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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 23 No 2 2008

ISSN 0827 3383

International Journalof

Special EducationVOLUME 23 2008 NUMBER 2

If You Teach - You Teach Reading Inclusive Education Support Systems: Teacher and Administrator Views AAC Interventions for Autism: A Research Perspective Speech Rates of Turkish Pre-Lingually Hearing Impaired Children The Assessment of Professional Standard Competence of Teachers of Students with

Visual Impairments Reactive Attachment Disorder: Challenges for Early Identification and Intervention

within the Schools “New Skills and Abilities to Enable Me to Support my Pupils in a Forward Thinking

Positive way”: A Self Discovery Programme for Teachers in Mianstream School Assessment of Learning Disabled Students in Jordan: Current Practices and Obstacles A Comparative Study of the Self-Esteem of Adolescent Boys with and without Learning

Disabilities in an Inclusive School Teaching Emergrncy Phone Numbers to Youth with Developmental Disabilites Through New Lens: Young Adolescent Girls’ Perceptions of Their School Experience in

an Alternative Education Program Perspectives of Turkish Mothers on Having a Child with Developmental Disabilities Self-Efficacy Perceptions of Chinese Primary-age Students with Specific Learning

Difficulties: A Perspective from Hong Kong Are Special Education Teachers Prepared to Teach the Increasing Number of Students

Diagnosed with Autism? Training Patterns of Wheelchair Basketball Players in Turkey Teaching Students about their Disabilities: Increasing Self-Determination Skills and

Self-Concept Book Reviews: - Transition Planning for Students with Disabilities:What Educators and Service Providors can do - Self Instruction Pedagogy: How to Teach Self-Determined Learning

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International Journal of Special Education

REVISED EDITORIAL POLICY from 2007

The International Journal of Special Education publishes original articles concerning special education. Experimental as well as theoretical articles are sought. Potential contributors are encouraged to submit reviews of research, historical, and philosophical studies, case studies and content analyses in addition to experimental correlation studies, surveys and reports of the effectiveness of innovative programs.

Send your article to [email protected] as attachment by e-mail, in MSWORD for IBM format ONLY .

Articles should be single spaced (including references). Submit one original only. Any tables must be in MS-WORD for IBM Format and in the correct placement within the article. Please include a clear return e-mail address for the electronic return of any material. Published articles remain the property of the Journal.

E-mailed contributions are reviewed by the Editorial Board. Articles are then chosen for publication. Accepted articles may be revised for clarity, organisation and length.

Style: The content, organisation and style of articles should follow the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition. An article written in an obviously deviating style will be returned to the author for revision.

Abstracts: All articles will be preceded by an abstract of 100-200 words. Contributors are referred to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition for assistance in preparing the abstract.

Responsibility of Authors: Authors are solely responsible for the factual accuracy of their contributions. The author is responsible for obtaining permission to quote lengthy excerpts from previously published material. All figures submitted must be submitted within the document.

JOURNAL LISTINGSAnnotated and Indexed by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted

Children for publication in the monthly print index Current Index to Journals of Special Education (CIJE) and the quarterly index, Exceptional Child Education Resources (ECER).IJSE is also indexed at Education Index (EDI).

The journal appears at the website: www.internationaljournalofspecialeducation.com

The editor can be reached at [email protected]

VOLUME 23 2008 NUMBER 2I N D E X

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If You Teach – You Teach Reading ………………….………………………………………………...1Vicky G. Spencer, Bonnie B. Carte,r Richard T. Boon, and Cynthia Garcia-Simpson

Inclusive Education Support Systems:Teacher And Administrator Views…………………………….8Angela Valeo.

AAC Interventions For Autism: A Research Summary………………….…………..….……………..17Débora R. P. Nunes

Speech Rates Of Turkish Prelingually Hearing-Impaired Children…………………….…………….. 27M. Cem Girgin

The Assessment Of Professional Standard Competence Of Teachers Of Students With Visual Impairments ………………………...…………………….………33

Lee, Hae-Gyun, , Kim, Jung-Hyun, and Kang, Jong-Gu

Reactive Attachment Disorder:Challenges For Early Identification And Intervention Within The Schools ..…………..…………….47

Kimberly K. Floyd, Peggy Hester, Harold C. Griffin, Jeannie Golden and Lora Lee Smith Canter

“New Skills And Abilities To Enable Me To Support My Pupils In A Forward Thinking Positive Way”:A Self-Discovery Programme For Teachers In Mainstream School.…………….………...…………..56

Lesley Powell and Anna CheshireAssessment Of Learning Disabled Students In Jordan:Current Practices And Obstacles ……………………………………………………………….………68

Mayada Al-Natour, Hatem Alkhamra and Yahya Al-SmadiA Comparative Study Of The Self-Esteem Of Adolescent Boys With And Without Learning Disabilities In An Inclusive School………………………………75

Sibusiso Ntshangase,Andile Mdikana and Candice CronkTeaching Emergency Phone Numbers To Youth With Developmental Disabilities………………….85

Arzu OzenThrough A New Lens: Young Adolescent Girls’ Perceptions OfTheir School Experience In An Alternative Education Program…………………….………………..96

Kaili Chen ZhangPerspectives Of Turkish Mothers OnHaving A Child With Developmental Disabilities ……………………………...…………………...101

Atilla Cavkaytar, Sema Batu and Oya Beklan CetinSelf-efficacy Perceptions of Chinese Primary-age Students with Specific Learning Difficulties: A Perspective from Hong Kong ……………..………………...110

Mantak Yuen, Peter Westwood, and Gunter WongAre Special Education Teachers Prepared To Teach The Increasing Number Of Students Diagnosed With Autism?……………………..……………….120

Vito Loiacono and Barton AllenTraining Patterns Of Wheelchair Basketball Players In Turkey .……………………………………128

Yasar TatarTeaching Students About Their Disabilities:Increasing Self-Determination Skills and Self-Concept……………………………………………..137

Gloria Campbell-Whatley

Book Reviews:1) Transition Planning for Students with Disabilities: What Educators and Service Providers Can Do 2) Self –Instruction Pedagogy: How To Teach Self-Determined Learning …………………………145

Sally Rogow

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IF YOU TEACH – YOU TEACH READING

Vicky G. SpencerSam Houston State University

Bonnie B. CarterGeorge Mason University

Richard T. BoonUniversity of Georgia

andCynthia Garcia-Simpson

Sam Houston State University

Currently, schools are under pressure to reform their curriculum and instructional practices so that all students can perform successfully on high-stakes test. One essential requisite skill for success on all of these assessments is reading. Because the classroom is typically made up of students who exhibit a broad range of performance levels, it can be quite challenging for even the most experienced classroom teacher to successfully teach the content to all students. Research has revealed that when explicit, teacher-directed strategy instruction is used students make significant gains in their reading skills. This paper examines the challenges that content area teachers face in addressing the academic needs of all learners and provides some specific strategies that have been proven effective in the inclusive classroom.

Much of what teachers do in their classrooms is directly related to the data provided by the results of statewide assessments. Currently, schools are under pressure to reform their curriculum and instructional practices in order to become high performing schools on these high-stakes test s (Alfassi, 1997). One essential requisite skill for success on all of these assessments is reading. Therefore, a reading imperative is created. One commonly held view is that in the primary years, students are learning to read, but as they progress through school, the focus becomes more on reading to learn (Carnine, Silbert, Kame’enui, & Tarver, 2004; Chall, 1995; Jetton & Alexander, 2004). According to Alexander (2000), this dichotomy does not represent the reality of reading development. The process of learning to read, which involves decoding and discovering the meanings within oral and written language, and reading to learn, which involves using reading abilities to seek knowledge, are inextricably tied together.

In 2005, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) found that only 29% of eighth grade boys and 34% of eighth grade girls read at or above the proficient level. (Perie, Grigg, & Donahue, 2005) At this level, students have the grade-appropriate ability to deal analytically with challenging subject matter while applying it to real-world situations (Langer, 2001; Perie et al.), which is reading to learn. Unfortunately, the prognosis for success in the classroom is not very promising for a majority of students, especially students with disabilities. Therefore, it is crucial that teachers make a paradigm shift in their way of thinking about reading instruction.

Clearly, it is a misconception to think that reading can only be addressed in a language arts, English, or reading class. In a review of the literature, Lester (2000), found that secondary teachers perceive literacy to be a relatively low priority and/or the responsibility of English teachers. Some teachers immediately think of a skill-and-drill program, while others have expressed that they are uncomfortable planning instruction to foster reading development (Zipperer, Worley, Sisson, & Said, 2002). The problem may lie within the limitations of teachers’ understanding about teaching reading. Hall (2005) suggests that researchers and educators may not be helping content area teachers to understand their

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role as teachers of reading. Certainly, the standardized reading programs are part of the teaching process in elementary school but typically, not in the upper grades. As students advance through school, they are required to learn from printed material that is increasingly complex and linguistically challenging (Alexander & Jetton, 2000; Zigmond, 2006). Students need to be able to understand and use the information provided by the text independently, because it is often the major source of knowledge within the classroom (Alfassi, 1997). Thus, the question becomes what does teaching reading look like for content area teachers? Actually, to effectively teach content, it would be impossible not to teach reading.

NRP’s Five Components of ReadingIn 2000, the report by the National Reading Panel (NRP) extended the current understandings about the skills students need to become independent readers. The panel conducted a meta-analysis on research literature on reading acquisition and reading instruction. From this work, the panel identified and defined five components critical to effective reading instruction: (a) phonemic awareness, (b) phonics, (c) fluency, (d) vocabulary, and (e) text comprehension.

