with 6 repseach. I utilize several variations of thesquat complex, but the following is agood starting point. Step -up 6 reps each leg Lunge 6 reps each leg

Squat/push press 6 reps Squat 6 reps Squat jump 6 reps (body

weight only)

As you can imagine, performing atotal of 42 continuous reps in thesedynamic movements produces asharp, fast training response.

Generally, I have our athletes do from2-4 sets of a complex, with adequaterecovery between bouts. Here is anexample of another, more challeng-ing, variation of a lower body com-plex.

Step Ups 6 reps each leg Split Squats 6 reps each leg Side to Side Squats 6 reps each leg


Mike Clark, Texas A&M University

ComplexesThat Simplify

Overhead Squats 6 reps Front Squats 6 reps

When to Use Complex TrainingComplexes are very useful at thebeginning of a new training year oranytime you need a general trainingeffect. Because of the volume of workperformed, complexes have a greatconditioning effect, as well as a gen-eral strength and muscle-buildingeffect. Don't repeat a complex duringany 1-week period of training, but youcould use 2 or 3 different kinds ofcomplexes within the week. Forexample, use a snatch complex onMonday, a shoulder complex onWednesday, and a squat complex onFriday.

Combining complexes with your reg-ular training program gives a quicktraining adaptation ("shock") thatmight be just what you needed tomake further progress. Complex train-ing is also useful when time con-straints restrict the amount of timeavailable for resistance training.

An important concern is the selectionof a proper resistance. Experiment abit with variations in exercise orderand resistances used. You don't wantyour first exercise to be too easy oryour last one too heavy. Rememberthe cumulative effect of fatigue whenutilizing complex training.

Use Your ImaginationThere are many different kinds ofcomplexes, so try different combina-

tions and exercise in order to meetyour specific needs. I use many exer-cises to create a large variety of dif-ferent kinds of complexes. You caneven combine complexes if you like.Here are some more examples of dif-ferent complexes we use successfullyat Texas A&M.

DB Shoulder Complex Lateral raise 6 reps Front raise 6 reps Bent-over lateral raise 6 reps Upright row 6 reps Curl and press 6 reps

DB or BB Snatch Complex High hang power snatch 6 reps Upright row 6 reps Bent-over row 6 reps Front squats 6 reps Low hang snatch 6 reps

Combo Snatch and Clean Complex Stiff-leg muscle clean 6 reps Hang close-grip snatch 6 reps Upright row catch 6 reps Front squat 6 reps Low hang snatch 6 reps

Snatch 3x3x3 Hang snatch 3 reps Press behind neck 3 reps Overhead squat 3 reps

As you can see, the possibilities areendless, so the only limitation is yourimagination. I even have a chest com-plex for our players to use once in awhile. Remember, not all complexeshave to have 5 exercises and they donot have to use 6 reps per exercise.

Remember, if you want to reach highgoals you must build a large base first.Complexes are a very good way tobuild such a base.

Good luck and train hard!

Mike Clark is the president of the CollegiateStrength & Conditioning Coaches' association(CSCCa). He is certified as a master strengthand conditioning coach and has coached atTexas A&M for the past 12 years.


In Part 1 (Fall '01 S&H) we dis-cussed some basic concepts relatedto the development of biomechani-cally specific sport training pro-grams. This second installment cov-ers the important consideration ofhow muscles obtain energy viametabolic processes needed forsport training and competition.Together, the principles of biome-chanical and metabolic specificitycan be used to construct high quali-ty training programs for improvedsport performance.

Energy for muscular activity can besupplied from three metabolic path-

ways. The first is the ATP-CP ener-gy system, also called the high ener-gy phosphate or immediate energysource system (see the Applicationssection below for more details). Thissystem provides a lot of energyquickly, but is also depleted rapidly.It is most important for very highpower physical activity, such assprinting, jumping, lifting heavyweights, and throwing. For maximaland near maximal physical exertionsthat last up to 30 seconds, this sys-tem provides most of the neededenergy.

The second system is the lactic acid(LA) system, also called fast glycol-ysis or anaerobic glycolysis. It pro-vides a moderate amount of energyper unit of time (moderate poweroutput) and provides most of theenergy needed for strenuous physi-cal exertions lasting 2-3 minutes,such as an 800m run or a round inboxing. The undesirable waste prod-ucts produced when the LA systemis active must be removed or allmetabolic processes within muscleare disrupted. This involves the thirdenergy system which, unlike thefirst two, requires oxygen and iscalled the aerobic system.


by John Garhammer, PhDEric Burkhardt, MSEric Labombarda, MS

Sport Specific ProgramDevelopment (Part II)

The aerobic system provides energyfor many hours of continuous muscu-lar activity. However, the rate of ener-gy production is much lower than theprevious two anaerobic (meaningno oxygen) energy systems.

Interval training is a method of select-ing the duration and intensity of activeexercise periods and the rest intervalsbetween them such that the desiredenergy system is stressed and devel-oped.

Aerobic Conditioning

Unfortunately, many coaches think ofconditioning their athletes only interms of the oxidative energy systemusing aerobic exercise. Most of thisproblem can be directly traced to thepopularity of aerobic exercise as usedin fitness training.

The aerobic exercise craze grew large-ly from the work of Cooper1 in the1960s. It has become the major com-ponent of the fitness industry via aer-obic dance classes and videos, and alarge variety of aerobic exerciseequipment, such as stationary bicy-cles, treadmills, steppers, and rowingmachines. The mainstay of aerobic fit-ness enthusiasts remains jogging anddistance running, as is evident fromthe multitudes that enter organizedruns from 5km to marathons.

Exercise physiology and related text-books, whether dating back more than20 years2 or published recently3, con-tain scientific estimates indicating theprimary metabolic sources of energy

for a large variety of sport and recre-ational activities. A quick look at thisinformation clearly shows that thevast majority of college and profes-sional sports are predominantly anaer-obic. For example, Mathews and Fox2

estimate that football is 90% anaero-bic, basketball 85%, baseball 80%,volleyball 90%, and tennis 70%. Thequalitative rankings published by theNSCA3 support the same conclusion.

