Anatomy Chapters 2-4: Chemistry, Biology, Cytology, and Histology

Slides by Coach MurrayImages: Various Sources Listed Within

Describe basic atomic structure Distinguish between chemical bond types Contrast inorganic and organic chemistry Name, identify and describe the structure of

the 4 major organic macromolecules Classify examples of organic molecules by

their type

Chemistry – Chapter 2

Matter is anything that has mass and volume

Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter

Atoms are composed of subatomic particles:1. Protons - positive, located in the nucleus2. Neutron – neutral, located in the nucleus3. Electrons – negative, located in orbitals/clouds

surrounding the nucleus

Atoms and Atomic Structure pg27

Molecules want to be stable in nature On way they become stable is by having full

outermost orbital of electrons Bonding is one way to accomplish this. 2 major/important kinds of bonds are ionic

and covalent bonds

Chemical Bonds pg30-4

Ionic Bonds◦ Ions – positively or negatively charged atoms ◦ Ionic bonds – are formed when ions (single or

polyatomic cations(+ions) or anions(-ions)) gain or lose electrons to/from other atoms. Aka a transfer of electrons.

Covalent bonds ◦ occur when molecules share electrons.

Chemical Bonds (Continued)

Polar bonds – weak covalent bond resulting from an unequal charge distribution

Hydrogen bonds – a type of polar bond between water molecules created when the slightly positive charge of the H of one water molecule is attracted to the slight negative charge of the O on another water molecule

Results – gives water many unique properties like◦ Cohesion – stick to each other◦ Capillary Action – rises into narrow tubes (capillaries)◦ Surface Tension

Chemical Bonds (Continued)

Inorganic Chemistry pg37◦ Nutrients and compouds that do no contain C and

H as the main strucutre Organic Chemistry pg42

◦ C based compounds containing H, O, and N ◦ Why do we study? - They occur again and again

in very different types of biological structures of humans

Inorganic vs. Organic Chemistry

◦ There are numerous of organic molecules, we will limit our focus to 4 categories of macromolecules (aka biomolecules)

◦ All are polymers with repeating subunits. They are:1. Carbohydrates – pg42-442. Proteins – pg 49-533. Lipids – pg 44-484. Nucleic Acids – pg 54-6

◦ We need to identify the major parts of the subunits, describe the structure, and name a few important examples

Organic Chemistry

Carbohydrates (Complex) – a polymers of monosaccharides and disaccharides linked together by a dehydration reaction and arranged in chains, branched chains. They are broken down by hydrolysis.

◦ Example(s): Glucose – a monosaccharide Glycogen - complex

4 Macromolecules Explained

Proteins – are amino acids linked by a peptide bond called polypeptides (the primary structure) folded into complex 3-D shape that determines it function

Secondary structures: α-helix and β-pleated sheets

◦ Examples: Enzymes – speed up chemical reactions Muscle – actin and myosin fibers Hair and nails – dead, keratinized cells

4 Macromolecules Explained

Image of 3-D protein structure (Wikipedia)

Lipids - are composed of long non-polar fatty acid tails/chains linked to a larger, polar molecule. These “tails” are long strings of hydrocarbons. Are consumed or made in the body (smooth ER)

Individual chains can be unsaturated, monosaturated, or polysaturated

◦ Examples: Steroids, Fat, Wax

4 Macromolecules Explained

Complex Lipids (wikipedia)

Nucleic Acids – made of nucleotides linked by a sugar and phosphate backbone. Nucleotides are composed of phosphate, sugar, and a nitrogen base.

• DNA – nucleotides linked together by their complimentary nitrogenous base pairs in a double helix shape. Base pairs are Adenine-Thymine and Cytosine-Guanine. Sugar is deoxyribose.

• RNA – nucleotides with base pairs exposed in a single helix. Thymine (T) replaced with U (uracil). Sugar is ribose.