According to the NRP (2000), phonemic awareness involves teaching students to identify and manipulate phonemes in spoken syllables and words, while phonics instruction stresses the acquisition of letter-sound correspondences. The focus is on teaching beginning readers to understand how letters are linked to sounds (phonemes) to form these letter-sound correspondences and spelling patterns and to apply this knowledge to their reading.

In the early years of elementary school, there is a strong emphasis on phonemic awareness and phonics, but as children begin to read, instruction is expanded to include fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension. Often, fluency is neglected in the classroom, although it is a critical factor necessary for reading comprehension (NRP, 2000). If the student reads in a laborious and inefficient manner, comprehension of the text will be difficult to achieve. Lipson and Lang (1991) suggest that the relationship between fluency and comprehension is reciprocal. Allinder, Dunse, Brunker & Obermiller-Krolikowski (2001) describe this reading reciprocity. In order to comprehend text, a student must read fluently or at least at a relatively quick rate. However, as a student is better able to comprehend text, his or her reading may become more fluent. Further, when students encounter too many unfamiliar words, comprehension is negatively impacted (Rupley & Nichols, 2005). To manage the challenge of comprehending content area textbooks, students need a well-developed word knowledge base (Harmon, Hedrick, & Wood, 2005). Thus, in order for students to comprehend narrative and expository text, vocabulary instruction is crucial (Rupley, Logan, & Nichols, 1999).

Harris and Hodges (1995) defined comprehension as intentional thinking during which meaning is constructed through interactions between text and reader (p. 207). There is strong research evidence that students can be taught reading comprehension strategies and that this instruction can be effective at improving their understanding of content area texts (Duke & Pearson, 2002; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000). Studies have shown that students who use learning strategies are more efficient learners (Blachowicz & Ogle, 2001) and experience more school success (Biemiller & Meichenbaum, 1992). In an extensive review of 20 years of research involving reading comprehension instruction for students with learning disabilities, Gersten, Fuchs, Williams, and Baker (2001) concluded that strategy instruction for both narrative and expository texts appear to have a consistent positive effect on comprehension performance for these students.

Mismatch of Content Area TextbooksTo complicate matters for the content area teachers, schools typically purchase multiple copies of the same science and social studies textbooks for every student in the class (Allington, 2002). Students are often assigned to read a chapter in a science or social studies textbook independently, complete a written assignment, and participate in a class discussion. Unfortunately, some students in the classroom may encounter a number of problems just trying to read the chapter. Research has shown that content area textbooks may be written two or more years above the average grade level of their students (Budiansky, 2001; Chall & Conrad, 1991), which can be especially problematic and challenging for students with disabilities (Mastropieri, Scruggs, Spencer, & Fontana, 2003). Not only do expository texts tend to be longer than narrative texts, but the content and formats are less familiar, and extensive prior knowledge is often assumed (Richek, Caldwell, Jennings, & Lerner, 2002).

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In his 2002 article, Allington reported how exemplary teachers handled this thorny textbook issue. First, the teachers did not rely solely on the adopted textbook for their subject area. Instead, it was used in conjunction with other resources which were written at multiple levels. For example, content was taught from tradebooks, primary sources, and reliable websites. Second, these teachers provided students what was termed managed choice as they learned new content. For example, a unit of study was divided into sub-topics which students chose to study and reported back to the whole class. Finally, the exemplary teachers spent less time on whole-group lecture and tried to personalize the instruction to meet each student’s learning needs.

Being aware of the issues with content area textbooks can assist classroom teachers in making instructional decisions on the most effective way to teach the content.Varying the way students are grouped can help address different learning levels and skills when trying to learn new content. Working in cooperative learning groups or peer learning dyads provides support for students with different levels of skill development (Spencer, Scruggs, & Mastropieri, 2003). Allington and Johnston (2002) reported that giving students options on how to present their newly acquired knowledge allowed for students to match their learning styles and abilities with their chosen presentation format which enhanced their motivation.

Rethinking TeachingBecause the classroom is typically made up of students who exhibit a broad range of performance levels, it can be quite challenging for even the most experienced classroom teacher to successfully teach the content to all students. Research has revealed that when explicit, teacher-directed strategy instruction which includes direct explanation, modeling, and guided student practice is used students make significant gains in their reading comprehension (Manset-Williamson & Nelson, 2005). Likewise, by directly teaching and modeling specific strategies that effective learners use, students are more likely to apply these strategies, increase their comprehension, and become more independent, efficient learners (Alfassi, 2004; Frank, Grossi, & Standfield, 2006; Gersten et al., 2001).

Strategies for the Content area ClassroomSo, what can content area teachers do to ensure that reading instruction continues throughout the course of a student’s education?First of all, strategies that visually demonstrate the information in the text have been found to be a highly effective instructional tool (Richek et al., 2002). With the challenges of the inflated reading levels so prevalent in content area textbooks, it is imperative that teachers use other means of instruction without relying solely on the written text. For example, students could develop a timeline or a graphic organizer to present the information in a social studies textbook (Boon, Burke, Fore, & Spencer, 2006) or draw out the steps to a science experiment.

Likewise, research on mnemonic devices concludes that they enhance learning and retention (Mastropieri & Scrugss, 1995; Mastropieri, Scruggs, & Graetz, 2005). Acronyms help to recall core concepts. For example, in life science, the characteristics of all living things are divided into four categories: organized structure, growth and development, reproduction, and response to environment. The acronym for this concept is OGRRs (ogres). The acroynym WAFLS represents all the requirements for living things: water, air, food (nutrients), living space, and shelter. Thus, the mnemonic phrase ogres need their waffles in order to survive summarizes the scientific terminology and the relationship of these concepts (Carnine & Carnine, 2004).

In addition, teachers need to have a repertoire of research-based strategies that focus on vocabulary development and reading comprehension. Thus, it is important to teach vocabulary as part of the curriculum and to select vocabulary words that are important to developing an understanding of the content and its related information and concepts (Misulis, 1999). Teach vocabulary as part of the curriculum and select words that are important to developing an understanding of the content and its related information and concepts (Misulis,1999). Moreover, research confirms the necessity to teach content vocabulary before students are required to read a text selection; thereby, eliminating barriers to comprehension (McKenna & Robinson, 2006) and to making connections to their existing fund of knowledge (Heilman, Blair, & Rupley, 2002). Most importantly, build on prior knowledge. Content learning becomes more relevant if it is connected to what the student already knows.

Vocabulary skills that can be used across curriculum areas include instruction on prefixes, suffixes, root words, and word families (Carnine & Carnine, 2004; Fisher, Frey, & Williams, 2002). For

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example, one strategy is to construct charts with columns for suffixes, meanings, and examples of words. Therefore, in conjunction with preteaching vocabulary words, students can be taught the definition of high frequency suffixes such as tion (the act of), ous (having the quality of or possessing), ment (the act of or related to), etc. with examples of prediction porous, and development (Carnine & Carnine). Likewise, knowledge of morphology can influence reading fluency. Research suggests that students be taught to (a) use their knowledge of root words and affixes as they read orally (Kame’enui & Simmons, 1990), (b) recognize and pause at internal and terminal punctuation (Rasinski, 1989), and (c) trace the print with fingers or tools to prevent omissions (Shanker & Ekwall, 1998).

Partner reading is another means to aid reading comprehension (Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2005; Mastropieri, Scruggs, Spencer, & Fontana 2003). Students read an important paragraph of the text selected by the teacher either silently or aloud to a partner. One partner is a reteller and the other is a listener. The reteller recalls the main idea of the paragraph to the listener. The teacher leads a class discussion and confirms the main idea. Next, the reteller reviews the paragraph to find two details that support the main idea. Then the reteller informs the listener about these details. Again, the teachers leads the group to confirm the important details. Likewise, Spencer, Scruggs, & Mastropieri (2003) found evidence in their study to support a similar comprehension strategy. This strategy involved having the students restate in their own words and in writing information from each paragraph that they read.

Research indicates that expository material is more difficult for students to comprehend than narrative material (Gregg & Sekerers, 2006; Harmon, Hedrick, Wood, & Gress, 2005). The various complicated text structures used in expository texts are more challenging than the story grammar used in narrative texts (Kucan & Beck, 1997). Research supports teaching students about different text structures such as compare-contrast, cause-and-effect, description, sequence or procedure, and enumeration. to increase their comprehension and retention of expository material (Gersten et al., 2001)

Fisher et al. (2002) reported several literacy strategies that were used in content area instruction throughout a chronically troubled high school in San Diego, CA, which resulted in increased student progress and achievement and college acceptances. These research-based, efficacy-proven strategies were adopted, modeled and practiced, and taught directly to the students by all the teachers. Teachers conducted read-alouds or shared readings for at least five minutes every day. Hearing teachers read or reading along while a teacher reads aloud is a highly effective way for students to hear fluent reading (Allen, 2000). The chosen selections typically were not from the textbook. Teachers used other materials that would increase students’ background knowledge and introduce interesting vocabulary words.

In order to broaden student engagement and reflection of content material, a structured note-taking strategy was implemented. The Cornell note-taking system (Spires & Stone, 1989) was used. Students drew a single vertical line two inches from the left page margin. To the left of the line, students recorded their main ideas and key words. To the right of the line, students entered details. At the bottom of the page, students wrote a short lesson summary.