For these and similar sports, develop-ment of the high energy phosphateand lactic acid energy systems shouldbe emphasized through sport-specificconditioning, such as interval training,rather than the aerobic energy systemusing continuous activities, such aslow intensity, long duration running orcycling.

Not only is aerobic training non-spe-cific to most sports metabolically, it isnon-specific biomechanically. Takerunning as an example activity. Therange of motion at the hip and kneejoints during jogging and slow dis-tance running is limited - about 35degrees at the hip and 52 degrees atthe knee. During sprint running,which is a key to success in mostsports, the range of motion at thesejoints is much larger, about 60 degreesat the hip and 80 degrees at the knee.In additional to this consideration,which is directly related to the rangeof lengthening and shortening ofinvolved muscles and possible differ-ences in which muscles are utilized,another neural control factor must beconsidered.

The type of motor units recruited bythe nervous system during traininghas a major influence on neuromuscu-lar control, muscle coordination, andperformance during sport competi-tion. Fast, short duration activitiesduring exercise specifically train theneuromuscular system and fast twitchmuscle tissue for the demands of com-petition. Slower, long duration activi-ties emphasize use and developmentof slow twitch muscle tissue, and non-specific neural control patterns.Running longer total distances canalso be detrimental to lower extremityjoints, especially for heavier athletes,and for taller athletes due to leverageconsiderations.

When using a stationary bicycle foraerobic conditioning, not only are thejoint ranges of motion and temporalpatterns at the hip and knee differentcompared to both slow and fast run-ning speeds, but this exercise is non-weight bearing. Body weight is sup-ported largely by the seat, which maybe desirable in certain rehabilitationsituations, but not in sport-specificconditioning. For example, how manysports do not involve balance and sup-port of body weight during fast move-ments?

Finally, it should be mentioned thatshort duration, high intensity bouts ofexercise produce a hormonal environ-ment that is conducive to buildingmuscular strength and power. Aerobictraining does not produce this desir-able hormonal response4.


Aerobic metabolism is needed forrecovery from anaerobic exercise, butit is best to develop and enhance thisthrough the on - off activity sequencefound in most sports, when muscle andblood lactate levels are high and mustbe reduced. This is where intervaltraining techniques are most valuable.The Applications section below pro-vides some examples.

Most of the above information hasbeen well known for decades. So, whytoday, at the dawn of the new millenni-um, do so many coaches of highlyanaerobic sports insist on includinglarge amounts of continuous activity,aerobic exercise in their athletes train-ing programs?

There are several possibilities:

1. Weight control - coaches of femaleathletes in particular see aerobic exer-cise (coupled with diet restriction) asthe most productive method to havetheir athletes lose or maintain bodyweight. In reality, for comparableworkout sessions based on oxygenconsumption rates, lower intensity,continuous aerobic exercise has alower total metabolic cost (exerciseand recovery) than higher intensityanaerobic weight training5.

2. Aerobic training is part of a fitnesscraze that has continued for decades. Itis an activity familiar to most of thegeneral population, including coaches.It is easy to conduct and supervise aer-obic workouts for both small and largenumbers of athletes. Higher intensity,anaerobic interval training is not asfamiliar to many coaches and can takelonger to plan and conduct, especially

for large numbers of athletes.

3. Many coaches insist on having theirteam condition with methods theythemselves used years before.Although there may be no scientificjustification for these methods, tradi-tion rules. This is particularly difficultto change when a coach's past experi-ences include winning championships.It must be remembered that someteams win despite less than optimalconditioning due the genetic quality ofathletes on the team and the organiza-tional and technique skills of the coach.However, also remember that optimalconditioning provides each athlete thebest opportunity to reach his or her trueathletic potential, which translates intothe team having the best chance forsuccess.

4. Some coaches use aerobic training,such as jogging, as a major componentof their personal exercise program. It iseasy to kill two birds with one stoneby taking their team members withthem for a run. Unfortunately, in mostcases like this the teams sport isalmost entirely anaerobic.

APPLICATIONS

In order to better understand the meta-bolic demands of popular collegiatesports, the authors collected work-restinterval data for mens and womensDivision One volleyball and basketballcompetitions. These data correspondwell with those previously reported

(2,3), and are presented in Table 1 (seenext page).

Conditioning for Volleyball

The work-rest interval data for volley-ball clearly indicate that the predomi-nant source of energy for muscularwork is supplied by the immediate, orATP-CP energy system. It should alsobe noted that the intensity of musculareffort during the work intervals rangesfrom low to maximal. For example,immediately after a serve, defensiveplayers must wait and read the offenseas they pass and set. During thesemoments, the defensive players areworking at a relatively low intensity.However, once the offense sets the balland attacks, the intensity level of thedefense increases dramatically. Forexample, the middle blockers mustperform a maximum vertical jump,while back row players may have toexplode laterally over a short dis-tance to dig the ball.

Conditioning for volleyball shouldfocus on developing these metabolicpathways. The immediate energy sys-tem involves 3 chemical reactions:Intense exercise bouts of a few secondsin duration and up to 30 seconds stressthe above metabolic pathways. One ofthe adaptations to this type of exerciseis an increase in muscle tissue concen-trations of the 3 enzymes myosinATPase, creatine kinase, and myoki-nase that catalyze these reactions.


According to Table 1, the averagework interval in volleyball is less than10 seconds but it can last up to 30 sec-onds. Choosing the proper rest inter-val length is equally important. Restinterval length should consider thehalf-life for recovery of the immedi-ate energy system metabolites, whichis about 20 seconds. For example,after a maximal 10-second exercisebout, it will take about 20 seconds torecover 50% of the immediate energysource. In 40 seconds 75% will havebeen recovered, and in 60 secondsabout 87.5% of the immediate energysource will be replenished. If the nextexercise bout begins before adequatereplenishment takes place, only a sub-maximal effort is possible, since theinvolved muscles must derive someenergy from other sources with lower

power production potential (i.e., fastglycolysis).