4 Macromolecules Explained

DNA and RNA (wikipedia)

Identify cell structures and cell organelles Explain the function of key cell structures Name and explain the events of the cell life

cycle and mitosis

Cells – Cytology - Chapter 3

Cells vary greatly in size, structure, appearance 3 main parts going outside to in:

1. Plasma (cell) membrane2. Cytoplasm3. Nucleus

Make-up/function of 3 main parts above:1. Phospholipid bilayer - selectively permeability2. Cytosol - where cell activities metabolism occurs3. Nuclear membrane/nucleolus – control center of cell

Basic Cell Structure – Biology Review

There are many, we will focus on 8 – look at the function in the table and your cell concept map

1. Golgi Apparatus/Body 2. Mitochondria 3. ER – smooth and rough 4. Lysosomes 5. Vessicles 6. Centrosome 7. Microtubules & Microfilaments 8. Nucleus/Nucleolus

Organelles – pg 64-5 Figure and Table 3-1

There are many, we will focus on 8 – look at the function in the table and your cell concept map

1. Sorts/transports proteins/other products 2. ATP synthesis by cellular respiration 3. (S) Lipid/carbohydrate synthesis and (R) protein 4. destroy particles, microorganisms, damaged

cells using enzymes 5. transport substances in/out of cell in small sacs 6. forms spindle for reproduction 7. involved in movement & maintain shape of cell 8. Control center/makes ribosomes

Organelles – pg 65 Table 3-1

Cilia – short hair-like structures on the cell surface to aid movement

Microvilli – short finger-like projections on the cell surface which increase the surface and aid in digestion

Ribosomes – (in cytoplasm or on rough.E.R.) – create proteins from the code of RNA

Other Important Structures – pg 70-72

How do we get substances through the selectively permeable cell membrane?

Passive Transport (with the concentration gradient so no energy is required) OR Active Transport (against the concentration gradient so energy is required)

Cell Transport

Types of Passive – high concentration to low◦ Diffusion –permeable molecules move through the

membrane ◦ Osmosis – is the diffusion of water◦ Facilitated Diffusion – movement using

transmembrane proteins Types of Active – low concentration to high

◦ Endocytosis – process which engulfs particles and brings them into the cell

◦ Exocytosis – process which expels particles out of the cell

Cell Transport – pg 85-94

Life cycle and mitosis overview◦ Interphase◦ Mitosis – Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,

Telophase◦ Cytokinesis

Refer to your worksheets or book to reference key events which occur in each

Cell Life Cycle and Mitosis pg 95

Identify and classify the 5 categories of tissues given descriptions and examples

Name the type of tissue for key areas of the body

Contrast the 6 kinds of epithelial tissue

Tissues – Histology - Chapter 4

Tissue: a group of cells which share a common function(s)

Here are the four major categories of tissues1. Epithelial2. Connective3. Muscle 4. Nervous

4 Categories of Tissues pg 107

Covers interior/exterior of the body, reproduce rapidly – not just “skin”

General Function: protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, sensory, perception

6 subcategories – classified on shape and layers1. Simple squamous2. Simple cuboidal3. Simple columnar4. Stratified squamous5. Psuedostratified columnar 6. Transitional

Epithelial Tissue see pg111 for images

More details on each 6 subcategories1. Simple squamous – single, thin, and flattened

layer Function: diffusion and filtration Location: capillary walls, air sacs of lungs (alveoli)

2. Simple cuboidal – single layer, cube shaped Function: secretion and absorption Location: lines kidney, ducts of glands, surface of

ovaries3. Simple columnar – single layer, nuclei near base

membrane, having goblet cells to secrete mucus Location: digestive tract, uterus

Epithelial Tissue Continued

More details on each 6 subcategories4. Stratified squamous – thick, multi-layered

Protection Location: lining of mouth, external part of body

5. Psuedostratified columnar – look layered but are single columnar, multi-nucleate, usuallyl ined w/cilia

Function: cilia-aided movement, secretion Location: trachea, tubes of reproductive system

6. Transitional – thick layered, stretchable cuboidal cells Location: bladder

Epithelial Tissue Continued

Most abundant tissue in the human body Varies greatly in appearance/function Description: Scattered cells and fibers w/lots

of intercellular matrix and good blood supply

Function: binds structures together, provides support, protection, framework, fills space, stores fat, produces blood cells, fights infection, and helps repair tissue

Connective Tissue pg 118-125

All Connective Tissue share 3 common aspects:

1. Composed of specialize cells2. Extracellular protein fibers3. Ground substance Most but not all have matrix

◦ Matrix is made of #2 and #3 above◦ Accounts for most volume of connective tissue