Also, reciprocal teaching was used to increase student engagement with the text. The students were divided into groups of four. They read a text selection together using a previously taught, demonstrated, and modeled procedure for predicting, questioning, clarifying, and summarizing (Palinscar & Brown, 1984). These small student discussion groups were designed to check for comprehension and strengthen understanding of the text. Fisher et al. (2002) noted that not only did these strategies have a positive effect on measures of student progress, but they encouraged learning for all students. Last of all, in order for teachers to make effective instructional decisions they need to become aware of and help eliminate the problems with content area textbooks. Many teachers serve on textbook review committees, and teachers have a responsibility to not only question the content but also the reading levels of the textbooks. In addition, many publishing companies will agree to send a representative to the school and train the teachers to use the newly purchased textbooks and the accompanying supplements and materials for teachers and students. These supplements and materials frequently include a variety of activities, visuals, websites, and teaching suggestions that will address a wide range of academic levels within one classroom.

Concluding ThoughtsBecause of the broad instructional range and diverse learning styles within content-area classrooms, teachers are concerned about how they can meet their students’ different needs while covering the

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required content material (Klinger, Vaughn, & Schumm, 1998). However, effective secondary content area teachers understand that reading comprehension is directly related to learning content information. They have embraced the role of teaching reading rather than fearing it. They find that reading instruction within the content areas to be essential, yet manageable. Because reading is not only vital for student progress, and it is a fundamental skill for employment (Calhoon, 2005), it becomes indispensable for adequate functioning in society. (Alfassi, 2004, p.171). Since teaching reading appears to be synonymous with teaching content effectively, thus, having a positive effect on statewide assessments and since the ability to read is an essential life skill for personal autonomy (Calhoun, 2005), as responsible educators, it is imperative that strategic reading instruction be included in the daily lessons in every classroom.

ReferencesAlexander, P.A,. & Jetton, T. L. (2000). Learning from text: A multidimensional and developmental perspective. In M.L. Kamil, P.B. Mosentha, P.D. Pearson, & R.Barr (Eds), Handbook of reading research (vol. 3, pp. 285-310). Mahaw, NJ:Erlbaum.Alfassi, M. (1997). Reading to learn: Effects of combined strategy instruction on high school students. The Journal of Educational Research 97(4), 171-184.Alfassi, M. (2004). Reading to learn: Effects of compbined strategy instruction on high school students. Journal of Educational Research 97(4), 171-184.Allen, J. (2000). Yellow brick roads: Shared and guided paths to independent reading. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.Allinder, R.M., Dunse, L., Brunken, C.D., & Obermiller-Krolikowski, H.J. (2001).Influencing fluency in at-risk readers and students with learning disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 22(1), 48-54.Allington, R.L. (2002). You can’t learn much from books you can’t read. EducationalLeadership, 60(3), 16-19.Allington, R.I., & Johnston, P.H. (Eds.). (2002). Reading to learn: Lessons from exemplary 4th grade classrooms. New York: The Guilford Press.Biemiller, A. & Meichenbaum, D. (1992). The nature and nurture of the of the self-directed learner. Educational Leadership, 50(2), 75-80.Blachowicz, C., & Ogle, D. (2001). Reading comprehension: Strategies for independent learners. New York: The Guilford Press.Boon, R., Burke, M., Fore, C., & Spencer, V.G. (2006). The impact of cognitive organizers and technology-based practices to promote student success in secondary social studies classrooms. The Journal of Special Education Technology, 21(1), 5-15.

Budiansky, S. (2001). The trouble with textbooks. Prism, 10(6), 24-27.Calhoon, M.B. (2005). Effects of a peer-mediated phonological skill and reading

comprehension program on reading skill acquisition for middle school students with reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities 39(5), 424-433.Carnine, L., & Carnine, D. (2004). The interaction of reading skills and science content knowledge when teaching struggling secondary students. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 20, 203-218.Carnine, D.W., Silbert, J., Kame’enui, E.J., & Tarver, S.G. (2004). Direct instruction in reading (4th

ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson-Prentice Hall.Chall, J.S. (1995). The stages of reading development (2nd ed.). New York: Wadsworth.Chall, J.S,. & Conrad, S.S. (1991). Should textbooks challenge students? New York:Teachers College Press.Duke, N. & Pearson, P.D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. In A.E. Farstrup & S.J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (3rd ed., pp. 205-242). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Williams, D. (2002). Seven literacy strategies that work.Educational Leadership, 60(3), 70-73.Frank, C.B., Grossi, J.M., & Standfield, D.J. (2006). Applications of reading strategies within the classroom: Explanations, models, and teacher templates for content areas in grades 3-12. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.Fuchs, D. & Fuchs, L. (2005). Peer-assisted learning strategies: Promoting word recognition, fluency, and reading comprehension in young children. Journal of Special Education, 39, 34-44.Gersten, R., Fuchs, L.S., Williams, J.P., & Baker, S. (2001) Teaching reading comprehension strategies to students with learning disabilities: A review of research. Review of Educational Research, 71(2), 279-320.

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Gregg, M. & Sederers, D.C. (2006). Supporting children’s reading of expository text in the geography classroom. Reading Teacher, 60(2), 102-112.Hall, L.A. (2005). Teachers and content area reading: Attitudes, beliefs and change. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(4), 403-414.Harris, T. & Hodges, R. (Eds.). (1995). The literacy dictionary. York, DE: International Reading Association. Harmon, J.M., Hedrick, W.B., & Wood, K.D. (2005). Research on vocabulary instruction in the content areas: Implications for struggling readers. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 21, 261-280.Harmon, J.M., Hedrick, W.B., & Wood, K.D., & Gress, M. (2006). Vocabulary self-selection: A study of middle-school students’ word selections from expository texts. Reading Pscyhology, 26, 313-333.Heilman, J.A., Blair, T.R., & Rupley, W.H. (2002). Principles and practices of teaching reading (10th

ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.Jetton, T. L., & Alexander, P.A. (2004). Domains, teaching, and literacy. In T.L. Jetton & J.A. Dole (Eds.), Adolescent literacy research and practice (pp.15-39). New York: The Guilford Press.Kame’enui, E.J., & Simmons, D.C. (1990). Designing instructional strategies: The prevention of academic learning problems. Columbus, OH: Merrill.Klinger, J.K., Vaughn, S., & Schumm, J.S. (1998). Collaborative strategic reading during social studies in heterogeneous fourth-grade classrooms. Elementary School Journal, 99, 3-22.Kucan, L., & Beck, I.L. (1997). Thinking aloud and reading comprehension research:Inquiry, instruction, and social interaction. Review of Eductional Research, 67, 271-299.Langer, J.A. (2001). Beating the odds: Teaching middle and high school students to read and write well. American Educational Research Journal, 38, 837-880.Lester, J.H. (2000). Secondary instruction: Does literacy fit in? The High School Journal, 83, 10-16.Lipson, M.Y., & Lang, L.B. (1991). Not as easy as it seems: Some unresolved questions about fluency. Theory into Practice, 30, 218-226.Manset-Williamson, G., & Nelson, J.M. (2005). Balanced, strategic reading instruction for upper-elementary and middle school students with reading disabilities: A comparative study of two approaches. Learning Disability Quarterly 28, 59-74.Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1995). Teaching science to students with disabilities in general education settings. Teaching Exceptional Children, 27(4), 10-13.Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., & Graetz, J. (2005). Cognition and learning in inclusive high school chemistry classes. In T.E. Scruggs, & M.A. Mastropieri (Eds.), Cognition and learning in diverse settings: Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities (Vol. 18, pp. 107-118). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., Spencer, V.G., & Fontana, J. (2003). Promoting success in high school world history: Peer tutoring versus guided notes. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18(1), 52-65.

McKenna, M.C., & Robinson, R.D. (2006). Teaching through text: Reading and writing in the content areas (4th ed.). New York: Pearson Education, Inc.Misulis, K. (1999). Making vocabulary development manageable in content instruction. Contemporary Education, 70(2), 25-29.National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.National Reading Panel. (2000 April 13). Summary report. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.Palinscar, A.S. & Brown, A.L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension fostering and comprehension monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction 1, 117-175.Perie, M., Grigg, W., & Donahue, P. (2005). The Nation’s Report Card: Reading 2005 (NCES 2006-451). U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.Rasinski, T.V. (1989). Fluency for everyone: Incorporating fluency instruction in the classroom. The Reading Teacher 42, 690-693.Richek, M.A., Caldwell, J.S., Jennings, J.H., & Lerner, J.W. (2002). Reading problems:Assessment and teaching strategies (4th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.Rupley, W. H. & Nichols, W. D. (2005). Vocabulary instruction for the struggling reader.Reading & Writing Quarterly, 21, 239-260.Rupley, W. H., Logan, J. W., & Nichols, W. D. (1999). The role of vocabulary in a balanced view of reading. The Reading Teacher, 52(4), 238-247.

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Shanker, J.L., & Ekwall, E.E. (1998). Locating and correcting reading difficulties (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Spencer, V.G., Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (2003). Content area learning in middle school social studies classrooms and students with emotional or behavioral disorders: A comparison of strategies. Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 77-93.

Spires, H.A., & Stone, P.D. (1989). The directed notetaking activity: A self-questioning approach .Journal of Reading, 33, 6-39Zigmond, N. (2006). Reading and writing in co-taught secondary school social studies classrooms: A reality check. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 22, 249-268.Zipperer, F., Worley, M., Sisson, M., & Said, R. (2002). Literacy education and reading programs in secondary schools: Status, problems, and solutions. NASSP Bulletin, 86, 3-17.

