sell - al-khulafa al-rashidun (four rightly guided caliphs)

8/8/2019 Sell - Al-Khulafa Al-Rashidun (Four Rightly Guided Caliphs)

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PRINTED AT TH ES. P. C. K. PRESS, VEPERY, MADRAS

1913

AL-KHULAFA AR-RASHIDUNOR

THE FOUR RIGHTLY-GUIDED KHALIFAS

BYTHE REV. CANON SELL, D.O., M.R.A.S.

rBLLOW' or TR . tnUnUl31TT or ILU)_UAUTHOR OF 'THE' F AI TH OF ISLAM', 'THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS-

O F I SL AM ,' ISL AM : ITS R iS E AND PROGRESS' TH EHISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TH E QUR'AN'

'THE LIFE OF MUHAMMAD I AND ' TH ERECENSIONS OF TH E QUR'AN '

SECOND EDITION

THE CHRISTIAN LITERATURE SOCIETYFOR INDIA

LONDON, MADRAS AND COLOMBO1913


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INTRODUCTIONTHE title al-Khulafa ar:Rashidun, or ' the rightly.guided Khalifas', is given to the four who immedi~ t e 1 Y ' ' ' s u c c e e d e d Mu1:Iammad-Abu Bakr, 'Umar.'lJthman and 'Ali. They were men of differentc h a r ~ t e r s and capacities and each in his' own wayex.ercised much influence on the. early history 'ofIslam.


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CONTENTS

AL-KHULAFA AR-RASHIDUNABU BAKR

THE question whether Mul;1ammad appointed hissuccessor is one on which there has been much dif-ference of opinion amongst Mu!:Jammadans. Syed'Amir 'Ali says: 'There is abundant evidence toshow that many a time Mul;1ammad had indicated'Ali for the Vicegerency.' I This is the Shi 'ah viewof the case; but the Sunnis entirely reject this ideaand the weight of historical evidence is on theirside. The fact seems to be that Mu!:Jammad for-mally appointed no successor.9 Both Bukhari andMuslim, two of the highest authorities on theTraditions, record concerning his successor a sayingof the Khalifa 'Umar: '\Vere I to leave you withoutone, then verily he, who was greater than I, alsoleft you so.' But during his last i llness Mu!:Jam-mad directed Abu Bakr to say the namaz, orpublic prayers , in the mosque, and thi s is held bysome authorities to have been a clear indica tion o(

I Spirit oj Islam. p, 431.'The authorities for this statement will be found in Jal:llu'd

dIn's History oj the Khalijas (jarrett's translation), pp, 6-8,


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2 ABU BAKR ABU BAKR 3his will in the matter. Some, on the other hand,think differently, and 'All is reported t h a v ~ de-clined to appoint his successor by saYing: TheApostle of God appointed none, s h ~ l l , I the re fored ? ' There is however, a traditIOn recordedso. I ,by Tirmidhi, on t he au thor it y ?f 'Ayisha, thatMuhammad said: ' I t is no t expedient for a people,am;ng whom is Abu Bakr, that any o ther than heshould act as Imam.'

\Vhen the news of Mul;1ammad's death was an-nounced the people could scarcely believe it, ~ n so 'U mar gave expression to their feelings by saYingto an excited audience that the Prophet was onlyin a trance and would soon recover. To one, w ~ tried to convince him to the contrary, h said

'I 'Thou liest the Apostle of God IS notngny : , ,dead . , . th e Prophet of the Lord shal,l not die,

1 h h th rooted ou t every unbeliever anduntl e a , h' fid I ' Abu Bakr then appeared and said to t eIn e . I h'people: 'Whoso worshippeth Mu!)ammad, et 1mk '" that Muhammad is dead Indeed; bu t whosonOn. 'k h tworshippeth Mu!)ammad's Lord, let him now t aI, h d dl'eth not' I Then turrung towardse Ivet an .

h 'd." Sl'lence sit down, hath not theUmar e sal . ,\Imighty revealed the verse to the Prophet , "Thou~ r u l y shalt die and they too shall die"'? 2 Afterthe battle of U!)ud this revelation also came:-

I AI.Hujwiri. Kashj.. 'I-Ma!lj,ib (ed. London, 1911). p. 31.2 Suratu'z-Zumar (xxxix). 31.

Mul;1ammad is no more than an Apostle: otherApostles have already passed away before him. I fhe die, therefore, or be killed, will ye turn upon yourheels? Suratu Ali 'Imran (iii) 138,Then 'Umar was satisfied and so remained quiet.

The news had already spread abroad in the city, andthe An?ar,1 cit izens of Madina, known as t he Help-ers, had already taken the preparatory steps to elect achief. 'We have sheltered a nest of strangers ,' theysaid, 'now we who have fought for the Faith musthave a chief from amongs t ourselves.' Had thisbeen done, it would have caused a fatal divisionamongst the Muslims, for none but a member ofthe great Meccan t ribe of the Qura ish could hopeto command the allegiance of the various sectionsof the Arab people. The proposal of the An?ar wasstrongly opposed by the Muhaji run, by which namethe men who fled from Mecca to Madina wereknown. They were Meccans and certainly wouldno t have submitted to the rule of a man of Madina.On hearing this startling news, Abu Bakr, 'Umar,and Abu 'Ubaida, though warned of the personalr:isks they ran, hurried to the assembly; but did.not arr ive until an An?ar, Sa'd ibn 2 'Ubada, hadbeen suggested as a proper person for the KhaHfate.Abu Bakr at once pointed ou t that, for the sake

I The n am e g iv en t o t he e ar ly c on ve rt s from t he me n of Madina,who helped MUQammad on his arrival there.

t Sa'd never got o ve r his re jec tio n. He retired to Sy ria Wherehe w as k il le d a bo ut fiv e y ea rs l ater .


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4 ABU BAKR ABU BAKR 5of unity, the Khalifa must be one whom all th eMuslims would accept as their ruler. The men ofMadina suggested that there should be two, one torepresent the An!?ar, the o ther the representativeof the men of Mecca and of other parts. T h i ~roused the anger of 'Umar. He uttered hastywords and a tumult ensued. Abu Bakr intervenedand, pointing to 'Umar and Abu 'Ubaida, whohad come with him, said: 'Choose between themand salute him as your chief.' This proposal didnot approve itself to his two friends and in rejecting it they said to Abu Bakr: 'Nay, thou ar t ourchief,' and made the sign of allegiance. Othersthen followed their example. The An!?ar seeingthat their case was hopeless now acquiesced. Theelection was thus complete and a great danger wasaverted. '\Vhen the funeral of the Prophet was over, AbuBakr ascended the pulpit and said to the congregation: '0 people! Now I am chief over you,albeit not the best among you. I f I do well,support me; if ill, then set me right. Follow thetrue, wherein is faithfulness; reject the false, wherein is treachery. The weaker among you shall beas the stronger with me, until that I shall haveredressed his wrong; and the stronger shall be as

A full a ccount of the discussion which took place is given in R a u 4 u l " . ~ ~ ( l f d . ]al:\lu'd-din as-Syu!i also shows that th e

KhaHfa must be a member of the Quraish tribe.

the weaker, until , if the Lord will, I shall havetaken from him that which he hath wrested. Leaveno t off to fight in the ways of the Lord; whosoever.leaveth off, him 'verily shall the Lord abase. Obeyme, wherein I obey our Lord and His Prophet;when I disobey then disobey me. Arise to prayeran d God be with you.' I

Amongst the small circle of intimate friends whomMUQammad, at an ear ly stage of his career, gatheredround himself, Abu Bakr 2 was one of the chief andone of the most beloved. After the conversion ofKhadija to her husband's views, Abu Bakr may ber e g a r ~ e d as the first convert to Islam. His daugh~ e said that she could not remember the t ime whenboth her parents were not true believers and whenMUQammad did nct daily visit t he ir house. Thereadiness wi,th which Abu Bakr accepted Is lam isseen from the Prophet's s ta tement , ' I never invitedany to the Faith who displayed not hesita tion andperplexity, excepting only Abu Bakr; who, when Ihad propounded Islam unto him, tarried not, neitherwas perplexed.'

1 Quoted by Muir. Annals of Ille Eurly Culij>l,ale. p. 5. see alsoR ~ " 4 a l " ~ - ! f . a f c i (ee!. R.A.S., London. 1893), part ii, vol. iii, p. 18.

HIS other names are a.'}-$iddiq, the true: al-'Atiq, the liberatedso cal led, according to Ma'sudi , because the Prophet announcedthat he would be preserved from the fire of hell. The name AbuB,akr means the. father of the ;irgin, and may have been given to111m because IllS daughter 'Ayisha wa.c; the only virgin wife ofMUQammad: the rest were widows.


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6 ABU BAKR ABU BAKR 7Abu Bakr was a successful and a rich merchant.

After ' his conversion, his generos ity was such thathe spent nearly all his for tune in purchasing slaves .who, from their inclination to, or acceptance of.Is lam, had been persecuted by their pagan masters.In outward appearance Abu Bakr was a man of faircomplexion, of slender build, with a slight stoop andshort in stature. He was two years younger thanMuQammad. He was a man of intelligence, k indlyin manner and disposition. His judgement wassound and the Prophet attached great weight to hisopinion regarding any m'atter which had to bedecided. \Vhen the flight to Madina was determined on, it was Abu Bakr who made all the necessaryarrangements, purchased the two swift camels, andprovided the guide. He and MUQammad togethersecretly left Mecca, and together they sought refugein a cave from the pursuit of their enemies,! Hewas devoted to his leader, and it is said that he weptfor joy when he knew that he might accompanyMUQammad on the flight to Madina.

Before the battle of Badr, Abu Bakr expressed hisfirm resolve to abide by the decision of the Prophetregarding it, and was with him on the day of conflict.

I This was afterwards referred to in the verse : ' If ye assist notyour Prophet . . . God assisted him formerly, when the un-belie\'ers drove him Corth in company with a second only; whenthey two were in the ca\'e.'-Suratu't-Tauba (ix) 40. . A secondonly' is literally' s econd of two ,' or Thaniu'l-Ailir.ain, \..hich be-came one of Abu Bakr's most honourable titles.

