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Ling 110, Section 3 (Syntax II) February 22, 2008.

Homework: 3.8 (p.146), 3.9 (p.162), 3.11 (pp.186-7) and 3.13 due at 5 p.m. on Wednesday Feb. 27 I. Phrase Structure Rules and the X-bar Theory A list of phrase structure rules in English (p. 175)

XP X Y Z

the label consists of the element that for the constituent make up the constituent (1) Sentence DP VP (2) PP P DP (3) AP A (PP) (4) NP N (PP) (5) DP D NP Name Pronoun (6) NP A NP (7) VP V (DP) ( PP ) CP (8) CP C Sentence

X-bar theory: Every phrase XP has a head X.

(9) XP -> X YP (in English)

English exhibits consistent head-initial phrase structure while Japanese has consistent head-final phrase structure [head-directionality parameter].

Introducing TP and the Specifier So called X-bar theory works for all of the structures we have considered thus far...except for one. What about the very top level, Sentence? We also havent said anything about where auxiliaries and modals go. Consider the following: (10) Sentence -> DP Aux VP This doesnt look anything like X-bar theory. But we may call a sentence an AuxP: (11) AuxP -> DP Aux VP

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Now, we have an XP on the left of the arrow, and an X on the right, which conforms to the X-bar theory. What about simple sentences like Ophelia swam with no auxiliary verb in it? We will posit for now that Aux hosts Past Tense. Auxiliary verbs and Tense morphemes are generated in the same position. We will conclude by calling the category that hosts Auxiliaries and Tense morphemes a TP (for Tense Phrase). (12) TP -> DP T VP (13) CP -> C TP But unlike the phrase structure rules given (2-8) above, the head X is not the first element of the XP in (12). We call the DP in (12) a Specifier. Specifiers do not occur in every XP, but when they do, they may precede the head. For now, the categories with specifiers we will consider are TP, as above, and DP (when there is a possessor).

A general template of X-bar structure: (14) XP

Specifier X X (where represents the complement(s) of X)

- A subject is a specifier of a TP. - A possessor is a specifier of a DP. Existence of X node: do-so-replacement for V, one-replacement for N

Kevin [ate spaghetti with a spoon] and George [did so], too The [big book] The one; The big [book] The big one

Finally, a comparison of tree diagrams for English and Japanese sentences: (15) English Phrase Structure (Head-initial)

TP

DP T Chris T VP PAST V PP talked P DP with Pat

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(16) Japanese Phrase Structure (Head-final) TP

DP T Chris-ga VP T Nom

PP V -ta DP P PAST

hanasi Pat to talk with Exercise: Draw tree diagrams for the following sentences. If a sentence is structurally ambiguous, distinguish the meaning and draw a tree for each meaning. (17) Mary believes that her brother will pass the exam. TP DP T Mary T VP [present] V CP believes C TP that DP T DP D T VP her D NP will V DP N pass D NP

brother the N

exam

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(18) John saw the man with the binoculars. Interpretation A: John saw the man who was holding the binoculars. A. TP DP T John T VP [past] V DP saw D NP the N PP man P DP with D NP the N

binoculars Interpretation B: John used the binoculars to see the man. B. TP DP T John T VP [past] V DP PP saw D NP P DP the N with D NP man the N binoculars

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Hints for Exercise 3.13 a. When the quantifiers all, many, some, each, and every are followed by NPs without of intervening between them, assume that these quantifiers are a Determiner that takes a NP as its complement. e.g.: DP

Spec D

D NP all lords b. When the quantifiers are followed by DPs with of intervening between them, assume that these quantifiers are a Determiner that takes a DP as its complement and take of to be a Genitive case marker. e.g.: DP

Spec D

D DP all of (the) lords c. Pronouns are a DP by itself.