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INCLUSIVE EDUCATION SUPPORT SYSTEMS:TEACHER AND ADMINISTRATOR VIEWS

Angela ValeoRyerson University

Studies have shown teacher attitudes to be an important factor in the success of integrative practices in special education. In particular, many teachers feel that their efforts at integration are not supported by their administrators. In this research paper, interviews with both principals and teachers have confirmed this assumption. While principals felt that there were several systems in place through which they were being supportive, teachers believed this was not the case. More specifically, this paper examined the kind of support principals believed they were offering with the kind of support teachers wanted to be receiving.

Education of students with disabilities has been and continues to be a focus of educational reform. At the heart of the issue is the movement of students with special needs from a segregated/congregated setting wherein students with special needs are grouped together, to a more inclusive setting where they are integrated with typically developing peers. This movement is referred to as mainstreaming, integration, and the regular education initiative. Integration/mainstreaming can be defined as the placement of learners with disabilities in regular classes on a full-time or part-time basis with typically developing peers. In this model special education support services can be delivered inside of the regular classroom, but more typically involve sending the student out of the regular class during some part of the school day to receive special instruction (Bunch, Finnegan, Humphries, Doré, & Doré, 2005). While integration differs from full inclusion where students with special needs are unquestionably placed in a regular classroom with typically developing peers for the whole day and have special instruction delivered in the regular class (Bunch, Finnegan, Humphries, Doré, & Doré, 2005), integration can be seen as a positive step in the acceptance of students with special needs into the regular classrooms of their neighborhood schools. For the purposes of this paper, the terms integration and inclusion will be considered synonymous.

Studies of educator attitudes towards integration have indicated that the attitudes of principals and teachers differed with regard to the ease and success of mainstreaming (Garver-Pinhas & Schmelkin, 1989; Junkala & Mooney, 1986; Walsh & Kompf, 1990). Bunch (1992) specifically pointed to a belief among teachers that their administrators did not support their efforts at integration as strongly as principals believed they did. Whereas principals were positive regarding their level of support, teachers were significantly less positive that they were receiving the kind of supports they needed. A considerable number of studies have documented the un-preparedness for inclusion of members of both groups. Fox and Ysseldyke (1997) pointed out that many administrators failed to implement inclusive programming due to inadequate training and lack of administrative leadership. Cook, Semmel, and Gerber (1999), in a study of principal and special education teachers found differences of belief between these two groups regarding challenges presented by inclusion/integration. Damm, Beirne-Smith and Latham (2001) found disagreement between administrators and teachers regarding management of inclusive programs. They suggested that administrators may not have a good understanding of principles of inclusion/integration in the classroom. Limited administrator preparation for overseeing special education, and inadequacy of teacher pre-service preparation were also mentioned. Scruggs and Mastropieri (1996), in a synthesis of teacher perceptions of inclusion, spoke of teachers believing they had insufficient time, skills, training, and resources for inclusion. Olson and Chalmers (1997) pointed out that, while general educators were responsible for attending large numbers of meetings, making accommodations, and finding time for everything, administrators often failed to recognize their efforts. Werts, Wolery, Snyder, Caldwell, and Salisbury (1996) emphasized teachers’ perceptions of need for resources for inclusion, especially as level of student challenge increased. This perception was accompanied by perception of lack of provision of needed resources by administrators. That such perceptions were not unique to North American education can be found in research such as that by Moberg (2000) of Finland and Sadek and Sadek (2000) of Egypt. Both pointed

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to concerns regarding success of inclusion and administrators’ understanding and provision of needed resources.

This study examined differences in perceptions of administrators and teachers by looking at how both groups understood the role of the school administrator in supporting regular classroom teachers in including/integrating students with challenging needs. Specific research questions were: a) what type of support did principals feel they offered regular classroom teachers so that inclusion can take place?, b) what kind of support did regular classroom teachers want to see their principals offering?, and c) how did these views compare?.

MethodThe participants in this study consisted of six regular class, elementary school teachers and five elementary school principals from a Canadian metropolitan school system. All were recommended to the researcher as possible participants by an administrator with the School Board. Contact was made by the researcher and permission to be interviewed was obtained verbally from each of the participants. Each was told that they would be asked questions concerning their views on integration/inclusion. Terminology was not defined by the participants unless requested. None requested clarification of terms. The teachers, identified in this study as T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6, had been teaching from three to ten years with the average being 7.8 years. All had experience with the integration of students with special needs in their class. Five of the teachers had experience with mildly disabled students who were partially integrated into their classes; one teacher also had experience with a student with severe disabilities integrated into the class for the entire school day. The principals, identified in this study as P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5, had administrative experience ranging from four to twenty-four years with the average being nine years. The system from which participants were drawn supported a special education model in which students with challenging needs were primarily served in congregated classes rather than the regular classroom. However, many of these students were also placed in regular classrooms for some subjects and spent from 30 to 70% of their time in a regular classroom alongside typically developing peers.

The research methodology used in this study involved formal interviews with participants using pre-set guide questions. Interviews took from 20 to 30 minutes each. Data analysis employed qualitative methodology, specifically the constant comparative approach in which transcriptions were read and re-read, points of interest coded and collated, and categories of interest generated (Glaser, 1992). All interviews were taped and each tape was transcribed within one week of the interview. Each transcript was proofread against the tape recording to ensure accuracy. Quotations are given verbatim without correction of typical grammatical lapses occurring during running speech.

LimitationsThere are several limitations to this study which need to be made explicit. First and foremost is the very nature of the data collection process itself. Interview studies have disadvantages which are inherent to the method not the least of which involves interviewer bias in interpreting the respondent’s answers. In addition, because interviews provide less anonymity than other methods, they may influence the kind of answers provided by the interviewee (Bailey, 1987). Bias and subjectivity are, however, also possible when interpreting data in the process of coding. In addition, there was no follow-up to the interviews for purposes of clarification of participant answers. Finally, the size of the sample in this study limits the ability to generalize results. The current study is therefore, presented as a pilot study from which to gauge teacher and administrator ideas regarding supports they view as necessary for successful inclusion/integration.

FindingsTeacher PerceptionsTeacher perceptions fell into seven categories. In the first, teachers defined their role in the integrationmodel used in their schools. In the second, teachers described problems they experienced with integration. Following this, teachers were asked for their definitions of successful integration and, next, who they felt had ownership responsibility for students with special needs. Categories five and six dealt with issues of administrator support, while the final section explored teachers’ overall beliefs about non-inclusive settings.

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Role in IntegrationTeachers appeared to have difficulty articulating their roles. There were marked tendencies to respond by referring to challenges of students or otherwise mentioning student needs rather than articulating what they believed their role to be. The following are examples of responses to questions of teacher role:

T1: You have a wide variety of students. You have your so-called regular class and then who would be integrated in, would be your English as a second language, your special students, your learning disabled and gifted.T3: I guess, first of all, the philosophy at this school is that even if kids do need some special education assistance, they’re still integrated in the regular classroom. We have two special ed classes as well. They’re called language classes or LD classes. So they’re kids that have some sort of language disability.

However, two of the six teachers offered quite different responses. One saw her role as coordinator of the curriculum in collaboration with special education teachers.

T2: Well, I sort of coordinate the curriculum with the special education teachers, because we are not here for them to do their own thing and I do mine. So they follow their

curriculum, except they do it in a different way.

The other teacher suggested that she had no role in integration. As her response continued, it became apparent that she did have a role related to setting the curriculum, though collaboration with the special education teacher appears to have withered.

T4: I would say that I hardly have one anymore. He [the special education teacher] used to stop in with me, and we’d have little meetings once in a while. At the beginning, he hoped that he was following the same program, maybe at a different rate, or he’d pick what was the important topic or focus. But now, its totally separate.

Most teachers were unable to give a clear account of their roles in integration. They focused on labels and general type of student need. Two of the six defined their roles in terms of setting the curriculum for all children. Both indicated that their roles included collaboration with the special education teacher, though that collaboration failed at times. The findings appear to indicate that, overall, teachers were unable to give a clear account of their role in the process of integration.

Challenges with IntegrationAll six teachers had encountered challenge in their teaching due to the presence of students with special needs; finding time while simultaneously dealing with students with special needs was demanding. The issue of time, in fact, dominated the discussion and teachers expressed the concern that they simply did not have enough time to adequately address the needs of students with exceptionalities.

T3: It is challenging because when you’ve got, you know, 27, which is what I’ve got most of the day. It’s a big class for grade 3 as it is, and then to have four kids that need a modified program for math and language. It’s busy. I just don’t have the whole day to sit with them, because I’ve got 23 other kids that also deserve some attention.

A second concern was making students too dependent on the personal assistance of the teacher through modifications, particularly at grade 7 or 8 levels. Finishing in time took on a particular meaning at these levels.

T4: They’re not anywhere close to meeting the academic levels that they need for high school. That’s what scares me, ‘cause in grade 7, we spend a lot of time preparing for high school.

Both teachers appeared to see a time-bomb effect of students not being able to meet the demands of the regular curriculum. They saw themselves as caught in a curriculum-driven system and faced with students who did not have the personal or academic resources to keep pace with their more able peers academically.

Other teachers pointed to student inability to function independently, whether the reference was to personal independence or ability to deal with aspects such as written instructions.