At a critical period of the fight, MUQammad said: Rejoice, 0 Abu Bakr, God has sent us aid.'According to the traditions Abu Bakr showed remarkable ability and couragc in the protection of hismaster. 1 In thi s bat tl e one of his sons, 'Abdu'rRaQman, fought on the side of thc Meccans, butafterwards became a Muslim. \Vhen MUQammadwas about to start for the battle of 'UQud, it wasAbu Bakr who retired with him into a chamber fromwhich the Prophet issued forth clad in armour.After the defeat at 'UQud when MUQammad, as ademonstration to show that he had not lost heart,determined to start in pursuit of the victoriousMeccans, i t was into the hands of Abu Bakr that astandard was placed. When Mul:tammad capturedthe city of Mecca, Abu Bakr brought his aged father,Abu QaQafa, into his presence. Th e Prophet received him kindly, and affectionately invited him tobecome a Muslim, which he did. He lived to seehis son elected Khalifa. 'Abdu'llah, a son of AbuBakr, was so severely wounded whilst fighting atTa'if on the Prophet's side that he died . It wasAbu Bakr who was placed in charge of the threehundred men who, in the year A, D. 631, made thepilgrimage to Mecca, where the famous verses of then in th Sura were read in the valley of Mina to a

I As-Syilli, History of th c lilJa/ifas, p. 36.'Suratu't-Tauba (ix) 1-7.29. See Sel l. 1. ll e of Mul)ommad.

pp.214-6.


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8 ABU BAKR ABU BAKR 9large audience of ~ ( e c c a n idolaters: verses whichabsolved M u ~ a m m a d , after the expirat ion of fourmonths, from any obligation contracted, by treaty orotherwise, with the pagan Arabs. Henceforth, noidolater could approach the Ka'ba. During Mu ~ a m -mad's last illness Abu Hakr officiated for him asImam, or leader , in the public prayers in the Mosqueat Madina.

The Prophet died on June 8, A. D. 622. Abu Bakrhad been his close companion from the very first.He had stood by him in peace and in war, in theearly days when men scoffed at him, in the'laterones when they were jea lous of his growing power.He knew, as perhaps none other did, the mind ofM u ~ a m m a d , to whom he had always been a trustedconfidant. All this shows th at the elect ion of AbuBakr to the Khalifate was a most wise and prudentproceeding. Such a man, gentle yet strong, witha profound respect for his deceased leader and aunique acquaintance with his plans; a man, with a'nabsolute faith in the future prosper ity of Islam, wasadmirably suited to control its destinies at this mostcritical period of its history. For it must be bornein mind that, though the new Faith was strong inMadina and in Mecca, its hold on the Arab tribeswas very slight. Some of them were, at this verytime, in revolt and the spi ri t of disaffection wasspreading far and wide.

The Khalifa soon saw that physical force was

necessary and said: ' Never did a people desist fromwarring in the cause of God, without God's delivering it over to shame.' Some tribes demandedexemption from the payment of the tithe. ' I f yewithhold but t he tether of a tithed camel,' said AbuBakr, ' I will fight you for the same.' He wouldallow no compromise, no half-hearted service. Oneof the Prophet' s latest utterance had been' throughou t Arabia there shall be no second creed.' To bringthi s abou t was the mission of Abu Bakr. Envoyswere sent to all the apostate tribes, demanding instant submission, on pain of death to the men andcaptivi ty to the women and children. l

I t would be wearisome to follow ou t in detailall the smaller mil itary expedit ions , bu t thoseconnected with Khalid ibn \Valid, known as 'TheSword of God,' and the g rea te st of all the Arabcommanders, deserve some notice. Khalid hadbeen the main cause of the. defeat of Mul:Jammad atthe battle of 'Uhud; bu t he soon after became aMuslim, as brave for the Faith as he had beenagainst it. Amongst the pretenders to the prophetic office, Tulail:Ja and Musailama were the chief.Jealousy of the citizens of Mecca and Madina hadled many of the Bedouins to follow them. 'A prophet of our own,' said the followers of the former, is better than a prophet of the Quraish; besides

1 'Umar said: . I found him in this business more energetic anddetermined than mysell.' A s - S y u ~ i I I-I istory 0/ the 1iJJ1lUjllS, p. 73.


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10 ABU BAKR ABU BAKR 11Muhammad is dead, and Tulaiha is alive.' He,. .however, was soon defeated and became a Musl im.After this, several t ribes submitted. I t was nowthat Khalid did a very cruel act. ~ 1 a l i k , the chiefof a tribe, with his people gave themselves up,trusting that t he ir lives would be spared;l Theywere all put to death. Khalid's defence was thatwith a view to protect them from cold, he hadordered the guards to t'rap liP their prisoners,that in thei r d ialec t (the Kinanite) thi s word meantslay and so the mistake occurred. Khalid' s remarkafter the event was, 'when God willeth a thing,He bringeth it to pass.' This .event caused muchexcitement; and 'Umar, who was no friend ofKhalid, urged the Khalifa to degrade him. Malikwas a man of much influence and a poet of somefame, and so the men of Madina were shocked athis unmerited death; Kh


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12 ABU BAKR ABU BAKRthat it led Abu Bakr to conceive of the idea of.collecting the text lest 'any part should be losttherefrom.' I

Rebellions in the east and south of Arabia nowbegan to spread. Many fights took place and muchblood was shed before peace was secured. Sti ll theold t ribal jea lous ies remained, though suppressedfor a while by the vigour of the Khalifa's rule andthe prowess of his victorious forces. Bu t no authority other than that of his tribal chief had anylas ting hold on a Bedouin, and a Khalifa at Madinacould never hope to have any permanent controlover such unruly natures. Even Islam did not atthis stage form a sufficiently strong connecting link.Some common ground of act ion , some common-enemy, some constant s ta te of war with hope ofplunder was needed. This consolidating force wasfound in foreign warfa re. The idea of the universal ity of I sl am had not found i ts full developmentin the lifetime of Mu!)ammad. Indeed, he at first,,a t least, looked only to th e union of the Arab peoplein one faith and polity; bu t with increasing power.a t home, the prospec t of influence abroad becamebrighter, and so we find Abu Bakr in his firstspeech, saying: 'When a people leave th off to f i g h ~in the name of the Lord, the Lord casteth off thatpeople.' The world for Ishim now became the

1SelJ, RcccI,sions 0/ tile Quy'd,J, p. 1.

dominant idea. The Arabs as conquerors over allwere to become the lords of men, the subject racesan infer io r class. Divisions many and great afterwards arose from political and religio!!s causes, but,for the t ime , t riba l jealousies were set aside andall the Muslims united in the great work of defyingand conquering the unbelieving nations. Thus itwas that Abu Bakr soon found himsel f in conflictw ith the two great Powers of the East and the \Vest-Persia and Byzantium. The expedition againstthe former was entrusted to Khalid, whose forces,thinned by the losses at Yamana, were now aug-mented by large bodies of Bedouins. The Persianswere easily defea ted in their first battle, cal led the'battle of chains, ' from the report that the Persiansoldiers were chained together to prevent their running away. Two o ther victories followed and theMuslim army gained a rich booty. Khalid in a stirring address to his men s a i ~ : 'Were it bu t a provisionfor this present life ar.d no holy war to wage, it.were worth ou r while to fight for these fair fieldsand to ban ish care and penury for ever. ' The resultof these and of a succeeding victory was that allthe region in the deltas of the Tigris and Euphrateswas subjected. The power of the Persian Empirewas broken and t he way for its complete conques tsoon after was now prepared.

Meanwhile affairs in Syria had not gone onso prosperously. The army there was under the.


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14 ABU BAKR ABU BAKR 15command of Khalid bin Sa'id who was one of theearliest converts to Islam, but had no special apti-tude for command in a warlike expedition. One ofhis chief captains was'Amr binu'I-'A?, a warrior ofsome renown: The Muslims were defeated by theRomans at a place not far from the sea of Tiberias.On hearing this, Abu Bakr at once hurried upforces from the south, now happily for him subjugated and quiet. Amongst these troops were menof tried valour, including one hundred who hadfought in the memorable battle at Badr. Overthirty-six thousand men set out. The Khalifa, whonow realized the full gravi ty of a conflict with theRoman Emperor, Heraclius, made a stirring speechto this army of reinforcement. Two months, however, passed in indecisive skirmishing. Abu Bakrgrew anxious and lost faith in the commanders ofthe Syrian army. He determined to summon Khalidbin Walid, the ever-victorious general. 'B y him,' hesaid, 'with the help of the Lord, shall the machinatio ns of Sat an and of the Romans be overthrown.'The desert lay between Khalid bin Walid and thearmy he was called upon to command ; bu t by anextraordinary and rapid march he arrived in t ime toavert defeat and to gain a complete victory at thebattle of Wacusa in September, A. D. 634. The losson both sides was very great; but the power ofthe Muslims was now practically established inSyria.

AbU Bakr died on August 22, A. D. 634, a fewweeks before the repulse of the Romans. His shortreign o.f two years had seen a complete change inthe attitude of Islam to the surrounding nations.With a firm hand he had put down rebellions inA.rabia; with great judgement and foresight he haddirected the warlike spirit of the Bedouins from internal tumu lt s to external wars, and thu s exalted.that sp irit of en terprise which led to rapid and extensive conquests. The Arab pretenders had beenoverthrown and the warlike warriors of the Arabiand e ~ r t went forth to conquer and destroy. ThedeSire to plunder a world sti lled for a while the deepanimosity of tribal feuds. The new creed thus didwhat Mui:Jammad had intended it to do, it unitedArabia. This unity lasted with more or less bindingforce till the t ime of immediate and rapid conquestpassed away, when even Islam failed to check theold family jealousies, which re-asserted themselvesin all the ir original vigour and caused irreconcilabledivisions in the Church of Islam, divisions whichremain to this day. Bu t all this Abu Bakr couldnot foresee. In diverting the military ardour ofthe Muslims towards foreign conquest he showedadministrative ability of a high order. The risks were~ r e a t , but his faith in Islam was greater, and to thisIS due th e fact that Islam did not at once fall topieces in intertribal feuds, bu t lived to be for manyages a great and mighty force in the world.