Practical ApplicationWhen the competitive season ends, itmay be wise for the volleyball athleteto take a few weeks of active rest.When the off-season conditioningprogram commences, conditioningdrills can be more general in nature.This might include running sprintsranging from 50-150m with work-restratios in the 1:5 to 1:10 range. Forexample, an initial off-season sprint-conditioning workout for volleyballmight start with 2 sets of 5 reps at 150meters. Assuming the work intervalstake about 18 seconds, the rest inter-vals between reps may need to be aslong as 180 seconds, but probably notshorter than 90 seconds. As the ath-

lete adapts to the program, rest inter-vals can be reduced until a work-restratio closer to 1:3 (i.e., ~ 50-secondrest intervals for 150 meter sprints) isachieved. As the program progresses,a greater percentage of the total con-ditioning volume shifts toward shortersprint distances so that work timesand power outputs become closer tothose needed for volleyball.

Rest periods between intervals (reps)should be inactive to allow the mostrapid recovery of the ATP-CP energysources. Aerobic mechanisms areimportant for recovery, whichexplains the heavy breathing after anintense bout of anaerobic exercise.Any light activity that occurs duringthe rest intervals will compete withaerobic replenishment of immediate


Table 1

energy sources, thus interfering withthe recovery process forcing a reduc-tion in quality of the next work inter-val.

Some volleyball coaches may ignorethis concept with poorly designedpractice drills that involve repetitive,high intensity volleyball skills withlow intensity movement plannedbetween reps. These drills are set upso that continuous movement is pro-longed for several minutes. This isdone with the intention of eliciting aconditioning effect. Unfortunately,these coaches do not realize that theconditioning effect they are producingis not specific to volleyball.

A well-designed volleyball condition-ing program should consider not onlythe work-rest time intervals, but spe-cific movement patterns as well.Volleyball is a sport characterized byvery high power outputs and move-ment speeds. Jumping and quickdefensive movements require explo-sive actions of the ankle, knee, andhip. Hitting, blocking, and pushingones body up off the floor after div-ing for a loose ball require upper bodystrength and power. In addition, thesemovements cannot be made effective-ly unless torso musculature contractsforcefully to stabilize the spine.

As the season approaches, coachescan begin to replace the sprint work-outs described above with condition-ing drills that incorporate more vol-leyball-specific movements.Consider the following list of exercis-

es that relate closely to the movementdemands of volleyball:

Plyometrics: 1) Single legged hops up stairs. 2)Double legged hops over barriers. 3) Lateralhops over a barrier. 4) Multi-directional hops.

Jumps: 1) Maximum vertical jumps. 2) Blockjumps.

Lifts: 1) Heavy squats (i.e., 3 reps at 80%1RM).2) Push press/jerk (note: mechanically similarto blocking). 3) Power clean or snatch. 4)Jumping back squat at 30%1RM (note: this loadallows high power outputs).

Agility: 1) Side shuffling. 2) Multi-directionalmovements in a specified pattern.

Upper Body: 1) Clapping push-ups. 2) Squatthrusts, or Burpees.

From this list, the coach could choosea series of 2 to 4 exercises that the ath-lete performs in rapid succession.Repetition number for each exerciseshould be chosen so that if a maxi-mum effort is made on each rep, the

total time to complete the complex isconsistent with the work interval datafrom Table 1.

In these workouts (Table 2), the ath-lete performs the exercises listed forthe number of reps indicated. Thecompletion of 5 double legged hops, 3squat thrusts, and 3 side shuffles isequal to one rep and should be done asfast as possible (i.e., 20 seconds). Acomplete (no activity) 60-second restshould be taken between reps in orderto maximize ATP-CP recovery. Thenumber of reps per set can range from5 to 10 with a complete 3- to 5-minuterecovery period between sets. Two to4 sets are performed per workout.

It is important that the athlete com-plete each rep with a high quality ofeffort. Many athletes may not bemotivated to do this and it may be dif-ficult for the strength and condition-


Example of a conditioning workout for a libero:

Example of a conditioning workout for a middle blocker:

Table 2. Sample volleyball workouts

ing coach to detect whether the athleteis making a maximal effort. A simpleway to ensure work effort quality is toconduct the conditioning workouts asrelay races. The work-rest ratio willalways be one less than the number ofathletes participating in each group, orteam. For example, if a work-restratio of 1:3 is desired, 4 athletes willbe needed per team to competeagainst one another during the relay.A team of 12 athletes could be divid-ed into 3 teams with 4 athletes each.Since it takes about the same amountof time for each athlete to perform arep, an approximate 1:3 work-restratio can be achieved.

Conditioning for BasketballThe work-rest interval data fromTable 1 for basketball suggest that theprimary energy sources are alsoanaerobic. Work times for basketball,however, are much longer than vol-leyball, indicating heavy reliance onthe lactic acid system. Some condi-tioning training, however, should tar-get the immediate energy system,using work-rest times similar to thosedescribed for volleyball above.

In addition, a large portion of the con-ditioning volume should be devotedto the development of the anaerobic(fast) glycolysis system (lactic acid).Glucose from blood, or glycogenstored in muscle can be broken downanaerobically into lactic acid to pro-vide energy. The rate of energy pro-duction that can be provided via fastglycolysis is high, but not as high asthe ATP-CP system. The advantagethis system has over the ATP-CP sys-

tem is that its total energy supply islarger, capable of supporting relative-ly high intensity work for up to about3 minutes. As phosphate supplies inmuscle diminish after 2030 secondsof maximal exercise, the body beginsto rely heavily on fast glycolysis inorder to sustain the highest possiblepower output.

Fast glycolysis, however, has its prob-lems. When fast glycolysis suppliesenergy at its maximum rate, largequantities of lactic acid are produced.Ultimately, heavy usage of the fastglycolysis energy system results inlactic acid levels that force a reductionin exercise intensity, since high levelsof lactic acid eventually interfere withthe muscles contractile machinery. Atthis point, the only way to continueexercising is to reduce the intensity toa level that can be sustained aerobi-cally. The maximal rate of energy thatcan be produced aerobically onlyallows power outputs of about2030% of the anaerobic maximum.Clearly, this is well below what isrequired for quality performance inmost sports.

A conditioning program designed toincrease the rate and quantity of ener-gy supplied via fast glycolysis mustobviously stress the body to make theappropriate adaptations. This is not adifficult thing to do when the physiol-ogy of the fast glycolysis is under-stood. It is known that fast glycolysisbecomes the dominant energy sourceas ATP-CP energy supplies are deplet-ed after about 30 seconds of maximaleffort, and dominates for 2-3 minutes.