T1: I didn’t know exactly what to do for Intermediate students to integrate them. in Intermediate, this is the question I have asked. I wanted to know exactly how far to go in the Intermediate, because you have to prepare them to be more independent in high school.Take

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an example. In social studies we are doing mapping. With the special education students, they just cannot follow the written instructions. I have to spend extra time on every unit I’m doing.

Lastly, student behavior was viewed as frequently distracting other students and taking time away from them.

T6: The behavior adjustment child created a lot of difficulties in the dynamics of the classroom, especially in that he had a very low threshold for tolerating the other children and often he would explode unannounced. And that would result, not only in a break in my program, but it would result in me spending a good hour after his explosion in trying to calm the class down.

Teachers found time for instruction of all students to be a complicating factor. They wrapped class size, need for modification of curriculum, student independence, moving to high school, lack of reading and writing skills, and student behaviour around the time issue.

Definition Of Successful IntegrationTeachers, when asked for their definition of successful integration, focused on what success would look like. Focus was on modification of curricula to meet needs and having sufficient time.

T1: Ideally, if the numbers were smaller, much smaller, and if it could be modified to the extent that you could spend more time with them; to make them understand. Well, it has to be their level.

A second quality of success was that help was needed to achieve successful integration. T3: I guess if the special ed teacher helped me more as far as outlining their program for them, for their kids, so that they had really specific goals that they could work through. But I guess it would be easier if the teacher came on a really regular basis.

In most cases, successful integration appeared to be defined by immediate concerns rather than any general idealistic view of what integration look like. Teachers who were having difficulty with modifications and class management defined successful integration in those terms. Others, whose frustrations stemmed from poor interpersonal relationships with the resource person, defined successful integration by focusing on this relationship. None of the teachers described hypothetical situations for successful integration which took into account concerns not immediate to them.

Teacher ResponsibilityClassroom teachers tended to avoid responding to a direct question of who should have responsibility for students with special needs in regular classrooms. Initial responses were tangential and off-topic. When the question was repeated in different form, teachers did respond more directly. Responses had two qualities. One was that the regular classroom teacher held responsibility, though it might be shared with a special education teacher. The other was that the special education teacher held full responsibility. This was the position of the majority of participants.

T4: Me. That’s why I don’t like sending them [to the special education teacher]. I feel like they’re out of my hands. I want to take responsibility for them. It’s to do with building trust and confidence.T6: Special education teacher. Because I think with the smaller numbers, the special ed teacher is able to provide more consistent work with these students. And, probably, because of the greater contact, they know more of the things that need to be looked at.

The primary finding under this category is that most teachers preferred another teacher to have responsibility for students with special needs in the regular classroom. However, if they were in the regular class, a special education teacher should be there to take responsibility. The basis of this belief was that the special education teacher had knowledge which the regular teacher did not, that the special education teacher had more contact with students with special needs, and that they were hired to do the job. Only a minority of regular teachers felt the responsibility to be theirs, hopefully with in-class assistance.

Support Desired of PrincipalsThe question on supports desired of principals left no doubt but that teachers wanted their administrators to understand that special education teachers were a primary support for regular classroom staff.

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T3: I would like her to somehow be more in charge of what the special ed teachers are doing .... I think that they should be made to stick to whatever their schedule is.T5: I would like her to keep better track of what the [special education] teacher is doing …It would be nice if she could schedule meetings with him every so often, or even with myself and the [special education] teacher.

Additionally suggested is that principals were not on top of the special education program and what the special education teacher was doing. As one regular classroom teacher said,

T4: I would like him to know what’s going on .... I’d like to see suggestions from him on how to improve the process.

Other comments echoed this teacher’s perception. In the following quote teachers indicated that they definitely expected principals to do more than what was being done in leading the integration program.

T6: I think a more clear structure of what we’re supposed to do and what kind of success we’re supposed to achieve with the special students. And I also think that it’s up to the principal again to establish a framework with a, how special ed will be handled in the school.

A main element of desired support was stimulation of a close relationship between the regular classroom teacher and the special education teacher. It was obvious that regular classroom teachers felt that a close relationship was not common, and that teachers felt themselves powerless to do anything about it.

T6: I think right now it’s just left to everyone’s devices and if you don’t get along with the special education teacher, you never see each other.I think it’s the principal’s role to mandate that close communication that such close teaching occur. I think, left to themselves, everybody does their own thing.

Other points also emerged in response to what was desired of a principal. One of the six regular classroom teachers wanted the principal To find another teacher for these students ( T2) in what appeared to be complete rejection of any involvement with the integration program. Another stated that principals should take care not to place too many students with special needs in one class. However, what came through most powerfully was that regular class teachers desired their principals to ensure that special education teacher support was available, that close regular teacher –special education teacher relationships were expected and stimulated, and that principals assumed leadership of the program. What also came through was that most regular class teachers in this study did not believe their principals to be providing leadership or supports.

Support Received From PrincipalsThe natural follow-up to regular class teacher desired supports was exploration of whether principals offered support and what forms this took. Regular class teachers encountered considerable difficulty responding to questions around principal support. Responses tended to be brief and negative. Answers such as the following were common:

T1: I haven’t really had support.T4: None. None at all. He keeps totally out of everything and that’s the reason I’m transferring [out of the school].T5: Uh, well, no…the only support I would say I get is, is, you know, if you want to call it emotional support. With [the behavioral student] when we were having all those problems, she did keep me updated each week as to what[the behavior student’s] status was.T6: No.

The answers above indicate that teachers do not feel their efforts at integration are supported by the principal.

Beliefs About Integrative SettingsPrevious discussions reviewed regular teacher views of supports provided by principals. However, in interviews there was a quality which suggested that overall attitudes of regular teachers with regard to placing students with special needs in regular classrooms were negative. Regular teachers participating in this study questioned the correctness and value of students with special needs in regular settings. Definite support for placement in special settings was voiced. Consider, for example, the following general responses:

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T2: These children need help every day. They need the help every day, but now they are only going out [to a special class] three times, three afternoons. And the break in between [time in the regular class] is hampering their progress.T3: Most of all, we need to look at what is best for the students, and for many the fact that regular classes are so large, leads to the inevitable [special class] placement because they can’t cope in the regular class.

In the example above, the size of the class was believed to keep students with exceptionalities from benefiting.

The findings for regular class teachers offer a bleak picture. There was a focus on student needs as being beyond regular teacher capacity, belief that students with needs had to deal with the curriculum of the regular classroom as did other students, but were unable to do so, and a belief that teachers simply did not have time to support these students academically and behaviorally. Regular teachers were unable to define what success in integration was, other than implying that it meant learning and behaving at the level of regular students. Their focus was on the challenges posed by students with special needs, and on need to have extra, but unavailable, assistance in the classroom. Teachers generally believed students with special needs not to be their responsibility, but that of the special education teacher. They saw support from principals taking the form of making special education teachers keep to a set schedule of support, and the principal assuming leadership of the integration program, and expecting and stimulating close regular teacher-special education teacher relationships. Teachers did not believe their principals delivered these supports. Finally, their experiences with integration convinced the majority of regular teachers that placement in special classes would meet the needs of students with disabilities more powerfully than would placement in regular classrooms.

In essence, built up over the past pages is a sense that teachers depend on their principals to assist them in developing successful integration programs. They want their principals to be active in leading the program, in providing needed supports, in ensuring a positive and supportive relationship with their special education colleagues, in recognizing the challenges a regular teacher faces, most particularly that of time, and in making certain that curricular expectations are clear and appropriate.

Principal PerceptionsResponses by principals to guide questions were not as varied or as full as those of regular class teachers. Major areas of discussion were perceptions of their own roles in integration and in support of regular teachers, in challenges presented to them by integration, and supports they would liked to offered regular teachers.

Elementary principals in this study regarded their roles as being administrative in nature and avoiding interference with the daily running of the integration program. They acted as overseers.

P1: My role is to make sure that, well, a lot of its administrative - get all the paperwork done. I read all the review forms. I read all the Pupil Education Plans.P4: More or less to oversee [the program.] I have a lot of faith in my staff. I let them do whatever they want in terms of their program. I’m in their classes. I know what’s going on.

Responses such as these suggested that principals maintained administrative distance and a laisser-faire stance, but felt informed and in charge of the program. They also saw a major aspect of their role as principals to be arranging for and attending meetings.

Meetings seem to be numerous and viewed as a strategy for keeping tabs on the integration program. The following comment, again, illustrates this perception:

P2: We’ve got a school based support team model here, and we meet on a regular basis in order to discuss kids that are at risk there, and to talk about their needs. Beyond that, I meet with the classroom teachers monthly to go over registers and talk about students that are having problems.

Principals also viewed their role as one of being available to their teachers, encouraging and, again, non-interfering as indicated by the following comments:

P3: I can encourage whatever should be happening to happen, but I don’t have to encourage because the teachers here …work in such close collaboration with the special ed teacher. P4: I like to keep hands-off. They should be able to come to me. They usually don’t though.

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Principals believed that the administrative strategies described are sufficient to keep them well-informed about the integration program. Various confident responses made this point. But responses from teachers did not support principals’ views that they had a clear understanding of how things should be.

Overall, principals were confident that their overseer position, their closeness to the integration program, and their availability to teachers provided them a good understanding of dynamics around the program. They saw themselves as understanding what integration means, as possessing a sound idea of the challenges they faced as administrators, and as aware of the tension inherent in the student ownership question. They believed their integration programs to be acceptably successful. The principal perspective seemed to be that success in educating students with special needs in regular classrooms required regular teachers and special teachers work well together, and share responsibility for students with special needs. For example:

P4: The special education teacher and the regular class teacher are really in sync…. Their timetables are such that they can actually get together and integrate their programs. The regular teachers feel so comfortable in their role as a team that they don’t mind another teacher in the class.