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16 ABU BAKR ABU BAKR 17Abu Bakr \\'as a mild and tender-hearted man.

He had not the same strength of character as 'Umarpossessed, and his kindly nature sometimes led himto be barely just, as when he refused to punishKhalid for the slaughter of Y1alik and for marryinghis victim's widow on the battlefield. He wassimple and unostentatious in his habits and mode oflife. The traditions regarding him, recorded by th ehistorian, Jalalu'd-din as-Syu\i, are very numerous.and are worthy of some notice. . His generosity wasgreat and he spent all his property on the Prophetand for the cause of Islam. One day Gabriel saidto !IfuJ:1ammad: 'How is it that I see Abu Bakrwearing a garment of goats' hair, p inned on hisbreast with a skewer?' MuJ:1ammad replied: ' 0Gabriel , he spent his substance on me before theconquest of Mecca. ' 'One day the Prophet askedhim what he had left for his family. Abu Bakrreplied: "only God and His Apostle.'" I He waslooked upon as one who knew the mind of t he Pro phe t and hence was regarded as a very learned man.I t is recorded. of him that when a plaintiff camebefore him, he used to look into the Book of Godand, if he found in it that which would decide between the claimants, he decided according to it, andif it were not in the Book, and he was aware of asaying of the Prophet respect ing such a case, hedecided according to it : but if it embarrassed him,

I Al.Hujwiri f(crshf,,'/M,,!,j,'b. p . 34.

he .would go forth and seek advice from the truebehevers and say: ' Such a one and such a one cameto me ; now do ye know whether the Apostle ofG?d passed judgement on such a case?' I f thatfailed.. he , : o u l ~ ~ s s e m b l e the chiefs of the people,and, If theIr opInIOns concurred in one decision hewould decide accordingly,l

Many verses of t he Qur 'a n ar e said to relatetohim. We give a few examples.And God sent. down his tranquillity upon himSuratu't-Tauba (ix) 40.

.These words refer to the t ime when MuhammadWIth Abu Bakr was hid ing in a cave during the flightfrom. Mecca, The commentator Ibn 'Abbas' saysthat It refers to the spirit of repose which camethen on AbU Bakr, for as to the Prophet he alwayswas c ~ l m and collected; but most commentators;and WIth better reason, say i t refers to M u ~ a m m a d .Th e verses :-

By the night when she spreads her veil'By the day when it brightly shineth . 'By Him who made male and female'.At different ends do ye aim! 'But as to him who giveth alms and feareth GodAnd yieldeth assent to the good' 'To him will'we make easy the ~ a t h to happinessBut, as to him who is covetous and bent on r i c h ~ sAndcalleth the good a lie 'To him wilIwe, make eas; the path to misery,

1 This account given by Jal'lu'(j-dru' as-Syuli clear ly shows th '1t ~ e . S.unna and t h Ijma', were already recognized principles 0:which to base j u d i c i a l ~ d e c r e e s ,

'2


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And what shall his wealth avail him when he goethdown? Suratu'lLail (xcii) 1-11.refer to AbU Bakr and to Abu Jahl, or 'Umaiya binKha f; t he one generous and fai th fu l; the o ther self.seeking and rebellious.. The words, naming as among th e protectors ofthe Prophet,

Every just man among the faithful. Suratu'tTa4rlm (Ixvi) 4,are said to have a direc t reference to Abu Bakr andhis long and faithful attachment to MuJ:1ammad.

There are other passages referred to by the Muslim historians, bu t the allusions are obscure.

One of the most important acts of Abu Bakr wasthe collection of th e Qur'an, which, though doneimperfectly, prepared the way for the more completeand important recension by the KhaHfa 'Uthman~ o m e years after. 1 As we have already seen, manyQur'an readers were slain in the battle of Yamana,an d Abu Bakr was anxious lest the knowledge ofmuch that had been revealed should be lost. Zaid,to whom the work was entrusted, relates a conversation he had with AbU Bakr and 'Umar on thesubject and add s; By Allah, had he (Abu Bakr)charged me with th e carrying away of a hill fromamong the mountains, it would no t have beenweightier upon me than tha t which he commandedme in the collection of the Qur'an.' It was collected

ABU BARRi8 ABU BAKR

19from scraps ofI fl paper, and shoulderblades J dea ess palm-branches and the minds of men,' ; c ~ p y thus made remained with Abu Bah' ehIS death, was kept b 'u and, afterhis daughter Haf Y mar who bequeathed i t to. a ~ AbU Bakr is 'd h. sal to ave narrated one h: n _ ~ f ~ r ~ y - ~ w o sayings of the Prophet. J a l a l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :s. yutI gIves one hundred and four of th 'h '.HtStory of tile Khal'" b ese In IS- l/as ut none of the 11an y comment here I l m ca for. s "m Owes much to Ab ' Bto , ;hose great personal influence and ' u, a ~ r ,t ra tIve act ions is due the f ' WIse admInls


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'UMAR 21

' U ~ I A R

A SHORT time before his death, Abu Bakr nominated 'Umar to the Khalifate and the choice wasa wise one, for he was a strong man w,ith a ~ e p u -tation for just dealings with others. H,s habIts oflife were simple, and the people could ah:ays findready access to him. He did a g r e a ~ deal In. organizing the administration of the growmg empIre.'Umar when twenty-s ix years of age, became aconvert :0 Islam, in the sixth year of MutJammad'smiSSIOn. He had been a very fierce o p p o ~ e n : ofthe new teaching. \Vhen he heard that hiS sIster

d her husband had become followers of the Pro-an h' .phet, he became so angry that he beat IS S l s t ~ r .and it was only when he saw her face covered Withbl d that he relented and l is tened to her earnest00 ' ' h

I that at least, he should examIne Into t eappea, . , I h' I d h'claims of the religion he so disliked. T IS e 1mt d the portion of the Qur'an, now known aso rea ' hft he Suratu 1'a Ha (xx). On comIng to t e our-teenth verse :-Verily I am God: there is no God but me: there-

h e and observe prayer for a remem-fore wars Ip mbrancc of me,

I See Sell, The Lile 01 Mu/tammaa (C.L.S.), p. 59. .

be said: ' Lead me to Mul;1ammad, that I may makeknown to him my conversion.' The Prophet reproached him with his bitter opposition but on hearing 'Umar say: 'Verily, I testify that thou ar t theProphet of God,' was filled' with joy. This conver .sian' was a great gain to Islam, for' Umar was a manstrong in ,body and in mind and of great personalinfluence in Mecca. After this, it was no longern'ecessary for the Muslims to conceal their faith ,~ n so they made an open profession of it. Thevigour and strength of character which 'Umar hadshown aga ins t Is lam he now exerted on its behalf.He was one of the earliest Muhajirun, and was withthe Apostle in all his warlike expeditions. It was'Umar who urged upon him the advance to Badr,and when, after the battle, Abu Bakr pleaded formercy on the prisoners, he urged Mul;1ammad to putthem all to death. In the year A. D. 624, he ga"ehis widowed daughter to MutJammad as a wife, thusadding the tie of relationship to the bond existingbetween himself and' his great leader . When th eJewish tribe, the Bani NaQir, was exiled it was,~ U m a r who received a valuable portion of the proper ty thus left behind. When Muhammad madeth e pilgrimage to Mecca, he first sent 'Umar to theK a ~ b a to destroy . the idols and the pictures thatwere therein. When the scandal I about the Prophet's intercourse with Mary, the Coptic'maid, arose,

I See Sell, The L ife of Mll/tammad (C.L.S.). pp . 200-2.


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22 'UMAR 'UMAR'Umar, feeling huit at the neglect of his daughter,showed his annoyance . This led the Prophet toreconsider his position. He said that Gabriel hadspoken to him in praise of his wife l;Iafa!?


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24 'VMAR 'VMAR 25generation.' Fo r twelve centuries and more thesound of Chris tian worship has not been heard inwhat ~ ' a s once the Cathedral of 5t . John t he Bap-tist; but on. its waIls stiIl remains. this strikingtestimony to the faith of the early Christians in thepermanence of the kingdom of Christ. Tiberias,Antioch and other towns soon surrendered and in ashort time Syria became subject to the KhalHa.The conquest was comparatively easy, for nei therBedouins,' Jews or Samaritans were very keen tosupport the Byzantine rule. The Bedouins, for themost part, embraced Islam: the people of the townsgenerally remained true to their own religion and sobecame Dhimmis 1 and paid a poIl-tax. The Khalifat reated them with kindness, such as in after agesDhimmis did not experience. He allowed them tokeep a number of their churches and to conduct their'usual worsh ip ; but politically they ceased to haveany status or power. The invasion of Palestine foIlowed the conquest

of Syria and garrison after garrison yielded to thevictorious Muslim army, until at last only Jerusalemwas left. The Roman commander, dreading theonset of the Arabs, withdrew to Egypt . The. Pa-triarch being thus left defenceless sued for peace,stipulating that 'V mar. in person should receive th e

1 A Dhimmf is a n on M us li m s ubj ec t of a ~ 1 u Q a m m a d a n :State,who i ~ l l o w e d to exist under certain .condition&, one of. .which

'is 'that he pays the jizya, or poll-tax.

capitulation of the City.. The Khalifa consented tothis arrangement, set out from Madina, c'rossed th eJordan below the lake of Tiberias and proceededto Jerusalem. He was received by Sophronius, thePatriarch, and the people on surrendering receivedthe same terms as those of other cities.'. TheKhalifa and the Pat riarch then went through thecity in company. 'Vmar grant ed the Christiansthe use of their churches and laid the foundation ofthe mosque which still bears his name. Thus, inthe short space of three years, Syria and Palestinewere lost to Christian rule. The resistance of theRoman power had been weak. Sec ta rian jealousydivided the people and there was no patriotic feelingamongst them. ..The war with the Persians was a much more serious affair. Yezdegird, a youth of twenty-one :yearsof age, was now placed on the throne and round himthe people rallied. 'Vmar heard the news with calmness, and swore that he would smi te the p r i n c ~ s ofPersia with the sword of the princes of Arabia. Inthe large army which he at once mobilized therewere fOlJrteen hundred Companions and ninety-nineof the men who had fought at Badr. The Persianarmy was one hundred and twenty thousand strong:Seventy e lephants each car rying twentv men were