Use this knowledge to develop thetime frames for the work intervals.Rest interval decisions must considerthe time needed for the body to recov-er to a level that permits the perform-ance of another high intensity workbout that taxes the fast glycolysis sys-tem.

Recommended work-rest ratios typi-cally range from 1:2 to 1:5, dependingon the conditioning level of the ath-lete. Rest intervals should nowinclude light exercise since lactate canbe metabolized aerobically by thelightly exercising muscles, and alsoby the heart. Active recovery resultsin faster lactate removal and permits ahigher quality of work during theensuing work interval.

The primary conditioning exercisemode for basketball is running, bothstraight and with quick directionalchanges. Thus, the vast array ofequipment available for enduranceand cardiovascular fitness training isnot adequate for specific basketballconditioning. Treadmills have limita-tions due to the high agility compo-nent required in basketball. Straight-line running must be heavily compli-mented with movements that dupli-cate the demands of the sport.Basketball requires many rapidchanges in direction, acceleration, anddeceleration. With a basic under-standing of the sport and a creativeimagination, an almost limitless com-bination of conditioning drills can bedeveloped all of which, can be donemore effectively without expensiveequipment.


Football and TennisInformation comparable to that pre-sented in Table 1 above has been pub-lished for professional football6. Itshows average work intervals ofabout 5 seconds and average restintervals of about 30 seconds. Clearlyfootball is an ATP-CP energy system-dependent sport, with aerobic metabo-lism needed only for recovery.Published reports analyzing tennissupport similar conclusions7.

ConclusionAs pointed out earlier, many coachesmistakenly prescribe traditional long-duration, steady state aerobic exercisefor basketball, football, and otheranaerobic sport athletes. Some believethat an aerobic base must be devel-oped in order to maximize enduranceand recovery between high intensityinterval bouts. However, coachesneed to understand that there is nevera situation when any single energysystem provides 100% of the energyfor exercise.

Sprints lasting 1.5 to 3 minutes dorequire a significant portion of energyto be supplied aerobically. Althoughnot maximally taxed, the aerobic sys-tem is being trained, and in a way thatis specific to a sport where short-dura-tion high intensity intervals are mostcommonly performed. In addition,high-intensity interval traininginvolves the aerobic system for recov-ery during the rest periods betweenwork intervals. The argument can bemade then, that the aerobic system isbeing stressed in a way that is very

specific to the sport. Coaches whofeel they are missing out on an impor-tant fitness component by not includ-ing aerobic conditioning with theirathletes may rest easier knowing thatlittle or no relationship exists betweenaerobic capacity and anaerobic per-formance or recovery parameters4.Coaches should also be aware of thenegative impact that aerobic trainingcan have on anaerobic performance,such as decreased power output, dueto oxidative related adaptations in fastmuscle tissue.

REFERENCES1. Cooper, K. The New Aerobics, Bantam, NewYork, 1970.

2. Mathews, D.K. and E.L. Fox. ThePhysiological Basis of Physical Education andAthletics. W.B. Saunders Company, 1976, page242.

3. Essentials of Strength Training andConditioning (T.R. Baechle & R.W. Earle, edi-tors). Human Kinetics, 2000 (2nd edition), page142.

4. Hoffman, J.R., Epstein, S,. Einbinder, M., andWeinstein, Y. The Influence of Aerobic Capacityon Anaerobic Performance and RecoveryIndices in Basketball Players. Journal ofStrength and Conditioning Research, 13(4), pp.407 411, 1999.

5. Burleson, M.A., et al. Effect of weight train-ing exercise and treadmill exercise on post-exercise oxygen consumption. Medicine &Science in Sports & Exercise, 30(4), pp. 518-522, 1998.

6. Plisk, S. Tactical Metabolic Training: Part 1.Strength and Conditioning, 19(2), pp. 44-53,April 1997. (see Figure 4)

7. Christmass, M.A., et al. A metabolic charac-terization of singles tennis. Journal of SportsScience 11:543, 1993.


Continuing the virtual tour of the YorkBarbell Museums exhibits and arti-facts we launched in the last Strengthand Health, lets turn our attention tothe Warren Lincoln Travis one-of-a-kind championship belt. Nearly 100years ago, this belt recognized Travisas the Worlds Strongest Man.

The Belt's OriginIn 1906, Richard Fox, owner of thepopular sporting newspaper, ThePolice Gazette, was sure a head-to-head lifting shoot-out betweenfabled French-Canadian powerhouseLouis Cyr and the renowned muscularstrength idol of the Ziegfeld Follies,Eugen (correct original spelling)Sandow, was a match-makers dream.In an attempt to further facilitate thisclash between the two biggest namesof the strongman genre in that day,Fox prepared a diamond-studded,

gold and silver championship belt,which would officially recognize thevictor as the strongest man in theworld.

In truth, this belt was befitting of sucha prestigious title, as its rumoredworth just after the turn of the 20thCentury was $2,500, a sizable pieceof change nearly 100 years ago.Historian Dave Willoughby reportedthis figure as well (The SuperAthletes, p. 81), so this appraisalseems valid.

Try as he might, though, Fox couldnot induce Sandow to accept the chal-lenge. In all fairness, Sandow wasseveral body weight classes lighterthan Cyr. Plus, a loss is a loss in theeye of the public, so it's hard to pic-ture Sandow recognizing any reasonto participate.

Travis Steps UpEnter Warren Lincoln Travis. By thefall of 1906, Foxs promotionalaplomb prompted him to approachTravis about accepting this lavish beltand defending it against all worthycomers for a period of 10 years. In anarticle in the August 1937 Strength &Health, Travis listed two simple con-ditions Fox placed on its acceptance:1) Each man (Travis and challenger)had the right to choose five or six liftsapiece, and2) The belt had to be defended any-where in the world designated by thechallenger, with the understanding aside bet or gate percentage could bearranged.