Earlier responses from teachers did not support the confidence of the principals. Responses from principals indicated a belief that they possessed a clear understanding of what was required in a successful program. Teacher responses suggested that principals were blind to the fact that assuming everything was well was not the same as ensuring that everything was well.

However, principals were not totally unaware of dynamics which may be disruptive to programs. They were aware of possible trouble spots. Responses, however, did not indicate how they saw themselves responding to these trouble spots. For instance, they understood that regular and special education teachers might not always work well together.

P4: In any sort of collegial relationship, there still has to be somebody who co-ordinates it. The special education teacher – it doesn’t matter whether it’s behavioral or anything else – they set up the PEPs [Pupil Education Plans], they set up the education plans in consultation with the regular class teacher. They develop the PEP – they have to communicate that to the regular class teacher. That’s usually where it breaks down.

Additionally, principals understood that confusion might exist over who held responsibility for students with special needs and who took ownership? The following comment illustrates this perception:

P2: Ownership is always a problem and it’s been a problem since day one, as soon as we had differentiated classes. And, I think, that it’s very much more demanding to meet the needs of a special education student in your room when you may believe in your heart that the special education person should be handling it.

Recognition of possible challenges, however, was not supported by discussion of how principals might respond to challenges. When queried on what types of support principals would like to offer to promote program success, principals in this study seemed stymied. Three of the five repeated descriptions of how they believed integration programs to be running, or described problems experienced in other administrative assignments. Two principals did respond on topic, but not in terms of the range of challenges teachers noted. For example the following principals stated:

P2: Resources are really a problem here and I would like to put more human resources in. A teacher assistant would be great.P5: Well, I was going to say that I’d like to see social workers and psychologists assigned to the schools. I think that would help a lot, especially if I could pick them.

Principals appeared not to have considered what resources would be of value to their integration programs. Principals seemed unaware of the variety of types of support teachers said they needed. When principals mentioned additional resources, they tended to focus on more personnel. In this one area, principals and their teachers were in accord.

SummaryIt was clear from participants’ responses that there existed differing perceptions between principals and teachers regarding supports available for successful integration. Teachers did not feel supported by their principals, yet principals seemed to feel that they were offering support by taking care of the

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administrative aspects of integration (i.e. scheduling meetings, overseeing paperwork). Integration was also seen to be complicated by what many teachers believed to be a curriculum-driven system and they appeared frustrated by issues of time and of curriculum demands. This finding has been supported by other studies such as that of Fox and Ysseldyke (1997) which also noted lack of time as a concern among teachers. Not only did teachers in this study feel that they lacked the time to adequately meet the needs of students with exceptionalities, but many felt that to give those students the extra time would mean a decrease in supports for regular class students. This was a similar finding in a study by Scruggs and Mastropieri (1996) which found that a considerable number of teachers in their study believed students with special needs required too much attention. An added strain on the issue of time concerned the pressure many of the teachers felt to ensuring completion of a set curriculum within a given period of time and their view that students with special needs hinder this process. Cooperation between the regular class teacher and the special education teacher also appeared to be a significant concern. Many of the teachers felt that the pressures of integration could be alleviated somewhat through cooperation with the special education resource teacher. Thus they expected principals to ensure that the resource person cooperated as fully as possible with the regular class teacher. Teachers believed that principals had the power to enforce close cooperation. Principals, on the other hand, appeared to feel helpless in the face of a breakdown in communication between the two teachers. Interestingly, a study by Daane, Bernie-Smith, & Lathan (2000) noted the perception among administrators and teachers that collaboration between the regular classroom teacher and the special education teacher was not a comfortable relationship. Both principals and teachers in this study found teacher role definition and the sharing of responsibility for a child with special needs to be at the core of problems in integration. It is clear that research aimed at clarifying and making explicit the nature of this relationship is needed. Researchers such as Moberg (2000) have highlighted the significant impact that teacher attitudes and commitment can have on the success of integrated programs. Researchers such as Dyal, Flynt, & Samuel (1996) have pointed to the critical role that principals play in supporting integrated environments. However the studies done so far have not shed a clear light on the relationship which needs to exist between the two parties in order for inclusion/integration to succeed. The discrepancies which have been suggested to exist in this study between principals and regular classroom teachers are a cause for concern and indicate a need for further research.

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AAC INTERVENTIONS FOR AUTISM: A RESEARCH SUMMARY

Débora R. P. NunesUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil

Fifty-six studies from 1980 to 2007 involving the use of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) by individuals with autism were reviewed. The majority of the studies used single-subject research designs and emphasized language production skills. Many investigations were held in artificial language learning settings, and a few involved parents and teachers as intervention agents. Gaps in the provision of the participants’ cognitive, language, and sensory-motor measures were detected in the analysis of the 51 studies that provided individual participant data. Despite these limitations, this report revealed that communication interventions for individuals with autism that have incorporated sign language/total communication, visual-graphic symbols, and/or speech generating devices have had successful outcomes.

IntroductionImpairments in verbal and nonverbal communication are core defining features of autism (National Research Council [NRC], 2001). Expressive communication problems range from complete mutism to echolalia (Klin, 2006). Studies have shown that persons with autism fail to compensate speech impairments with gestures or facial expressions (Heflin & Alaimo, 2007). This population generally presents deficits in communicating for social purposes, orienting or attending to social partners or sharing affective or emotional states with others (Wetherby, Prizant & Schuler, 2000). Persons with autism tend to avoid eye contact and exhibit limited use of symbolic communicative gestures, such as showing, waving, nodding or pointing (NRC, 2001; Wetherby et al., 2000). In terms of comprehension, some individuals present deficits in processing audio-vocal information, such as verbal language (Wong & Wong, 1991) or understanding nonverbal forms of communication, such as conventional gestures (Wetherby, et al., 2000). The poor prognosis that individuals with autism have in developing language and communication skills make them good candidates for augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) interventions, either to supplement their existing speech or as a substitute method for expressive communication. In the present report, a narrative summary of the studies published on AAC interventions with a focus on individuals with autism will be discussed. This analysis will be guided by the following topics: (a) the types of AAC strategies used; (b) experimental designs; (c) language intervention goals; (d) setting and intervention agents and (e) participant characteristics. This paper provides an update of the studies analyzed by Mirenda (2003).

Peer-reviewed studies from the fields of special education and communication disorders published in the years 1980 through 2007 were consulted. The search method consisted of three strategies: computerized searches, hand searches and footnote inspection.The articles found in these references were included in this review considering two selection criteria: First, the investigations had to involve participants with a diagnosis of autism, using AAC. Second, the study had to report measures of some aspect of language (form, content or use). A total of 56 published studies were identified for this report.

More rigorous criteria to evaluate the adequacy of these studies, such as those normally used in meta-analysis, were not applied. Book chapters and unpublished literature, such as theses and dissertations, were excluded from this analysis. Thus this paper does not provide definitive conclusions regarding the effectiveness of the approaches used, but a general review of studies published in peer-reviewed journals, which can be valuable for researchers and practitioners in the field.

Types Of AAC Strategies For Individuals With AutismIn this review, eighteen of the fifty-six studies analyzed used total communication/sign language, or gestures as an alternative or augmentative system of communication. Twenty-six investigations taught

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the participants to use visual symbols, such as pictures. Nine studies utilized speech generating devices (SGD); and three studies used a hybrid approach, combining aided and unaided systems.

Sign Language/Total CommunicationSign language teaching has been in the autism literature for over thirty years and emerged as an alternative to speech training methods. Research from the early 70’s revealed that individuals with autism who were echolalic often benefited from speech training, whereas those who were mute generally did not (Lovaas, 1977). The use of sign language as an alternative form of communication is justified when considering that approximately thirty percent of people with autism are functionally mute (Klin, 2007) and that even after years of intensive speech training, only about half of these individuals acquire spoken language (Seal & Bonvillian, 1997). The idea of using sign language rather than speech was based on the assumption that manual communication would be easier to generalize to nontreatment settings (Bonvillian, Nelson & Rhyne, 1981); that signs were more iconic and therefore required less symbolic processing than spoken language (Mirenda & Erickson, 2000); that signs were easily molded/prompted and could be shaped in the absence of other social skills (Rotholz, Berkowitz & Burberry, 1989); and that the use of a visual-motor mode of communication would bypass the auditory-vocal processing difficulties observed in this population (Wong & Wong, 1991).

In the last 27 years, the studies reported in the literature have evaluated the effects of teaching expressive and receptive vocabulary using speech, manual signs, gestures, sign language and total communication (speech and sign) on the language development of children with autism. These studies have produced interesting findings: (a) Some reported that total communication was more effective for teaching receptive and expressive vocabulary than speech alone methods (Barrera, Lobato-Barrera & Sulzer-Azaroff, 1980; Barrera & Sulzer-Azaroff, 1983; Yoder & Layton, 1988); (b) Others found no differences between the use of total communication and sign language to promote expressive (Remington & Clarke, 1983); or receptive sign language and speech (Wherry & Edwards, 1983); (c) Sign language was suggested to serve as a mediating system for speech for some participants in one study (Barrera & Sulzer-Azaroff, 1983) and even for improving verbal articulation of another participant in a related investigation (Ferrarese & Norton, 1982). In another set of studies, good verbal imitators were considered better at comprehending speech than poor verbal imitators (Carr & Dores, 1981; Carr et al., 1984; Yoder & Layton, 1988; Layton, 1988).