. in its ranks. After some delay the g r ~ t b a t t l e ofQadisiya was fought in November, A. D. 635. Before

. the action commenced . the Muslim troopsv.'.ere


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25 'UMAR 'UMAR 27-drawn up and, at the head of each column, th eSuratu'I-Anfal (viii), the Sura caIled the Spoils,'lwas read. A few of the verses are :-

o ye who believe! when ye meet the marshalledhosts of the infidels, turn not your backs to them;Whoso shall turn his back to them on that day;unless he turn aside to fight, or to rally to some othertroop, shall incur wrath ~ r o m God. _ Helll shall be hiSabode and wretched the Journey thither - 15-16.Say to the infidels: if they desist.from t h e i ~ unbelief, what is now past shall be forgiven them, but.if they return to it, they ha\'e already before them thedoom of the ancients!Fight then against them till strife be at an end andthe religion be all of it God's, 39-+0.Believers 1 when ye confront a troop, stand firm an.dmake frequent mention of the name of God that ttmay fare well with you. +7,o Prophet! stir up the faithful to the fight.Twenty of you who stand firm shall vanquish twohundred. 66,With these stirring words of exhortation and en

couragement the Muslims went to the field of actionwith brave hearts and determined courage. Forthree days the battle raged, and it was not ~ n t i l th emorning of the fourth day that the Persians retiredfrom the field and the Muslims could claim a,'ictory. I t cost them dear for they los t over eightthousand men. The spoil gained was enormous.

1This Sura was p rodu ced by the Prophet after the battle ofBadr" ia order to settle the -dispute about the spoil .

Though th e Persian Empire l ast ed a short timelonger it never survived the great defeat by whichits fate was prac ticaI ly decided . A few years beforePersia had been able to withstand with success thewhole force of the Byzantine empire and now.within the short space of three years, it fell before ahorde of Arab warriors. It was due to the fact thatwith many in the Persian armies there was lukewarmness and indifference; whils t in the Muslim,ranks therewas fanatic energy fanned by religious zealand excited by love of plunder. The nex t year anadvance was made and the royal city of Medain, no tfar from Baghdad, was taken and booty rich beyondall concepti on was gained. After t his, 'Umar, withthe caution characteristic of his nature, refused toaIlow any further forward march. He said: Thef ru it fu l p la ins of 'Iraq suffice for all our wants.'The Khalifate had now grown rapidly and extensively, and 'Umar wisely sought to consolidate whatwas already gained.One of the first acts of the conquerors was to

found the cit ies of Ba;;ra and of KUfa, which soonbecame very populous centres. I n after years theywere famed as sea ts of lea rning and notorious forfeuds and factions. Gnder weak Khalifas the turbulen t and sectarian spirit engendered in these citieswrought much evi l and eventually broke up th euni ty o f Isl am. Meanwhile they helped to consoli.,date the conquests already made, and were in reality


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28 'UMAR 'UMAR 29he felt himself at liberty to disobey the order andsowent on. Alexandria was a rich and flourishi'ngcity , very similar in i ts social life to Constantinople.The people in the rural districts were, however, poorand oppressed, and 'Amr found willing helpers inthem, for ' Lower Egypt was split into tw6 camps,one party siding with the Romans, whilst the otherwished to join the invaders.' 1 The official clergy ofthe orthodox church were not friendly towards theCopt clergy, who were Jacobites; and so some ofthem were not displeased at the Muslim invasion;bu t ' that Egypt fell without a blow' and that ' theEgyptians hailed the invaders as del iverers' aredescribed by Butler as 'current fallacies'. 2 TheArabs had only to do with the people of the cities,and, after repulsing a few attempts to stay their pro'gress and after taking the city of Mi!?r, they foundthemselves before Alexandria. The G o v e r ~ o r ofthe city offered to capitulate and eventually did soon terms accepted by the Khalifa. The usual poll.tax was to be paid, prisoners already in Arabia weredetained there; and other prisoners were allowed toreturn. Some then accepted Islam.. This was in theyear A. D. 64L The story of the destruction of theAlexandrian library is not mentioned by any writerbefore the thi rteenth cen tury and may be looked

armed camps in which the Arab soldiers dwelt asan army of occupation. Yezdegird re ti red fartherinto his dominions, and in A.D. 641, raised anothergreat army with the hope of driving off the Arabs;but it was too late, for by this t ime they had firmlyestablished their rule in the' portion of the countrythey occupied. A severe battle was fought in A. D.642 at Nehavend, in which the Persians were hopelessiy beaten by a force not more than one-fifth oftheir number. After a few more ineffectual effortsYezdegird gave up the contest, retired .beyondthe river Oxus and died a miserable death In A. D.651. All the Persian provinces were then annexed;and, though pet ty rebellions broke out from timeto time, Persia now ceased to be a separatenation. The majority of the people became Mu\:iam-madans.Meanwhile, another army was operating in Egypt;'Amr bin'I-'A!?, one of the chief generals in thearmy which occupied Syria, persuaded t ~ K h a l ~ f ato a,llow him to invade Egypt. 'Umar did so w l t ~much reluctance arid only on the condition that, Ifrecalled by let te r before he had ente red into Egypt,'Atm should return at once.'l He was recalled, ~ u he 'had purposely hurried to the frontier hoping tocross i t before a letter could reach him. He did notsucceed in this, but he delayed the opening oft he I ~ t t e r ljntil he was in Egyptian territory" when

1 Zaydan, Umtuasads a;,d Abbdsids, p. 32 .I Butler; Ti,e Arab Conquest of Egypt, p. 285.' Ibid. , p. 298.

, ,


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30 'UMAR 'UMAR 31upon as a romance.l The Khalifa objected to 'Amr'smaking Alexandria his capital, for, from a mil it arypoint of view, i t was not a safe one. An inundation


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32 'UMAR 'UMAR 33might have arisen from tribal.and family claims wasavoided. The whole nation was thus subsidized andthe wars of aggression had a commercial value. Tocarry out this plan it was necessary to have anaccurate register of the people. This was wellmade. The Khalifa also carried ou t irrigation works,made a good land assessment and generally formeda civil admini st ra tion which at the t ime workedvery well. Still the seeds of decay were beingsown. The patriarchal system could not continue,the .system of law was no t flexible enough and ledin time to one so rigid that, even to this day, aland under Muslim rule is unprogressive and backward. The social system was bad. The Arab whennot engaged in war was indolen1. Slaves, captivesin war, were numerous, and the female ones couldbe taken for concubines with a liberal hand . Thisfreedom. and the pract ice of a legalized polygamy,caused the relation between the sexes to deteriorate.The consequence was that life became more l icent'ious, and drunkenness , though sternly punished bythe Khalifa, increased. Considering the age inwhichthey lived and the circumstances in which their lotwas cast, both AbU. Bakr and 'Umarl were men ofhigh character.

'1 'Umar married Jour wives before the Hijra, but onl y twof ol lo we d him to Mecca. He a ft er wa rd s mar ri ed five mor e, ofwhom he divorced one. This w as , c om pa re d wi th s om e of theheroes of Islam, moderate.

The end of 'Umar's reign of about eleven yearswas now drawing near. He met his death at thehand of an assassin, Firuz Abu Lu'lu', a Persianslave who, brooding over his lot, complained to'Umar about his master and sought for justice, butthe Khalifa declined to interfere in the dispute.l'Umar was acting as Imam in the mosque, whenAbu Lu'lu' stabbed h im in six places and inflictedmortal wounds. He was buried, at his own request,by ' the side of the Prophet and of Abu Bakr.Thus passed away one of the greatest of the early

Khalifas. In ten years he had seen the Khalifateextend far beyond the boundaries of Arabia.-Fertilelands and rich cities had been added to it. Conquer-.ed peoples had entered into Islam, or paid tributet9 it. The revenue was rich beyond conception, themartial ardour of the people was great, and theprospects of still further extension and increasedwealth were very bright. In spite of a few weaknesses, here and there, 'Umar was a strong ruler.In Madina he used to inflict punishment with hisown hand, and 'Umar's' whip is more terrible thanthe sword of another' was a common saying. Hewas the first to assum'e the title Amiru'I-Mu'minun-Commander of the Faithful. He adopted theHij ra , the year of the flight from Mecca, A. D. 622,

' U ~ a r ~ a d ' f ~ r b i d d e n s tra ng ers t o r es id e in Ma dina. butMuibalra b l Sha ba,. the m a s t e ~ o.f this slave, a c le ve r c ar pe nt erand, ~ l a c k s m l t ? : ~ b t a m e d permi ss io n t o keep him in the ci ty. -Ma sud!. MuruJu dl1-Dhahab, vol. iv, p. 226.3


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34 'UMAR 'UMAR 35as the date of the Mu!)ammadan ern.' The tradit ions regarding his excel lence are very numerous.sAbu Bakr called him the best of men and 'Ali spokeof him as a righteous one. He Ilived very simply,wore coarse garments, and was most attentive to hisreligious duties. He was an earnest believer, andtook a personal part in the extension of the religionof Islam. He used to send Qur'an readers to teachthe Bedouins, and then, if the examiners sent to testtheir knowledge found that they could not read thesacred Book, they were beaten, often severely. S

I t is said t ha t many verses of the Qur'an wererevealed, confirming and approving of statementsmade by 'Umar. He said: ' I was in accordancewith my Lord in three things.' I said: '0 Apostleof God, if we were to t ake the s ta tion of Abrahamfor a place of prayer, ' and the verse was revealed;-

Take ye the station of Abraham for a place of. prayer. Siiratu Ali 'Imran (iii) 119.The wives of the Prophet were assembled in indignation,. and I ~ a i d : ' I f he divorce you, his Lordcan easily give him in exchange better wives thanyou.' Then was this'verse revealed:-