Of course, Travis took Fox up on hisoffer and did defend the belt for 10years, after which it became his per-sonal property.


by Jan Dellinger, York Barbell Company

The Warren Travis Belt

Readers probably wonder why Foxtapped Travis after the Cyr versusSandow match-up failed to material-ize? Its not as though Travis was atotal unknown in 1906, not by a longshot. At 20 years of age in 1896,Travis (real name Roland Morgan)was lucky enough to receive personaltraining instruction from ProfessorLouis Attila. The invaluable nature ofhis teaching can be summed up bynoting that the list of professionalstrongmen who benefited fromAttilas marvelous guidance reads likea "Whos Who" from the Golden Ageof Strongmanism.

Plus, Travis had already put in hisapprenticeship, giving exhibitions ingyms and training halls of New YorkCity and Long Island under themoniker, The Brooklyn Strongboy.Long before 1906, he had graduatedto working first-line theaters and ven-ues, as well as earning distinction viaother avenues. For example, Foxbecame an admirer of Travis in 1903when the latter won a prominent har-ness and back lift championships. Infact, Fox was so impressed withTravis prowess on this occasion thathe presented him with a diamondmedal.

No doubt the final cementing bondbetween Fox and Travis was a sharedadmiration for the exploits of LouisCyr. Noted writers like SiegmundKlein and Earle Liederman contendthat Travis definitely patterned him-self after the Canadian behemoth.

Travis Charts a New CourseWhen one realizes that WarrenLincoln Travis was still giving spo-radic exhibitions upon his death at age65 (in 1941), it seems hard to believehe was able to overcome the challengeof rising young strength stars andretain the championship belt Foxbestowed on him 35 years before.Suffice it to say that when the beltbecame his personal property, theconditions under which challengeswould be accepted changed radically.

For example, disputants to his World'sStrongest Man title belt had to put up$10,000 (that is not a misprint) for theright to meet him in a contest.However, Travis would put up thesame sum. Apparently Travis had hisfair share of eccentricities. He rou-tinely carried $10,000 in large bills inhis watch pocket in anticipation of animmediate challenge. In the October1956 issue of S&H, longtime NewYork City gym owner Sig Klein main-tained that when Travis visited hisgym, which he did with regularity, healways had the $10 grand on his per-son.

The other prime stipulation laid downby Travis was that the winner of suchchallenges would be determined onthe basis of total gross weight lifted inall tests combined. Bearing in mindthat he was most adept at ultra-heavytonnage lifts like the back lift, handand thigh lift, hip lift, deadlift, andother movements involving big num-bers, this tilted the playing fielddecidedly in his favor.

The dollar requirement specificallyprohibited strongmen new to thiscountry from bothering Travis.Moreover, the second requirementhad the net effect of freezing out theterrific barbell/dumbbell lifters.

Strongmen Ruled SupremeThis issue of money is not lost on vis-itors to our museum who often inquireabout the earning power of these topdrawer strongmen in the early part ofthe 20th century. As a long-runningattraction/matinee idol of the ZiegfeldFollies, its hard to envision anyonesurpassing Sandows reported $1,500-$2,000 weekly.

On the other hand, the honors forgreatest single weekly take wouldseemingly go to Siegmund Breitbart.Historian David Webster reported inhis book, Sons of Samson, that duringChristmas week of 1923, Breitbartperformed before more than 85,000spectators and earned $7,000.

Even in the 21st century, this is aneye-popping remuneration for aweeks work to most. Bear in mind,though, Breitbart did not commandthis sum every week. Still, those stel-lar drawing cards that played thehigher profile venues with more fre-quency clearly did well.

The fact that Travis walked aroundwith $10,000 on his person (and letsnot forget the jeweled medal and beltfrom Fox), suggests that he did notsuffer in the pay scale derby either.Still, during his long run as a Coney


Island performer Travis generallyearned his fortune one nickel at atime. In fact, this was the individualprice of admission to the ConeyIsland Circus Sideshow (whichincluded Travis) pre-World War I,according to Earle Liederman in theJune 1963 S&H.

However, after WW I things perkedup for Travis as Sig Klein reported(October 1956 S&H) that in 1924 thegoing rate to see Travis was up to 25cents a head.

Please realize Travis averaged nearly20 shows daily and showed up forwork nearly every day of the week.Upon considering the style of act hedid, combined with how often he per-formed his act, Travis should havereceived the diamond belt just for sur-viving this grind for so many decades!

Travis, Always the ShowmanDue to his flamboyant and eccentricpersonality, there are a couple ofunique mysteries concerning Travisthat could be explored. One that begsto be addressed is the odyssey hisbeloved belt traveled before residingin the York museum.

Upon his death in 1941, he left arather odd will, especially regardingthe belt, which amounted to a chal-lenge to future strongmen he envi-sioned vying for it. A partial quote ofthe passage pertaining to the beltsdisposition (as it appeared in theAugust 7, 1941 New York Times) out-lines the following wishes: I direct

that a certain diamond-jeweled goldand silver belt presented to mebeoffered in open competition and beawarded to the man who at least willhave equaled the record made by thetestor herein by performing the fol-lowing ten feats: Travis laid out whathe felt were his 10 best lifts and stip-ulated that they were to be done with-in 30 minutes.

1) Within 30 seconds, clean and press a 100-pound barbell 10 times while seated;

2) bring a pair of 90lb dumbbells along the sidesof the body to the shoulders and slowly pressthem overhead;

3) teeth lift 350lbs from the floor (hands heldbehind the back);

4) single finger lift with 350lbs from floor eighttimes in five seconds;

5) a single finger lift from the floor with 560lbsonce;

6) two-hand grip lift, straddling the weight, fromfloor, 700lbs, 20 times in 10 seconds;

7) a single hand and thigh lift from the floor with1600lbs;

8) back lift 3660lbs once;

9) a single harness lift with 3580lbs; and

10) back lift 2000lbs 250 repetitions in sevenminutes.

Obviously, Travis slanted the criteriatoward a clone of himselfastrength-endurance oriented specialistwho was adept at shallow range repswith tonnage-style lifts. Hence, therep versus time requirement of certainfeats, as well as the overall time limit.