The effectiveness of assorted methods used for teaching sign language or total communication to this population was another topic of investigation. These studies revealed that naturalistic teaching strategies, such as environmental arrangement and incidental teaching, was an effective method of teaching sign language to children with autism (Kouri, 1988; Schepis, Reid, Fitzgerald, Faw, Pol & Welty, 1982), as well as discrete trial approaches (Bartman & Freeman, 2003; Buffington, Krantz, McClannahan & Poulson, 1998; Carr, Kologinsky & Leff-Simon, 1987; Sundberg, Endicott & Eigenheer, 2000, Walker, Hinerman, Jenson & Peterson, 1982; Watters, Wheelers & Watters, 1981; Wherry & Edwards, 1983).

Communication Systems that Use Visual-Graphic SymbolsVisual-graphic symbols such as photographs and pictograms have been successfully incorporated in AAC interventions with persons with autism (NRC, 2001). Some of the reasons for adopting graphic rather than manual systems or speech training interventions are related to the fact that certain individuals with autism may present disorders in prerequisite skills or cognitive deficits essential for signing or speaking. Specifically, these would include poor imitation skills and motor functioning disorders (NRC, 2001). The static feature of visual-graphic systems allows the individual to rely on recognition rather than recall memory to comprehend language (Heflin & Alaimo, 2007). The information-processing problems and precisely working memory deficits presented by this population would, therefore, justify the use of nontransient systems of communication (Mirenda & Marthy-Laikko, 1989). Additionally, the use of nontransient systems enhances the awareness of relevant environmental cues (von Tetzchner, Øvreeide, Jørgensen, Ormhaug, Oxholm, & Warme, 2004). The individual becomes able to check back and forth between the graphic utterance (which represents the relevant cue) and other aspects of the situation during a social interaction. Within a linguistic perspective, static graphic systems may facilitate the establishment of a signifier-significant relationship (von Tetzchner et al., 2004). In this context, it is hypothesized that the use of such systems facilitates the establishment of joint attention and the understanding of shared context.

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In this review, a large group of studies were consistent in indicating that individuals with autism respond better (expressively and receptively) to nontransient systems of communication, such as pictures, than to transient systems, such as speech or sign language (Peterson, Bondy, Vincent, & Finnegan, 1995; Rotholtz et al., 1989; Tincani, 2004, Vaughn & Horner, 1995; von Tetzchner, et al., 2004). Tincani (2004), however, found that a picture based system was more effective for teaching requesting to one participant in her study, while the other participant showed superior gains using sign language.

Another group of studies found that naturalistic strategies (e.g. mand-modeling, time-delay, and environmental arrangement) present in approaches such as the Natural Language Paradigm and Aided Language Stimulation were effective at teaching individuals with autism to use picture based systems to communicate (Cafiero, 2001; Hamilton & Snell, 1993; Nunes & Hanline, 2007; Stiebel, 1999). These investigations also reported that the use of these strategies resulted in gains in receptive vocabulary (Cafiero, 2001), vocalizations (Nunes & Hanline, 2007; Cafiero, 2001), as well as an increase in the use of gestures (Nunes & Hanline, 2007).

Picture communication symbols have also been successfully used to reduce problem behaviors and increase on-task responses with this population (Bryan & Gast, 2000; MacDuff et al., 1993; O’Neill & Sweetalnd-Baker, 2001; Schmitt, Alper & Raschke, 2000; Cafiero, 2001). In this review the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) was proven to be an effective strategy for: (a) facilitating vocal/verbal imitation (Cummings & Williams, 2000; Charlop-Christy, Carpenter, Le, LeBlanc, and Kellet, 2002), (b) increasing the frequency of communicative initiations, responses (Kravits, Kamps, Kemmerer & Potucek, 2002; Charlop-Christy et al., 2002; Magiati & Howlin, 2003; Marckel, Neef and Ferreri, 2006) and comments (Cafiero, 2001; Schwartz, Garginkle, & Bauer, (1998); and (c) decreasing problem behaviors (Cummings & Williams, 2000; Cafiero, 2001). On the other hand, the level of communicative competence of some participants in one study (Stoner, Beck, Bock, Hickey, Kosuwan and Thompson, 2006) and the frequency of verbalizations of other participants in a related investigation (Ganz, 2004) was not significantly altered with the use of PECS. Additionally, no significant gains were observed in the frequency of word approximations or number of intelligible words during PECS training in another research (Ganz, Simpson and Corbin-Newsome, 2007).

Yoder and Stone (2006) found that Responsive Education and Prelinguistic Milieu Teaching (RPMT) was better than PECS at developing generalized turn taking and joint attention skills in preschoolers, while PECS was better at facilitating generalized requests. In the study conducted by Tincani (2004), sign language was more effective for teaching request to one child with autism, while the other participant had better outcomes with the use of PECS.

As discussed by Ganz et al. (2007) and Stoner et al. (2006) the cognitive and/or language abilities of the individual may influence PECS outcomes. Individuals with higher cognitive and language abilities may progress easily with picture-based systems, such as PECS, while those with significant delays may require more iconic and less cognitive demanding systems.

Speech Generating Devices (SGD)Technological development in the field of AAC has furnished a voice to many individuals through speech generating devices (Schlosser & Blischak, 2001). SGD can be portable AAC mechanical apparatus that produce synthesized or digitized speech (NRC, 2001). The activation of the speech is done by physically touching graphic symbols (written words, letters, pictures) displayed on the device/switch.

Using artificial speech rather than visual symbols or sign language permits communication at a larger distance, makes the presence of an interpreter unnecessary and allows the programming of messages of varying lengths. Data from studies with adolescents with intellectual disabilities have also suggested that the use of SGD contributes to gains in receptive and expressive communication (Romski & Sevcik, 1993, 1996). Prelinguistic communicative behaviors in adolescents with autism have also been successfully substituted for more symbolic communication when speech generating devices were introduced (Sigafoos, O’Reilly, Seey-York, Weru, Son, Green & Lancioni, 2004a).

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In this literature review, two studies were consistent in suggesting that the use of SGD may enhance other communicative behavior, such as the use of gestures (Sigafoos et al., 2004a) and gestures combined with verbalizations (Schepis et al., 1998). On the other hand, studies that compared the participants’ communicative responses with SGDs turned on and off presented inconsistent results. While in one investigation the participants increased the frequency of communicative interactions and verbalizations with the SGD on (Dyches, 1998), in other studies, some of the participants presented no differences in the two conditions (Sigafoos, Didden & O’Reilly, 2003; Schlosser, Sigafoos, Luiselli, Angermeier, Harasymowyz, Schooley and Belfiore, 2007). The use of SGDs as a component of Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) was effective at promoting vocabulary acquisition and word retention (Bosseler & Massaro, 2003), as well as increasing verbalizations (Parsons & La Sorte, 1993) and vocal imitation (Bernard-Opitz, Sriram & Sapuan, 1999) in isolated clinical environments. In a study conducted in a naturalistic setting, SGDs were considered effective at replacing prelinguistic communication or as a communicative repair strategy (Sigafoos, Drasgow, Halle, O’Reilly, Seely-York, Edrisinha & Andrews, 2004b).

Hybrid SystemsAided or unaided systems of communication should be adopted considering not only the individual’s cognitive, sensory-motor and language/communication abilities, but also the context of his social interactions. In light of the results of this assessment, more than one type of system may be considered appropriate. Light and colleagues (1998), for instance, described a case study where a boy (age 6) with autism utilized various types of communication systems during social interactions. After performing a thorough assessment of the child’s skills and needs as well as identifying important social and environmental variables, three types of augmentative systems of communication were adopted, since the child was capable to functionally use verbal language. Interestingly, the contexts of the interactions determined the type of system to be utilized.

In a related study, Keen, Sigafoos and Woodyat (2001) taught 4 children with autism to replace prelinguistic behaviors with aided and unaided modes of communication. The investigation was held in the participants’ classroom and was conducted by the children’s teachers. As a result of this intervention, the four child participants effectively substituted nonfunctional responses with manual signs, picture systems and vocalizations.

The AAC literature has further emphasized the importance of conducting symbol assessments prior to choosing a symbol system to be incorporated in AAC interventions (Beukelman & Mirenda, 1998). The AAC user’s ability to comprehend the relationship between an object and its referent may be a determining factor when choosing more or less iconic symbols. Kozleski (1991) compared the vocabulary learning rates of individuals with autism exposed to various visual and tactile systems of communication. Using a multiple baseline design, the researcher found that the participants learned how to use Rebus and photopictorical symbols faster than less iconic symbols, such as Blissymbols and orthography.

MethodFive of the studies analyzed used group designs (Layton, 1988; Magiati & Howlin, 2003; Schwartz et al., 1998; Yoder & Layton, 1988; Yoder & Stone, 2006) while the remaining investigations worked with individual or small group data. Three investigations were descriptive case studies (Bondy & Frost, 1994; Light et al., 1998; Schwartz et al., 1998; von Tetzchner et al., 2004), while the others used some type of experimental research design methodology. From the experimental studies reviewed, 44 used some type of single-subject research methodology (Barlow & Herson, 1984). This type of approach seemed adequate, considering the heterogeneous characteristics of the population involved and the limited number of participants (Barlow & Hersen, 1984).