Haply, if he put y ~ away, his Lord will gi;e hi,min exchange other wives hetter than you. Suratu t-Tahrim (Ixvi) 5. I w ~ also in accord with him regarding the pri-I JalaJu'd-Din as-Syu!i. History of the If.ballfas. p. 141. They are given by Jalilud-Dln. p. 122. Zaydan. Umayads and 'Abbdsids. p. 38. About the affair of Mary the Copt.

soners at Badr.' 'When Mu!)ammad was askingpardon for a faction, 'Umar said: ' I t shall be equalto them.' Then this verse was revealed;-

Alike shal1 it be to them, whether thou ask partlonfor them, or ask it not. Suralu'l-Munafiqun (lxiii) 6.Jahilu'd-Din as-Syuti gives many other cases; 1 butthey are probably the invention of admire rs o f theKhalifa,The Traditionists record many miracles wrought

by 'Umar; bu t they lie outside the limit of serioushistory, The sayings regarding his habits' are probably correct. They all represent him as a man ofa simple mode of life, anxious to avoid even theappearance of luxury, generous in his gifts, insympathy with the wishes and wants of his peopleoverburdened at times with the affairs of state;bu t strict in religious duties himself and in exactingthe outward performance of them in others . It isalmost impossible to accord the proper histor ica lvalue to Muslim traditions. Many of them arequite worthless; but the general result of theirtestimony seems to be, on the whole, correct, andwe may admit tha t, for the time in which he livedand for the work he had to do, the Khalifa 'Umar,viewed from a Muslim standpoint, was a man whorightly called forth respect. He was a worthysuccessor to Abu Bakr, and Islam owes much tothese men, the first two of the Khulafa ar-Rashidun.

, History of the If.balifas. pp. 1 2 ~ - 8 .


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' U T H ~ I A N 37

'UTHMANTHE Khalifa 'Umar nominated no successor and,when the prospect of death was close upon him, hadto consider the question. All he could then do wasto nominate six Companions, to whom the choice ofa succeSSQr could be left. In case of a disagreement'Abdu'r-RaJ:!man was to be the umpire and decidethe matter. The competition lay between 'Ali.nephew and son-in-law of the Prophet, and 'Uthmanbin 'Alfan, who had married in succession two ofMuJ:!ammad's daughters. He was older than 'Ali andhad been a dis tingui shed Muslim. The selectionwas not an easy one and two days were spent indisputes over it. On the third day, when the nomination had to be announced in the mosque, therewas great excitement, and angry words were spokenby the supporters of the rival candidates. In theend 'Uthman, much to the disappointment of 'Aliand his friends, was appointed Khalifa, November 7,A. D. 644. The responsibility of the choice reallyfell on 'Abdu'r-RaJ:!man, who could not, however.foresee the result. It was, as matters turned out,a bad choice, for it led, as we shall see, to strifethroughout the Muslim world and sowed the seedsof hatred, the fruit of which is seen to this day.

Amongst five of the earliest converts won to Islamby the zeal of Abu Bakr was 'Uthman, then betweenthirty and forty years of age. His uncle, angry athis conversion, persecuted him severely and said:'Dost thou prefer a new religion to that of thyfathers? I swear I will not loose thee until thougivest up the new faith.' 'Uthman replied: 'B y theLord, I will never abandon i t, ' and he did not. Hemarried Ruqaiya the daughter of MuJ:!ammad. Shedied when her f athe r was at the battle of Badr.During a bitter persecution by the Quraish ofMuhammad and his early disciples, it was deemede x p ~ d i e n t that some of them should emigrate; so'Uthman his wife and others went for a while to- ,Abyssinia. The conversion of 'Umar which follow-ed short ly a ft er brought about, for a t ime at least , abetter feeling between the Muslims and the Quraish.'Uthman must thus have found it safe to return toMecca for he was there at the time of the flight toMadina in A. D. 622 and was himself one of the fugit ives (Muhaji run). After the death of his first wifehe married her sister, Umm Kulthum, who died inthe ninth year of the Hijra. These marriages withtwo daughters of the Prophet were looked upon asa great mark of distinction and' Uthman was calledthe ' Possessor of the tw o Luminaries.' At MuJ:!am-mad's first attempt after residing in Madina to enterMecca the Quraish were alarmed and forbade hisentry into the city. 'Uthman was then selected to


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38 'UTHMA.N 'UTHMA.N 39open up negotiations. To his request that th eMuslims might be allowed to visit the Ka'ba, th eQuraish replied that he might do so, bu t that theyhad sworn that Mu!)ammad should not make thepilgrimage that year. Meanwhile a report wasspread abroad in the Muslim camp that 'Uthmanhad been slain in Mecca. Th e Prophet, standingund.er a tree, took an oath of fealty from his followers and then pledged himself to stand by his son-inlaw. This oath is called the' pledge of the tree' andis referred to in the verse :-

Well pleased now hath God been with the believerswhen they plighted fealty under the tree. Suratu'lF a t ~ (xlviii) 18.When, in the ninth year of the Hijra, many

hesitated about joining the expedit ion against th eRomans on the Syrian frontier, 'Uthman, beingamong the more ardent and enthusiastic men of th ecommunity, contr ibuted one thousand dinars tothe funds raised for it. On some occasions whenMu!)ammad was absent on warlike expeditions, th ecity of Madina was placed under the charge of'Uthman. He was a man of middle stature, stoutof l imb and fair of countenance. In the opinion ofMu!)ammad he and Ruqaiya made a 'comely pair:

It is thus clear that 'Uthman had possessed th econfidence and affection of the Prophet; but still hiselection to the Khalifate was a misfortune. Already afierce spirit of jealousy had arisen between the houseof J:Iashim and the house of Umaiya, both descend-

ants of the famous Koshai. The Prophet and 'Alialso were descendants of J:Iashim: 'Uthman wasdescended from Umaiya. Two distinct partieswere now formed: the Companions of the Prophetand the men of Madina on the one side; the descendants of Umaiya and the Quraish-now all Muslims-o n the other. In Mecca MuQammad's most activeenemy had been Abu Sufyan, the commander of theopposing army both at Badr and at U!)ud. Hebelonged to the Umaiya family and now his sonMu'awiya held a high post in Syria. It is true thathe had been appoin ted by 'Umar, but the oppositeparty resented it all the same.

The Khalifas Abu Bakr and 'Umar had, with afirm hand and strong will, kept these rival parties incheck; but 'Uthman, himself a member of thefamily of Umaiya, entirely failed to do so. He soonbegan to show his partiality by giving appointmentsto his own friends, men who were connected withthat portion of the Meccan community that hadbeen late in espousing the cause of Mu!)ammad. Ofsome of them, such as Abu Sufyan, t he Prophethad spoken in terms of disparagement . All theseremarks were now called to mind and repeated.

At first the evil of this disunion in feeling wasnot so apparent , for war diverted' the attention ofalL' The Conquest of Persia was now made com,plete. In Syria an attack of the Byzantines was sosuccessfully met that the armies of Islam advanced


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40 'UTHMAN 'UTHMAN 41as far as the 5hores of the Black Sea. In Africa theMuslims in Egypt advanced along the coast westward beyond Tripoli and thr ea tened Carthage.Cyprus was taken and the Muslims were now notonly able to meet their foes at sea bu t to beat them.The first naval victory they gained was off Alexandria in A.D. 652. The Khalifa 'Umar had stronglyopposed the creation of a navy. He sa id: 'Man a tsea is like an insect floating on a splinter, nowengulfed, now scared to death.' 'Uthman reversedhis predecessor's order, but made service at seavoluntary.1

In connexion with Egypt the Khalifa showedmuch weakness. 'Amr had been a capable commander and administrator there; but 'Uthman withoutany valid reason took away the civil governmentfrom him and left him the military command alone.He then appointed his own foster-brother, Abu SarJ:1,as Governor of Egypt. 'Amr said: 'To be over thearmy but not over the revenue is bu t holding thecow's' horns whi lst another milks her ,' and so hedeparted and joined the par ty of the disaffected. 2'Amr was one of the ablest genera ls of the earlyKhalifate. His government in Egypt was a just andl iberal one. \\Then' Umar not content with the

1 There is a Tradition in which the Prophet says that a navalexpedition for war deserves Paradise.-Bukhari in Fai4u'I-Bdri.p ar t I I , p. 213.

See Butl er , The Arab Conquest 0/ EJlypt. pp. 4569 : 488.

wealth received from Egypt, demanded stil l more,'Amr justly protested against i t. When the Khalifa'Uthman, pursued the same course 'Amr left Egypt.I t was a fatal mistake on the part of the Khalifa,to dismiss so good a man, for 'Amr now joined theparty of Mu'awiya, by whom he was sent backto Egypt as Governor, after ' Uthman's death.

In his early days, he had been a bitter opponentof Mu!)ammad, but became after his conversion, astaunch adherent. I t is recorded that Mu!)ammadsaid: 'N o one is more stedfast in the faith thanAmr ;' bu t his chief mer it was his r es is tance to therapacious greed of the Khalifas. He died A.H. 43.

In another quarter trouble was arising. The turbulent spi ri t of the people of KUfa and of B a ~ r a beganto show itself. The Khalifa showed great weakness and much indiscret ion in the way in which hedeposed governors and dealt leniently with thefaults of his own nominees. So many members ofhis own party were advanced to posit ions of distinction and with such rapidity that people said thatone Quraish succeeded another and that the last wasno bet te r than the first. The men of Madina, whohad won fame in many a battlefield, were superseded, and their r ivals of Mecca who themselves, ortheir fathers , had been la te in choosing Islam wereput in their places. Thus the spir it of dissa tisfaction grew and the ' feeling of d i s a f f e ~ t i o n wasdeepened.