No TakersWhile the gauntlet had seeminglybeen thrown down, assuming Traviswas genuinely looking for a succes-sor, I find no evidence that suggestsanyone took on the challenge. Why?The Golden Age of Strongmanismhad largely passed, and along with itthe practice of the hip, harness, andhand-and-thigh lifts. Olympic-styleweightlifting and bodybuilding weregaining popularity among the bur-geoning generation of the 1940s. Andlets not forget that threatening nation-al distraction known as World War II,which prompted so many lastingchanges within our culture.

Over the ensuing 20 years afterTravis death, the trail of his beltfaded into oblivion. That was, untilthe April 1961 issue of S&H (page26), which carries a photo and thecaption that it was on display in theYork Barbell Museum.

Who possessed the Travis beltbetween 1941 and 1961? To date, noamount of detective work has pro-duced a definitive answer. However,the Iron Grapevine section of theFebruary 1962 S&H offers a strongclue. Mentioned therein is the dona-tion of a fluted, thick-handled dumb-bell to our museum by one-time NewYork City gym owner/Iron Game per-sonality Harry Shafran. Also men-tioned is the extensive collection ofstrongman paraphernalia and memo-rabilia in Shafrans possession, muchof it once the personal property ofWarren Lincoln Travis.


Again, no irrefutable proof, butnonetheless a plausible explanation asto how our museum may have comeby the awesomely gigantic Travisdumbbell spotlighted in our last edi-tion, as well as his glitzy champi-onship belt.

In closing, the various attributionsincluded were done for more thanmere journalistic sourcing. As readersprobably surmised, Travis was a gen-uine character in just about everysense of the word. Hence, the articlesauthored by Sig Klein and EarleLiederman, in particular, in whichthey relate various interactions withTravis down through the years are notonly entertaining, but give moreinsight as to how quirky Travis reallywas.

Jan Dellinger has been Associate Editor forStrength and Health and MuscularDevelopment during his 25 years at YorkBarbell. He has published in Hard Training,Hardgainer, and Varsity, along with serving as acontributor for Maximize Your Training by MattBrzycki.


In recent years a debate has ragedabout whether one set to failure is aseffective as a multiple set trainingroutine. Proponents of either systemare quick to site studies that favortheir arguments and harshly criticizestudies they disagree with. A recentstudy examined the effects of one setof 6-9 reps to failure compared tothree sets of 6-9 reps to failure. In thisstudy, 27 female subjects with at leastsix months of regular strength trainingexperience were split into threegroups: a single set group (SS), a mul-tiple set group (MS), and a controlgroup (C). All subjects underwenttwo-1RM test sessions prior to thesix-week training program and aposttest three days after the program.They were tested on bilateral legextension and seated chest press.

Training was done twice a week forsix weeks. The subjects performed awhole body workout consisting of legextensions, leg curls, abdominalcrunches, seated chest press, and latpulldowns. The rest interval betweensets for the MS group was two min-utes. When a subject was capable ofdoing nine or more repetitions of anexercise, the weight was increased2.5-5kg for the next workout.

Leg extension strength increased sig-nificantly for both the MS and SSgroups (15% and 6%, respectively).Seated chest press was significantlyincreased for the MS group only(10%). The percentage strengthimprovement for both the leg exten-sion and seated chest press were sig-nificantly greater for the MS groupthan the SS group.

This study clearly supports the ideathat multiple sets are better forstrength improvement than a singleset to failure. The reasons for this areunclear. The authors of the study sug-gest that fatigue induced by multipleset training may be part of the trainingstimulus.

Another possible explanation for theimprovement in strength with multi-ple sets is improved neuromuscularperformance. Even though the sub-jects all had some experience withstrength training and had presumablygone through the steepest part of theskill learning curve with these exer-cises, skill improvement cannot beruled out. Even top-level athletes con-tinue to refine and improve their skillafter years of training. Since there wasno measure of coordination or motor


Research Reviews

by Ed McNeely

unit recruitment patterns in this study,we cant be sure of the role learningplayed in the strength improvement.

Schlumberg, A., Stec, J., and Schmidtbleicher,D. (2001). Single- vs. Multiple-set StrengthTraining in Women. Journal of Strength andConditioning Research. 15(3): 284-289.

The stimulus that causes muscles toincrease size or strength as a result ofresistance training is still unclear.Various metabolic mechanisms havebeen suggested as well as musclefiber splitting and satellite cell activa-tion. One popular theory holds thatexercise induced muscle damagestimulates growth as muscles repair.Twenty-six healthy, active youngadults (19 male, 7 female) participat-ed in a study to determine if a singlebout of eccentric training that elicitedmuscle damage would have any effecton the adaptation to subsequent train-ing.

The subjects trained elbow flexorsthree times per week using 4 sets of10 reps at 75% of their 1RM. Eacharm was trained independently. Priorto training the subjects underwent1RM testing on each arm as well asisometric MVC testing at five jointangles. One arm for each subject wasrandomly chosen to undergo a singlebout of maximal eccentric work. Theeccentric session consisted of onemaximal eccentric repetition every 10seconds for 10 minutes, making atotal of 60 maximal eccentric contrac-tions.

Two days following the eccentrictraining session there was a 14.9%decrease in strength in the eccentrictrained arm. This is common of mus-cles that have undergone severe mus-cle damage following exercise.Following the nine-week training pro-gram both the control arm (C) and theeccentric arm (E) increased 1RMstrength by 41.6% and 42.4% respec-tively. Isometric strength wasincreased by 16.6% for the C arm and18.4% for the E arm. While there wasno difference in the post-treatmentstrength testing between the arms, theC arm showed a significantly greaterimprovement in strength during thefirst 5 weeks of the program.

The results of this study show that asingle bout of eccentric training doesnot improve the effectiveness of sub-sequent mixed concentric-eccentrictraining. What is interesting to note isthat the eccentric trained arm hadslower strength increases for the firstfive weeks, but had to have greaterstrength increases in the last fourweeks for the two arms to have equalstrength increases. It would be inter-esting to see if the eccentric armwould have continued to increasefaster in a longer study.

The results of this study do have someimplications for athletic performance.Since there was a slower increase instrength in the eccentric arm for fiveweeks following the eccentric session,it may be advisable for athletes toavoid this type of training in theirfinal preparation for competition.

Folland, J., Chong, J., Copeman, E., and Jones,D. (2001). Acute muscle damage as a stimulusfor training-induced gains in strength. Medicine& Science in Sport & Exercise. 33(7): 1200-1205.