Connective Tissue (Continued)

Overview of Categories/Examples of Connective Tissue◦ Loose Connective – pg 121-2

Areolar Adipose Reticular

◦ Dense Connective (Collagenous) – pg123 Tendons Ligaments Aponeurosis

◦ Fluid Connective – pg 125 Blood Lymph

◦ Supporting Connective Cartilage (hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage) Bone

Connective Tissue (Continued)

◦ Examples, Functions, Locations1. Areolar – separates skin from deeper structures

Location: body-wide underneath skin Function: protection

2. Adipose – deep to skin of buttocks, breasts Function: energy storage, insulation, cushion

3. Reticular – framework for kidney, lymph node, & bone marrow

Loose Connective pg 121-2

◦ All made of collagen fibers parallel to each other◦ Examples, Functions, Locations

Tendons – connect muscles to bone Ligaments – bone to bone, stabilizes internal organs Aponeurosis – tendon like sheets, attaches to broad

flat muscles or skeleton Lower back, soles, palms

Dense Connective pg 123

◦ Examples, Functions, Locations Blood – carries O2/CO2, ”food”

matrix= plasma Components: RBCs, WBCs (leukocytes), platelets Found in arteries, veins, and capillaries

Lymph – fluid of the tissues concentrated in glands and nodes of lymphatic system containing WBCs which monitor “health” of tissues circulates from tissue, to lymphatic system, to

cardiovascular and back

Fluid Connective (Continued)

Cartilage Hyaline (most common) – a more stiff cartilage

nose, trachea/bronchial tubes, sternum, b/w ribs, Elastic – has lots of elastic fibers w/in for flexibility

ear, epiglottis Fibrocartilage – stops bone to bone contact

– ball joints of hip, arm, discs of backbone Bone – matrix is 2/3 calcium carbonate, 1/3 collagen

fibers Makes bone remarkably strong but flexible Made of osteocytes Osteocytes found near blood vessels

Arranged in ring pattern

Supporting Connective

Specialized for contraction Function: movement of body parts/organs Subcategories:

1. Striated – skeletal muscles, voluntary Elongated, bundled into a fascicles, “striped” Key parts: actin & myosin anchored to sarcomere

2. Smooth – involuntary Line hollow organs of digestive system, move in

wavelike fashion Key parts: fusiform, has nucleus, actin & myosin

anchored cell membrane3. Cardiac – involuntary and voluntary

Muscle Tissue pg132

Striated/Skeletal Muscle Tissue Overview (wikipedia)

Smooth Muscle Structure Overview (wikipedia)

Found in brain and spinal cord (Central N.S.) Also in nerves extending from CNS

(Peripheral N.S.) Do not typically regenerate 2 kinds of nervous tissue:

◦ Nuerons – transmit eletrochemical signals◦ Nueroglia – support/protect of neurons, provide

nutrients to nuerons, remove old neurons

Nervous

Neuron – generic image (wikipedia)

Neuroglia – nearby, similar looking non-neuron helpers

Typical Neuron

Summary of Key Topics Inorganic Chemistry – basic atomic

structure, types of bonds pg37-8 Organic Chemistry – 4 macromolecules pgs

42-55 Cells – structure, organelles, organelle

function and identification Cell Life Cycle and Mitosis Tissues – 4 Major categories of tissues and

subcategories, descriptions of each category, key examples in each

Key Tables and Figures

Fig 2-20 Protein Structure Fig 2-23 – Structure of Nucleic Acids Table 2-7 – Top portion – RNA/DNA Comparison Table 2-8 – Organic Compounds Fig 3-1 and Table 3-1 Cell Anatomy & Organelles Fig 3-10 The Nucleus Fig 3-11 The Organization of DNA w/in the

Nucleus Fig 3-17 Osmotic Flow – 3 types of tonicity Fig 3-25 IPMATC – Cell Life Cycle Overview

Key Tables and Figures

Fig 4-3 and Fig 4-4 – Squamous, Cuboidal, and Transitional Epithelia

Fig 4-11 Dense Connective Tissues Fig 4-12 Elements of Blood Fig 4-15 Bone Fig 4-18 Muscle Tissue – 3 types Fig 4-19 Neural Tissue – nuerons and

neuroglia