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42 'UTHMA.N 'UTHMA.N 43With all these political blunders the Khalifa

unwisely departed from the simple mode of lifewhich the MuQammadan leaders had hitherto adopted. The enormous wealth gained in recent war swas lavishly spent . 'Uthman built for himself a, fine palace at Madina and possessed large estates atWadi'u'IQura, I;lunain and other places, as well aslarge herds of horses and camels.' t The chief men,following his example, began to erect houses ofmarble and of stone.2 The simple austere mannersof the days of Abu Bakr and of 'Umar gave way toa luxurious mode of life. Amongst the young therewas a wild reckless spirit and the Khalifa's ownnephew started a gaming club. The men appointedto positions of authority in the provinces excited thesame spirit there, and Damascus became a cityfamed for its frivolity.3 Complaints were constantlymade, but the favourites who were with the Khalifaprevented any attention being pa id to them. Therumour spread that the Khalifa was not or thodox.He made an innovation in the ceremonies of thepilgrimage. In a certain prayer in which the"Prophet had made two prostrations (rak'at) he made

1 See Zaydan, Umayads and 'Abbasids, p. 39.t The names of the men and a description of the fine houses

they built are given by the Arab historian, Mas'udL See Muruju'dh-Dhahab (ed. Paris, 1861) vol. iv, pp. 233-3. Fo r a ful l, though not an unbiassed, account of the social life

of the period, see HI'story of the Saracens, by Syed Am!r 'Al l,pp. 6,5-9.

four. Then came the recension of the Qur 'an.1 I twas t ime something was done, if hopeless confusionwas to be avoided. Abu Bakr had made a beginning; but his recension did not p r e v e n ~ the continuedgrowth of what seemed likely to be an indefinitenumber of 'various readings' , Bu t by this timeKUfa and B a ~ r a had the ir schools of theology andtheir divinity professors. B a ~ r a held by the' readings' of Abu Musa; KUfa by those of Ibn Mas'ud.Both could not be satisfied and so when a text wascompiled, satisfactory to the general body of theMuslims, the men of KUfa protested against it andthen charged the Khalifa with sacrilege for burningall existing copies of the Qur'an, which he did inorder that the new text should.have no rival. Thusto political animosity and to tribal jealousy was nowadded religious intolerance. A crisis was at handand 'Uthman had neither the wisdom nor thestrength to meet it.

So serious did matters now look that 'Ali was.deputed by some of the principal men of Madina torepresent to the Khalifa that some change "must bemade. 'Ali then addressed 'Uthman thus: The.people bid me speak to thee. Yet what can I sayto thee-soninlaw of the Prophet and his bosomfriend as thou wast. The path l ie th plain before

1 Fo r a full account of th is , s ee Recensions of the Qur'dn,C.L.S.


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44 'UTHMAN 'UTHMAN 45-thee, bu t thine eyes are blind. I f blood be ~ n c eshed it will flow ti ll the day of ] udgement. RIghtwill be blotted ou t and t reason will rage like thefoaming waves of the sea.' But it was of no avail.The Khalifa was displeased, declared that he hadd o n ~ his best, went straight to the mosque arid fromthe pulpit reproached the people for their ingrati tude and for listening to evil-minded persons whosought only to defame him. So the discontent grewworse.

'Uthman then summoned all the various Governors t; - Madina and i ssued a proc lamation callingupon all objectors to come and s u b ~ t a n t i a t e theircharges. The Governors came, but no accusers did.The men whom the Khalifa had sent through theprovinces to report on the state of affairs gave infavourable reports. They advised him to treat themalcontents with severity, but to thi s he would notassent. I t seemed like peace, but it was not.Mu'awiya before he departed for Syria \ \'arned theKhalifa of the peril he was in and begged him toleave Madina and ret ire to Syr ia where the peoplewere loyal. 'Uthman replied: 'Even to save mylife I will not quit the land wherein the Prophet-dwelt, nor the city in which his sacred person rests .'Nor would he allow troops to be sent from theSyrian army for his defence.Meanwhile the conspirators, during the absence:of the local Governors, became very act ive and an

expedit ion was organized amongst those who dweltin 'Iraq and in Egypt to march upon Madina.Amongst the insurgents from Egypt was MuJ:tammad,son of Abu Bakr. This was in the year A. D. 656. AtMadina they failed to get any redress of their grievances, but professed to be satisfied with a promiseof reform. On their way back they intercepted aletter, bearing the Khalifa's own seal, and addressedto the son of Abu SarJ:t, the Governor of Egypt.1In the letter instructions were given to pu t to deathor to imprison the men who were giving this troubleto the Khalifa. They at once returned and, thoughthe KhalHa denied all knowledge of the letter, theydid not believe him and called upon him to resign,as unworthy of the Khalifate. The scene in themosque on the following Friday was a very tumultuous one. ' U thman himself was s truck by a stoneand carried in a swoon to his house where he wassoon besieged. Messengers were now sent off to thecommanders in Syria , 'Iraq and Egypt to hastenup troops, but no time could be lost and so theconspirators stormed the palace. MuJ:tammad, theson of Abu Bakr, was the first to enter . 'Uthmansaid to him: 'By God, MuJ:tammad, if thy father saw

1 This is Jahllu'd-din as-SyuP's accounl (p . 163). a nd he givesfull particulars. See also-Mas'udf, M u r u j z ~ d . h - l 2 l J a h a b . vol . iv,p.278. Syed Amir 'Ali (Spirit 0/ /sl


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-46 'UTHMAN 'UTHMAN 47thee at this moment, he would blush with shame.'Seizing the Khalifa by the beard he replied 'Sonof 'Affan! what help to you now are 'Abdu'llah theapostate, Merwan the banished and Mu'awiya theaccursed.' The Khalifa looking calmly on himanswered: 'M y son, if thy father Abu Bakr werealive, he would not be pleased to see my whitebeard in thy hand.' Remorse seized on the youngman and the intended blow did not fall. He wentou t of the room leaving his task undone. The-others, however, had no such scruples and soon putthe Khalifa to death. His wife Na'ila, the daughterof Q a r a f i ~ a , tried to intercept the blows, and herhand was cu t off. l The blood of the woundedKhalifa fell on the page of the Qur'an he wasreading at the verse, 'God will suffice to pro tectthee against them, for He is the Hearer , the Knower. ' LSuratu'l-Baqara (ii) 131.J He was not buriednear the Prophet, but in a cemetery outside the.city, where in after years many of his kinsmenwere also buried. The attack on the palace wasresisted, and 'Ali, Zubair and Tall:ta, all men of warand leaders of men, ostensibly aided lin the defence.Whether they were hearty in it is matter of doubt ,for so grea t was their influence tha t it is difficult to

I 50 Mfrkhund, R a u l j a t u ' ~ - $ a f a , Part ii, vol. iii, p . 184. Muirsays: . Some of the f ingers .' Mas'udi doesnot mention this and..simply says that she cried out: . The Emir of the Bel ie ve rs i s


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lest the blood of Muslims be shed; after his death,however, the scimitar of rebelliousness having beendrawn from the scabbard, victories came to an endand the distr ibution of booty was cu t short.' It iscurious to note the s ta tement about the loss of bootynow that civil wars took the place of wars withunbelievers. I t shows how large a part t he desirefor boo ty played in the early Muslim conquests.

Twenty-four years had now passed by since theProphet's death and, though factions had beenformed and disputes which time could not settlehad arisen, yet Islam had spread abroad in alldirections and !\'Iuslim conquests in 'I raq , Syri aand Egypt had been consol idated and confirmed.In Africa not only had a great advance alongthe northern coast been made, but the Muslims hadshown that they could fight on the sea as well as onth e land. This marvellous progress, greater thanthe wildest dreams of men in the lifetime of th eProphet, confirmed the Arabs in the verity of Islamand in the mighty power laten t in the confession ofth e Unity. Had there been no jealousies and notribal disputes, had Islam renovated the hea rt andlife in the degree it regulated the outward conductthen it might have had, what as a State religion ithas not had-power in days of peace and the hopeof constitutional freedom and continued prosperity., But stronger to divide and rend asunder than thenew creed was to unite, were the old deep-rooted

'UTHMAN48 'UTHMAN 49and long .enduring family jealousies of the Arabst?e old tribal feuds which had been stilled fo th 't ime only by the bril liant prospects of c o n q u e r ~ n :world. The moment the tide of gd h conquest wasstaye t ey asserted themselves in all th ' "vi '1 Th ' " elr Pristine~ o u r . . IS diSintegrating force 'Uthman couldneither resist nor control and so'l . .h . , eVI s grew apace IDt e reign of this thi rd of the Khulafa ar-Rashidun.

1 Osborn, /sldm under the Arabs, p. 99.

4


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'ALI 51

'ALIFOR some days after the death of 'Uthman nothingwas done. The insurgents were in power, but , atl ength , they insisted on the election of a Khallfabefore they returned to the places from whence theyhad come. They requested 'All ' to adorn themasnad of the Khallfate with his own august person, to irrigate and to refresh the gardens of thehopes of the subjects with abundant showers fromthe clouds of his mercy and beneficence'. 1 'Allreplied that the choice must rest with the men whohad fought at Badr. They then ass isted in thedeliberations and elected him. 'Ali, a nephew ofMUQammad , who was then appointed, was bornabout the year A. D. 600, and when five or six yearsold was adopted by the prophet. He was one ofthe earliest converts to Islam, and so from hischildhood was under the direct teaching and influence of MUQammad, whose daughter Fatima hemarried after the battle of Badr. When MUQammadfinally left Mecca for Madlna, 'All remained behindfor some days to settle some business affairs. Thefamilies of MUQammad and of Abu Bakr also re-

I Rau

mained for some time I 0 'resided w.ith the P h' n arnval a t Madina 'Alirop e t and was'ance on him in all h' I' In constant attend-h

iS war Ike expedit" t e campaign of Tab' k h Ions, exceptf h

. u , w en he was left ' ho IS leader's fam'I' A In C argeI y. t Badr h d' ,himself in single comb e lstmguished, ats and at Dh d 'Sixteen wounds H ' u receivedskilful warrior 'W h e hWas a brave soldier a ~ . en t e fir t 'I 'was made in the ' t h s pi gnmage to Meccanm year of th H"commissioned to rec't th ' e IJra, ,Ali wasninth Sura by h' hi Me e openmg verses of the, w IC uhamm d d Iwas, af ter the expiration 'f fa . ec ared that hebl' , 0 our months f fany 0 IgatlOn to k ' ' ree rom

Meep peace with theul:Jammad took 'All' 'th h' pagan Arabs.

hWI 1m the te made the pilgri nex year when, . mage to the Ka'b d'on Ah's arm h I 'd ' a, an It was

The eane dUring hi I 'Ius, during all the ' d h s ast I Iness.vane p ases of th Pcareer, in peace and ' . e rophet's, II I war 'AI' hconstant companion h' d ' I ad been hisTh ' IS evoted and br d"ere are many t d" , ave ISCIpie.ra Itlons whIch record the high

. 1 There was no attempt to detain . .have been maltreated in any wa M tlhem. nor do they seem tode f d h y, J au avl Cheran h 'Allen t e aggress ive raids of the M I' ' .... ' seeking toMeccans ' maltreated the child . ".: 1ms at Madlna, says that th eand that war was necessary' ren an weak Muslims left at Mecca 1Exposition of J ihdd P 10 )to rescue their families.' (Criticalmad Ii ' . . As a matter of f" e, at rst, unprovoked attacks on m '. act" the Muslimsmg to Meccan merchants who had ercanole caravans belongcommerce, See Is ldm "'t R ' to fight in defence o f their2 . 'S ISC an d P (p, 8; Battles of Badr and 'Uh d ( rogress second ed,),u C.L.S.), pp , 36-41.