Participation in high-level competi-tive sport can be very rewarding, butit also has it drawbacks. Almost everysport has the potential to put the com-petitors health at risk, either throughdirect competition or because of thenature of the training program. Whilemost of us are aware of the acuteinjuries and accidents that happen insport, there has been very littleresearch that looks at the long termhealth risks associated with competi-tive sport. A recent epidemiologicalstudy from Finland compared mortal-ity rates of elite powerlifters to agroup of controls. The 62 male sub-jects were powerlifters were who hadplaced first through fifth in theFinnish championships between 1977and 1982. All subjects were in the82.5-125kg weight categories. Theywere all born between 1931 and 1958;their average age during their compet-itive career was 35.1 years and aver-age weight was 107.4kg. A controlgroup was randomly chosen from theFinnish Finrisk survey of 1982. Thesubjects were all male aged 25-64years. Death certificates wereobtained from the cause of death filesat Statistics Finland.

During the 12-year period of follow-up, 12.9% of the powerlifters diedcompared to only 3.1% of the con-trols. While the powerlifters experi-enced a mortality rate 4.6 times that of


the controls, there was no differencein the proportion of heart disease orcancer deaths between the twogroups. There was a higher rate of sui-cide amongst the powerlifters.

The purpose of this study was not todetermine the reason for the highermortality rate among powerlifters, butthe authors speculate that it may bedue to steroid use. While steroid usecan contribute to heart and liver dis-ease, more work needs to be done tosee if there is a relationship betweenearly mortality and steroid use. Sincethe athletes in this study were fromthe heavier weight categories, we can-not rule out the effects of body massand diet on mortality. The averageweight 107.4kg is probably muchhigher than the average weight of thecontrols. While there are adaptationsto the heart as a result of strengthtraining, they are often not propor-tional to the increases in body mass.More work needs to be done to assessthe long-term health risks of compet-ing in strength and power sports.

Parssinen, M., Kujala, U., Vartiainen, E., Sarna,S., and Seppala, T. (2000). Increased prema-ture mortality of competitive powerlifters sus-pected to have used anabolic agents.International Journal of Sports Medicine. 21:225-227.

Holding a master's degree in science, EdMcNeely has been a strength and physiologyconsultant to 17 Canadian national and profes-sional sports teams. He has presented interna-tionally on athlete development and condition-ing. He is the owner of Sports PerformanceInstitute, a company specializing in athletedevelopment and coaches' education.


Chambersburg, (PA) is a mostly ruraltown of about 25,000, located in southcentral Pennsylvania about 15 milesfrom the Maryland border. TheChambersburg Area Senior HighSchool is an AAAA school, about the10th largest in the state.

The school has a rich heritage of soft-ball and baseball success over theyears, with a repetitive record of plac-ing players on full-ride D1 collegescholarships. Over the past severalyears, boy's basketball success hastaken off and become a state power.One of the key ingredients in the suc-cess of these sport teams has beentheir utilization of a conditioning pro-gram offered locally at Results FitnessCenter.

Plans to offer similar services for thehigh school's football team have metwith mixed results, but we see signsof progress. Suffice it to say the

school's weight room is not exactlystate-of-the-art and is in need ofexpansion and upgrades. And theschool has such a plan on the drawingboards. But, in the meantime, whatcan be done to help the kids get intotheir best possible condition prior tothe season's kick-off?

Results PhilosophyAs Strength and Health readerslearned in the Winter and Spring 2001issues, we base our sports condition-ing programs almost exclusively onmultiple-joint, explosive movementsthat mimic the joint and muscle actionthat occurs on the field.

We believe very strongly in squat-ting for additional lower bodystrength and power. These squats areperformed deep, but always in properform. This depends on the athlete'sability to get into the correct position,which our staff closely supervises.

We do not use pulling straps for anyexercise. Most athletes need toimprove their gripping strength andthis is an easy way to accomplish thisgoal.

Players are exposed to the learningsequence for clean, snatch, jerk, andpush press.

Athletes do a number of combina-tion lifts, all with relatively low repe-titions and a medium load.

We emphasize excellent techniqueand a slow progression; the emphasisis NOT on lifting heavy weights. Dueto the level of fitness brought to theweight room in pre-season, we'vefound there is no reason to rushtoward heavy weights.

The Football ProgramAs always, many of the football play-ers are multi-sport athletes. This can


Building Towardthe Season

by Doug Lentz

make an entire yearly plan of peri-odized strength training and condi-tioning nearly impossible, but weseek to accommodate the needs ofeach season's sports. We use a basicmodel of periodization, with initialemphasis on technique (T), hyper-trophy (H), strength (S), AnaerobicConditioning (AC), Power (P),Speed and Agility (S&A).

One unique part of our footballtraining program is the use of anunannounced "surprise day" work-out, normally Wednesdays. We alterthe fixed workout program andthrow in activities or challenges thatbenefit the athletes not only physi-cally, but also psychologically. Wefind a good deal of enthusiasm fromplayers, coaches, and staff whenthese unpredictable workouts occur.Similarly, during the other days'workouts (normally Mondays andFridays) we vary many of the exer-cises. Core movements (squat,curls, etc.) may remain the same,but some assistance movementsmay change. This variety not onlybreaks up the monotony associatedwith regular training (a problemsometimes with teenagers), but itallows us to train or retain skillsneeded for exercises that will comein another cycle.