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'ALI 53

esteem and affection Mulpmmad felt for him. I tis< from some of these, such as : ' I and 'Ali areof one stock; 'Ali is a part ~ me and I of 'Ali,'that t he doctrine of the 'divine right' of 'Ali andhis family grew. As this theory came into confl ictwith the principle of popular election, which hadbeen followed in the appointment of the precedingKhalifas, and indeed in his own case also, thebreach between the opposing parties in Is lam waswidened more and more, and th e schism has neverbeen healed. Immedia te ly after h is accession ear nest requests were made to 'Ali to cause themurderers of 'Uthman to be punished. His twofriends TalJ:ia and Zubai r begged him to take actionin th is matter; but, e ither through fear or throughthe hes itancy which so marked his rule, he pu t itoff and said: 'Le t us wait and the Lord willguide us. ' We have seen that 'Uthman put manyof his own friends and followers into posit ions ofimportance. 'Al i' s first act was to take steps tosupersede them. As this prompti tude was in suchstrange contrast to th e dilatoriness shown in punishing the regicides, his enemies naturally put a badconstruction on it and found in it a valid reasonfor opposition to him. Many of his friends beggedhim to allow Mu'awiya to remain in his highcommand in Syria; they pointed out to him thatthis appointment had been made by the Khalifa'Umar and not by 'Uthman. But he was obstinate

52 'ALl and declared that he would not k ' h'day,' In vain did h eep 1m for aways t.o k


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S4 'ALI 'ALI 5Sand the mangled hand of Na'ila hanging from the:pulpi t of the great mosque, and with these memorials of the departed KhalHa before them, theywere not inclined to render obedience to a rulerwho refused to punish the perpetrators of so direa crime.' So the only reply that 'All received wasa blank sheet of paper, with the words 'FromMu'awiya to 'All' written on the cover. The menof Madina saw that this meant war. 'All nowbecame active. Orders were given to collect troopsand to prepare to take the field.Zubair and TalJ:ta, who were probably disappointed at having been passed over when the electionto the Khallfate took place, declined to go andsaid t h e ~ \ ' i s h e d to make the lesser pilgrimage toMecca. 'All saw that their real intention was togo to B a ~ r a or to Syria and told them so ; but theyswore that he was mistaken.' He was right in hissurmise, for, in Mecca, they found men anxious topunish the murderers of 'Uthman. They joined'them and then proceeded to B a ~ r a where thestandard of rebellion was already raised. Thegovernor of B a ~ r a , though the inhabitants weredivided in opinion, would not give place to Zubair and Talha for he considered that they had broken. .'the oath of allegiance which they had taken to 'All.They replied that they had taken it under com-

I Mas'udl, Mrcrrijrc'dh-l21Jahab, vol. iv, p. 313.

pulsion. A messenger was sent to Madina toascer ta in the facts of the case, and there he wastold that their statements were true. It was unfortunate that 'Ali was absent, for he could havegiven more correct information. This report satisfied many, and they had now no hesitation incapturing B a ~ r a . 'Ayisha, who throughout seemsto have been a bitter enemy to 'Ali" urged the menof KUfa also to rebel. All this was sad news for'Ali, but he at once put off the Syrian expeditionand. hastened with an army towards Madina tocrush this revolt before it spread. Communicationswere entered into with'Ayisha, Zubair and T ~ l i : l a .The one request was 'punish the murderers of'Uthman;' but this was the one thing 'All wouldnot, or could not, or thought he could not do. I tis true that many of the late insurgents were now inhis camp, and he had not the courage to face theirwrath, should any attempt to punish them be made.'

I Fo r a probable reason for thi., see The Life of Mu!,ammad(C,L.S.), p. 158.

I Mas'udl r ecords a p raye r made by 'Al l, befor e tbe bailIe, ofwhich Ihe following is Ihe purport: '0 Lord of heaven andear lh , Lord of the High Throne, 1 pray Thee to make thiscity of Ba.,ra favourable and to tum away Crom me its sorceries:protect my sojourn in that cily. Thou knowest, Lord, it hasrevohed aga inst me, f orgo tt en my authority and violated itsoath. Meanwhile .pare the life of Muslims, raise up a mo ngthem Ihose who will implore' thy aid to stop the effusion ofblood.' M,m;j,,'dh'l21Jahab, vol . iv, p , 313.


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5.6 'ALl 'ALI 57.The murderer s of 'U!!lman were uneasy duringthese, negotiations, and so they determined to pre-cipitate matters by making a sudden attack on thecamp of 'A.yisha.' The battle soon became generaland is of some note, as being the first in whichMuslim met Muslim in deadly array. I t is knownas the battle of the camel, for 'A.yisha was presentmounted on one, the litter on the back of whichwas covered with a coat of mail. 'A.yisha fromwithin he r camel litte r urged her men to fight, andround her they rall ied again and again; but at lasthad to give way. 'A.yisha's camel was killed, bu tthe l it te r was carried away to a spot remote fromtbe combatants.2 I t is said that ten thousandlives were lost in th is one engagement. The lossof Zubair and Tali;la, who were both killed, wasgreat, for, though now opposed to 'Ali, they weremembers of the Qurai sh and had for years been hisfriends and might , therefore, have been won backto a loyal obedience. On the other hand, it madethe way for Mu'awiya much plainer and easier,as it removed by death two possible claimants oftbeKhalifate. 'Ali behaved very generously to'A.yisha after the batt le and allowed her to re tire toMadina,3 where she lived on for many years and: I MirlJlund. R a u 4 a t u ' $ - ~ ( l f d . part ii. voL i i i. p. 216.t See, alFak!1rf, Histo;rc des Dynasties Musultnanes (Paris.

1910), p. 142. Ibid .. p. 143.

did no t agam interfere in political. affairs. Thetreasure found at B a ~ r a was divided amongst thevic torious soldiers. 'Ali now very unwisely deter .mined to make KUfa the seat of his government, forthough the inhabitants of that city bit terly hatedthe Syrian par ty, they were a quarrelsome fickle setof people, as his family afterwards learnt by a bitterexperIence.

In Egypt the condition of affairs was very adverseto 'Ali. The first Governor he sent was removedby intrigue and the next one was poisoned, and tenthousand men took a solemn oath that they wouldavenge the death of 'Uthman. 'Amr bin a 1 - ' A . ~ wasat this time with Mu'awiya, to whom he offeredhis services, if some share in the spoilwere given tohim. 'Egypt,' said 'Amr, ' is the morsel I covet,' 1Mu'awiya placed at his disposal five thousandSyrian t roops, with whom he entered Fustat in July,A. D. 658. Egypt was thus lost to 'Ali.

The interest now centres in the Syrian campaignwhere Mu'awiyaheld the field as a competitor forthe Khalifate. The conflict was bound to be severeand the result decisive, for as yet the idea of adiv ided Khalifate had not entered in to the Muslimmind. 'Ali gathered together an army of fiftythousand men for the invasion of Syria.. From~ U f a he wrote again to Mu'


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58 'ALI 'ALIthe Muhajirun and the A n ~ a r had proclaimed himKhalifa, that Zubair and TalJ:ia also, who had sorecently opposed him, were now both killed, andso he ,called once more on him to submit. I t wasuseless. The messenger returned and related howthe people rallied round Mu'awiya and how warmust go on to th e bitter end.1

According to some accounts 'Ali had ninetythousand men and Mu'awiya forty-five. thousand;other writers put each side down at eighty thousand; and yet others at fifty thousand each. Mu'awiya was the first in the field, an open spaciousplain on the banks of the Euphrates. The rivermade any frontal attack on his camp very difficul t.It was guarded by a large body of troops. 'Ali hadto encamp in the desert, where his men sufferedmuch from the heat and from thi rs t. He, there fore.ordered forty thousand men to advance. He thusforced Mu'awiya to change his position and tooccupy the field of Siffin, which place gives i ts nameto the impending battle. For more than a monthsmall indecisive act ions were fought. 'Ali appealedto the Syrian army thus: ' I beseech you by th edivine name to rally to me. To you all equallyis the verse. addressed, .. God guideth not themachinations of deceivers" ' - [Suratu Yusuf (xii)52J. But they replied, 'Only the sword can decide

I Mas'udi. Muruju'dlJ-Dhahab. voL iv. pp. 339-40.

between us: the feeblest must perish.' I . A generalengagement was now forced on. Ibn 'Abbas saysthat 'Ali had on a white turban, and jets of flameshot out from his eyes. He fought with the utmostbravery, and , riding on a grey mule, he passed alongthe line of troops and said: 'Sacrifice yourselves,God Most High sees you and the nephew of th eProphet fights with you. Charge without ceasingand fear to retreat , fo'r flight means shame for yourdescendants and eternal fire for you in the day ofjudgement.' Every time he struck a blow he said,'Allahu Akbar!' (God is great!) 'Ali was ablyseconded by his generals and on the third morningthe Syrian troops were driven back. It seemedto Mu'awiya as if the battle was lost,. when acunn ing device entirely changed the situation.Amr bin al-' A ~ knowing the fanatical characterof the men of KUfa and B a ~ r a , directed some ofthe Syrian soldiers to advance to the front, bearingcopies of t he Qur 'an on the tops of their lancesand to shout: 'The law of th e Lord, let it decidebetween us.' 'Let the blood of the Faithfulcease to flow; if the Syrian army be destroyed,who will defend the frontier against the Greeks?if the army of 'Iraq should perish, who will defendthe frontier against the Turks and the Persians?' It

lMas'udl, Muruju'dlJ-Dhahab, voL iv. p. 350.I The Muslim historians Mirkhund, Mas'udi. Fakhri and others

give full details of this stratagem.


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060 'ALI 'ALI 61In vam did 'All point out that this was a meredevice to avoid defeat. His men would not listento him; they were fanatics and loved a theologicaldispute even better than fighting. They forced himto yield and to submit to the arbitration of theBook. 'Ali was furious, but nothing he could sayor do would satisfy his men; and he had, at last";to consent to the appointment of two arb it ra tors ,one each side: 'Amr for the Syrian Army, AbuMusa for 'Ali's side. Thus the bat tle of Siffin sonearly won was prac tical ly lost, and 'Ali returnedto KUfa in a worse position than when he had leftit. Strange to say, the spiri t of controversy ran sohigh in 'Al l's army that now some men denouncedth e idea of arbitration as contrary to the theocraticidea. The Lord alone should be their ruler and not.any man appoin ted by arb it ra tors of contendingtforces. It is possible that a general d is trus t of theQuraish may have added poli tical force to theological views. Anyhow, twelve thousand men desertedthe army and on arr ival at KUfa took up a separate-encampment. They are known as the Kharijitesthose who went out. This added very much to thetroubles of the Khalifa, for the men of KUfa refusedto be left unguarded with such fanatics in theirneighbourhood, so 'Ali had to a ttack them in orderto prevent the outrages they were committ ing dayby day. They were defeated, but they still keptalive a spiri t of disaffection, and for many a long

year were a constant source of trouble in Islam.About six months after the ba tt le of Siffin the arbitrators met to give their decisiori. 'Amr was muchtoo astute for Abu Musa, whom Fakhri (Paris ed.,p.147) describes as an ' apathetic old man', and soonled him on in conversation to admit that 'Uthmanwas a true believer who had been unjustly killed,that 'Ali had not punished his murderers , and that

. he knew of no one more capable of revenging'Uthman's dea th than Mu'awiya; but he objectedto vote for him, for not only were there relationsQf 'Uthman with a better claim, but also such achoice would fail to bring unity to Islam. Finally,they both agreed that neither claimant should beappointed.l

'Amr proposed various names, but Abu Musarejected them all, for he wished to appoint 'Abdu'llah, son of the Khalifa 'Umar. Then said 'Amr- ,' I f Syr ia accepts him and 'Ir aq rejects him, or ifthe contrary should happen, wouldst thou makewar on the party rejecting him?' 'No,' repliedAbu Musa. Then added 'Amr, 'Rise up, addressthe people, withdraw the names of our two candidates, and then name him whom thou wishestto appoint: Abu Musa then rose, and afterpraising God said: 'Musalmans, after looking into

I A full account of the debate is g iven in Mas'udl's Muniju'db.Qbahab, vol. iv, pp. 396-402, and by a1-Fakhrl (Paris ed" 1 9 1 0 , ~pp,146-50.


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'ALI 'ALI 63this matter, we consider the best way of securingpeace and concord and of stopping the effusion ofblood is to withdraw the names of 'Ali and ofMu'awiya: so I depose 'Ali as I cast off thisturban' 1 which he then cast away. He continued:"W e appoint as !


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64 'ALI 'ALI 6Spassed away the first of the converts to Islam,the beloved son-in-law and nephew of the P r o ~phet.1

The troubles through which 'Ali had to pass andhis str iking personali ty have drawn out the sympathy of historians towards him. Even Major Osborn,a writer not too lavish of praise for any Muslimruler, calls him 'the Bayard of Islam-a soldierwithout fear and without reproach, and writing ofhis assassination says: 'With him perished thetruest-hearted and best Muslim of whom Mu!}ammadan history has preserved the remembrance.'The Shi'ah historians are naturally biased, and, asthe cult of 'Ali grew, impar tial opinions are not tobe found in their writings.

The influence of 'Ali on eastern religious thoughthas been great.9 The doctrine of his ' divine right'has led to the great division of the MuJ:tammadanworld into the Sunnl and the Shi'ah sects. Thelatter believe that the Imamat, or the leadershipof t rue Muslims, is confined to 'Ali and his successors in office. His tragic end and the sorrowsand sufferings of his family appealed to the sympathy of many early Muslims. Tradi tional accountshave come down showing the deep reverence theyenterta ined for 'Ali, and the vi rtues they ascribedto him. In the verse, 'Now ha th a light (nur) and

1 See, Mas'udl, Muruju'db-Dhahab, vol. iv, chapter lxxxiii. SeeTIu Cult of 'All (C.L.S.}

a clear book (Qur'


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66 'ALI 'ALI 67

in parts of Syria.1 They reverse the Shi'ah orderand say that the ' divine light' came from 'Ali toMul;1ammad. Shahrastani says that the Nosairishave carried to exaggeration the veneration of 'Aliand that they consider him to be a 'portion ofGod' (fihu juzwan Iliah).11 In more recent timesthe cult of 'Ali has found a place in the inceptionof the Babi religion. The doctrine of the Imamatiies at the basis of Babiism, or as it is now calledBahaism,s though it has in i ts development therefound other forms. The influence of 'Ali has thusbeen very far reaching. I t has entered into var iousforms of religious belief and has in some found astrange development. It is a sub ject of th e deepestinterest, but I must not now enter any further into it.

\Vhatever may have been his personal quali ties inprivate life, 'Ali lacked the quali ties requisi te for aruler in the troublesome t imes in which his lot wascast. Something, however, may be said for hisgreat rival, Mu'awiya. It is true that his fatherAbU SUfyan had led the Meccans against Mul,1am-mad at the battles of Badr and of Ul:lUd; but, afterall, he did become a Muslim, though somewhatlate in life and not till he saw further oppositionwas useless. His son canno t be held responsiblefor his father's defence of Meccan rights against

1 Tiu Cult o f 'All (C.L.S.) , pp. 22-34. Sbahraslani, al-Milal wa'tJ-Ni/lal, p. 143.S See Ba/'dlsm (C.L.S.)

Mubammad a'nd the men of the rival city ofMadina. Moreover he had been quite properlyappointed by the Khalifa 'Umar to his high postin Syria. He was an able man who commandedthe respect and had won the attachment of histroops. It is difficult to see how he was wrongin calling for punishment on the murderers of'Uthman. Still, he had no claim to the Khalifatebeyond his apparent fitness for it. On the otherhand, 'Ali also had no inherent claim, for thedoctrine of ' divine r ight ' which looks on AbuBakr, 'Umar and 'Uthman as usurpers had notyet been accepted when 'Uthman died. Themurderers of that Khalifa proclaimed 'Ali as hissuccessor, bu t to be so proclaimed was a doubtfulhonour. What 'Ali had in his favour was thathe had been so long associated with Muhammad. ,had been his most devoted follower, and wasconnected with him by close ties o f relationship.Still these were no t grounds which conferred anyabsolute legal r ight on him. In other words, it wasquite open to the faithful to have chosen Mu'awiya,Tall;1a or Zubair instead.

After the elect ion, Mu'awiya's posi tion was, i t i strue, different; bu t the point is that it is by nomeans clear that he would have given any troubleif 'Ali had not dismissed him from office. Whento the utter neglect to (1Unish the assassins of'Cthman and their par ty was added the degradation


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68 'ALI 'ALI 69of all who called for justice, there was some jus tification for a revolt agains t 'Ali. If, then, Mu'a.wiya may be described as an astute intriguingman, he may also be represented as a man deeplyinjured by the t reatment he received, who wasr ight in calling upon the Muslim world to see howthe Khalifa neglected one of the first duties ofa ruler and failed to punish the base crime ofmurder. Appointed by one Khalifa, respected bya second, Mu'a.wiya naturally objected to summarydismissal by a third one. Thus we can understand,even though we may not.approve, all that Mu'a.wiyadid. He scarcely deserves all the bad names bywhich he has been called. Ruin came rather by thesupineness and want of tact which 'Ali displayedthan by the cunning and fraud of Mu'awiya.

Sti ll the schism which arose worked untold evilin Islam and led to many long years of miseryfor th e Arab people; and so, to whichever sideth e greater blame must be attached, the resultis to be regretted. Had 'Ali's lot been castin less turbulent times he might have been aworthy ruler, but so it was not. Thus within,thirty years after the Prophet passed away, threeout" of his four successors met with a violentdeath , one through private revenge and two frompolitical causes. Islam had spread marvellously, but'in spite of its foreign conquests and notwithstanding that it had won all the Arab tribes to belief in

itself, it ut terly failed to br ing peace and comfort.Internecine war, bloodshed and misery were theearliest things it brought to the unhappy Arabpeople, and so i t has been since. With a 'ewriotable exceptions, i ts "march through the world hasbeen accompanied by war and its evils. HadAbUBakr's policy of thoroughly consolidating th e Arab.people before interfering with other nations" beenfollowed, the expansion of Islam might have beenmore peaceable, if slower, and the terrible conflictso f the years immediately succeeding his reign mighthave been avoided; but whether he could haverestrained, if he had lived longer, the innate love ofthe Bedouin for war and plunder is perhaps doubtful. Anyhow his successors did not, and the sadlot of 'Ali was a natural result. The history of theKhulafa ar-Rashidliil, the four rightly-guided Khalifas of orthodox Islam, has proved to be a prophetic illustration of , what was hereafter to followamongst diverse peoples in many lands and duringlong periods of time. '


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WORIS 'BY TUE SAME AUTHORThe Fa i th o f IsI';'m

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