In an ideal world, not dealing with amulti-sport athlete, our periodizedapproach to football training lookslike this:


Preparation Phase (T, H, 5 wks)Day 1 Reps SetsDB Jumps 6 3Squats 12-10 3Bench press 12-10 3SLDL 12-10 3Bent-over row 12-10 3Back ext 12-10 3Abs 25 3Curls 12-10 3DB triceps ext 12-10 3Hip rolls 10-15 2Sidelying bends 10-15 2

Day 2 (unannounced)

Day 3DB Jumps 6 3Front squat 12-10 3Incline press 12-10 3DB step-ups 12-10 3DB press 12-10 3Lat pull-down 12-10 3Abs 25 3DB curl 12-10 3DB triceps ext 12-10 3

Phase I-A (H, 5 wks)Day 1 Reps SetsHang cleans 5-4 3Squat 10-8 3Bench press 10-8 3SLDL 10-8 3Bent-over row 10-8 3Back extension 10-8 3Blasters 20-30 2Curls 10-8 4Triceps ext 10-8 4Partner sidebends 10-15 2Neck 10 2

Day 2 (unannounced)

Day 3Hang Snatch 5-4 3Overhead Squat 10 2Squat 6-3 3Bench press 6-3 3Press 6-3 3Wide-grip pull-ups max 3Glute/Ham Raise 8-12 3Blasters 20-30 2Weighted dips 6-8 3Curls 6-3 3Neck 8-6 2

Phase I-B (S, 3 wks)Day 1Hang Clean 3 3Jerk 5 3Squat 8-6 3Bench press 8-6 3SLDL 8-6 3Bent-over row 8-6 3Back extension 8-6 3Curls 8-6 3Triceps ext 8-6 3Neck 8 2Blasters 30-35 2

Day 2 ("surprise")

Day 3Hang Snatch 3 3Overhead squat 8 2Squat 3-2 3Bench press 3-2 3SLDL 6-4 4Incline bench 6 3Bent over row 6 3Chin-ups 6 3Curls 6 3Neck 6 2High Chair 8 3Blasters 30-35 2

Phase II (A/C,P, 7-8 wks)Day 1Overhead squat 5 2Hang clean 5-2 3Squat 6-2 3Bench press 6-3 3SLDL 8-3 3Lat pull-down 10-6 3Trunk twist w/wgt 10-8 3DB triceps ext 10-6 3Curls 10-6 3Neck 8-6 2Weighted sit-ups 15-10 3

Day 2PlyometricsAgilities/Reaction"Fun" resistance exercises

Day 3Hang Snatch 5 3Front squat 5 3Incline bench 8-4 3SLDL 10-6 3Weighted chin-ups max 3Trunk twist w/wgt 10-8 3DB press 8-4 3Back extensions 8-6 3Curls 10 3DB triceps ext 10 3Neck 12-8 2Hanging leg raise 8-12 3Abs 40-50 2

Pre-Season TrainingResults offers Phase III training(Speed & Agility/Power) during thesummer months. This 10-week pre-season training consists largely of cir-cuit training, in which we use combi-nation lifts, explosive lifts, medicineball drills, plyometric training, andsome general resistance training exer-cises.

Throughout the year our footballplayers also engage in goal-orientedflexibility training and general condi-tioning/speed development drills notaccomplished in the weight roomactivities listed above. We manipulatethe volume and intensity of theseefforts throughout the year, seeking apeak in performance just prior to thekick-off of the football season.

One Remaining HurdleThe concept of a structured, in-seasonconditioning program for football hasnot yet been fully embraced andaccepted, so this remains a goal forthe future. However, if we can keepplayers focused on the priorities tar-geted throughout the rest of the year,we end up with a stronger, faster,more powerful and agile player resist-ant to injury during the season.

Successful programs are not builtovernight. We have a ways to go, butwe ARE making progress. Stay tunedfor updates.

Doug Lentz is a USAW Senior Coach and cer-tified strength and conditioning specialist whoserves as the director of athlete programs atResults Fitness for Summit Health,Chambersburg, PA. He is a local, regional, and

national speaker/writer on the subject ofimproved athletic performance. His sportsbackground includes boxing, cycling, triathlon,and weightlifting.


High-Intensity Training, or simplyHIT, is an approach to strength train-ing used for decades by competitiveathletes in virtually every sport andactivity at the scholastic, collegiate,and professional levels. Despite itspopularity, the principles behind HITare often misunderstood by many inthe strength and fitness community.This article is an attempt to clarifyHIT concepts and eliminate the confu-sion.

History 101After more than 22 years of tinkeringand countless prototypes, ArthurJones finally introduced and sold hisfirst Nautilus resistance trainingmachine in 1970. At roughly the sametime, he also suggested guidelines forstrength training that were quite dif-ferent from traditional thinking.Included in this information was thenotion that strength training should beintense by design and brief by neces-sity. For instance, Jones recommend-ed doing the minimum amount ofexercise that imposes the maximum

amount of growth stimulation withthe goal of reaching momentaryexhaustion or muscular failurewithin a prescribed number of repeti-tions. Initially, he specified that nomore than 3 sets of each exerciseshould be done. Jones also advocatedvarious repetition schemes includingas few as 6 and as many as 20, alongwith a reverse pyramid of 3 sets con-sisting of 10, 8, and 6 repetitions.

The term High-Intensity Trainingappears as early as 1973 in an articlewritten by Jones. Its also mentionedin a 1975 article and several 1977books authored by Ellington Darden,PhD, a Nautilus employee. (Theacronym HIT became fashionablein 1988 with the publication of theHIT Newsletter.) The writings ofDarden showcased Nautilusmachines and recommended one setof 812 repetitions.

Because of the inextricable linkbetween this set/rep guideline andNautilus, HIT has been character-

ized for more than a quarter of a cen-tury as one set of 8-12 reps on aNautilus machine. Besides being agross oversimplification of HIT, thisstatement promotes 3 main miscon-ceptions concerning sets, repetitions,and equipment.

SetsFact: HIT doesnt always involve oneset of an exercise. Its necessary tounderstand that science has beenunable to determine exactly howmany sets of each exercise are neces-sary for individuals to achieve opti-mal increases in muscular size andstrength. But the overwhelmingmajority of scientific evidence clearlypoints to the fact that single-set train-ing is at least as effective as multiple-set training. An exhaustive literaturereview in 1998 performed by Drs.Ralph Carpinelli and Bob Otto ofAdelphi University and later reviewsby Carpinelli examined all studiesthat compared different numbers ofsets (dating back to 1956).Collectively, their research found five


by Matt Brzycki

High-Intensity Training:The Facts

studies that showed multiple-set train-ing was superior to single-set trainingand 56 that did not.

Many versions of HIT do indeedinvolve one set of each exercise, butthere are some

strength and health winter/spring 02

Documents

history of training

resistance training

training philosophies

cisco adlerpublished

hadheard of hit training

health magazine2strength

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