Language Intervention GoalsForty-three (77%) of the 56 studies reviewed focused on teaching communicative/language production skills. Eight (14%) investigations centered in receptive skills and five studies (9%) worked with both receptive and expressive communication. This trend is consistent with findings from the AAC literature, where a lack of focus on AAC as an input strategy for individuals with communication and language impairments is reported (Romski & Sevcik, 1993).

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Settings And Intervention AgentsTwenty (36%) of the fifty-six studies analyzed took place in artificial learning environments, such as therapy rooms or isolated booths in the schools. Eight (14%) investigations combined an artificial setting with a natural environment, such as the participants’ school or home. Nineteen (34%) studies occurred in schools or community settings, six (11%) took place in the children’s homes, while 3 (5%) others combined the school and the home.

In more than half of the studies the participants worked solely with the experimenter or a clinician. In thirteen investigations a teacher or facility staff were the primary interventionists. Only four investigations involved parents as primary intervention agents. Five studies combined teachers, parents and experimenters as interventionists. In one study the main interventionist was unclear.

Participant CharacteristicsFrom the 56 studies analyzed, 51 provided information on individual participant characteristics. Data revealed that the 154 participants (128 males and 26 females) involved in these 51 studies ranged in age from 2 to 31 years. Fifty (32%) of these individuals were between ages 2 and 5; 41 (26%) between 6 and 8; while 65 (42%) of the participants were above age 9. There was only one investigation involving a child below the age of 3 (Bartman & Freeman, 2003). This is critical, considering that communication intervention has proven to be more effective when provided before the age 3 ½ (Harris & Handleman, 2000). Despite the importance of evaluating how socioeconomic status, race and ethnicity may impact treatment initiatives (NRC, 2001), only eight investigations reported the participants’ ethnicity/race (Cafiero, 2001; Charlop-Christy et al., 2002; Ganz & Simpson 2004; Ganz et al., 2007; Nunes & Hanline, 2007; Tincani, 2004; Walker et al., 1982; Wherry & Edwards, 1983). From these participants, 5 individuals were categorized as African-Americans; four as Asians, five as Causcasians, one as Indian, and one Ethiopian. Only two studies (Cafiero, 2001; Nunes & Hanline, 2007) provided psychosocial measures of the individuals involved.

The assessments of cognitive and sensory perceptual functions (hearing and vision) are important in the implementation of AAC interventions (Beukelman & Mirenda, 1998). These data provide useful information regarding any limitations that might impact channels of input and instruction for potential AAC users. Level of intellectual functioning was provided for 111 (72%) of the 154 participants described. From this population, 102 participants were described as having some degree of intellectual disability, 2 functioned at a normal level, and 7 were regarded as high-functioning. Four of the 154 participants had some degree of hearing loss and two presented visual impairments. The deficits described were not reported to affect the optimal use of the communication/language systems adopted.

Individuals with autism may present poor motor imitation skills (NRC, 2001) and have motor functioning disorders which may impact the use of aided and unaided systems of communication. The incapacity to program movements may cause fine motor problems and the incapacity to adequately learn sign language (Seal & Bonvillian, 1997). Researchers have also reported that children with autism have difficulty in pointing to objects (Tsai, 1998). This may interfere with the optimal use of AAC strategies that require the user to point to pictures on communication boards or to activate a device by holding down a switch in a SGD system. In this context, it becomes necessary to assess the motor functioning abilities of this population in order to identify individuals who might successfully use the various types of AAC strategies as expressive modes of communication. In this literature review, researchers from 13 investigations (Cafiero, 2001; Carr et al, 1987; Kouri, 1988; Nunes & Hanline, 2007; Light et al., 1998; Remington & Clark, 1983; Rotholz et al., 1988; Schlosser et al., 2007; Sigafoos, 1998; Sigafoos et al., 2003; Sigafoos et al., 2004; Stiebel, 1999; Walker et al, 1982) provided measures on the participants’ motor skills. In total, 4 of the participants analyzed were regarded as having some degree of motor impairments. In the studies conducted by Carr et al. (1987) and Walker et al. (1982) these deficits did not seem to interfere with sign language use. Rotholz et al. (1989), on the other hand, reported that a communication book was chosen, considering participants’ limitations in using sign language. Schlosser and colleagues (2007) reported that all participants had adequate motor abilities to verbalize and operate an SGD.

The assessment of receptive language/communication skills are essential for identifying when/how the augmentation of spoken language is required as well as identifying alternative forms of language input. Measures of expressive language/communication are crucial to determine how language can be

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augmented or what type of system would be considered an alternative for persons who are nonverbal. Receptive language data were provided for 78 (51%) of the 154 participants; expressive language measures were reported for 141 (92%) participants. Most of the participants analyzed were reported to comprehend simple one-step verbal commands, mainly when accompanied by gestures. In terms of expressive language the majority of the individuals were characterized as nonverbal or having limited functional verbal skills.

DiscussionA review of 56 studies published in the last 27 years has provided valuable information regarding the nature of AAC interventions for individuals with autism. The three types of communication systems described in this report seemed to be effective for individuals with autism that presented some degree of intellectual disability, were essentially nonverbal, and, in general, above the age of 5.

The majority of the studies used single-subject research designs and emphasized on language production skills. A high percentage of these investigations was held in artificial language learning settings, involving solely a clinician or an experimenter. Most researchers provided general intellectual functioning scores of the participants involved, but few described their motor or sensory abilities. Likewise, information of participants’ socioeconomic status, race or ethnicity was limited.

Since a reduced number of studies compared the efficacy of different types of AAC strategies, not much can be stated regarding the advantages of one system over another. Nonetheless, many investigators in this review anecdotally discussed the benefits of each system. Some of the advantages of using sign language included (a) its portability; (b) its characteristic of being a true language system and (c) the possibility of communication occurring at a faster pace. Among the positive aspects of using a visual-graphic system were: (a) its iconicity; (b) its nontransient nature; and (c) the limited motor requirements for its use. SGDs were considered advantageous for (a) they allowed communication to occur at larger distances; (b) they permitted messages to be easily deciphered; and (c) required limited cognitive and motor demands.

Despite the gaps identified in this discussion, many positive changes have occurred in these last decades. The most important is, perhaps, the fact that researchers and clinicians stopped viewing language as being equivalent to speech. Investigations have, alternatively, expanded the focus of language intervention programs from speech training to the use of nonverbal systems, such sign language or visual-graphic strategies. The adoption of nonverbal systems for individuals who are unable to speak, but motorically and cognitively competent also suggests that interventionists are focusing on enhancing skills that individuals with disabilities have, rather than centering on what this population is incapable of doing.

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* Rotholz, D. A., Berkowitz, S.F., Burberry, J. (1989). Functionality of two modes of communication in the community by students with developmental disabilities: a comparison of signing and communication books. Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps, 14 (3), 227-233.* Schepis, M., Reid, D., Fitzgerald, J.R., Faw, G., Pol, R., Welty, P. (1982). A program for increasing manual signing by autistic and profoundly retarded youth within the daily environment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 15 (3), 363-379.* Schepis, M., Reid, M. & Behrmann, M., Sutton & Sutton, K. (1998). Increasing communicative interactions of young children with autism using a voice output communication aid and naturalistic teaching. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31, 561-578.Schlosser, R. & Blischak, D. (2001). Is there a role for speech output in interventions for persons with autism? A review. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16 (3), 170-178.* Schlosser, R., Sigafoos, J., Luiselli, J., Angermeier, K., Schooley, K., Harasymowyz, U., & Belfiore, J. (2007). Effects of synthetic speech output on requesting and natural speech production in children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 1, 139-163.* Schmitt, J., Alper, S., Raschke, D. & Ryndak, D. L. (2000). The effects of using a photographic cueing package during routine school transitions with a child with autism. Mental Retardation, 38(2), 131-137. * Schwartz, I., Garginkle, A. & Bauer, J. (1998). The picture exchange communication system: communicative outcomes for young children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education 18 (3), 144-159.Seal, B. C. & Bonvillian, J. D. (1997). Sign language and motor functioning in students with autistic disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27 (4), 437-466.* Sigafoos, J. (1998). Assessing conditional use of graphic mode requesting in a young boy with autism. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 10, 133 – 151.* Sigafoos, J., Drasgow, E., Halle, J., O'Reilly, M., Seely-York, S., Edrisinha, C. & Andrews, C. (2004a).Teaching VOCA use as a communication repair strategy. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 411-422. * Sigafoos, J., Didden, R., & O’Reilly, M. (2003). Effects of voice-output technology on requesting and vocalizations in three children with developmental disabilities. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 19, 37–47.* Sigafoos J, O'Reilly M, Seely-York S, Weru J, Son Sh, Green V, Lancioni G. (2004b). Transferring AAC intervention to the home. Disabil Rehabil. 26(21-22):1330-4.* Stiebel, D. (1999). Promoting augmentative communication during daily routines: a parent problem-solving intervention. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 1 (3), 159-169.* Stoner, J.B., Beck, A.R., Bock, S.J., Kosuwan, K., Hickey, K., & Thompson, J.R. (2006). The effectiveness of the Picture Exchange Communication System with nonspeaking adults. Remedial and Special Education, 27(3), 154–165* Sundberg, M. L., Endicott, K. & Eigenheer, P. (2000). Using intraverbal prompts to establish tacts for children with autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 17, 89-104.* Tincani, M. (2004). Comparing the Picture Exchange Communication System and sign language training for children with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Studies, 19, 152-163. Udwin, O. & Yule, W. (1991). Augmentative communication systems taught to cerebral-palsied children – a longitudinal study. III. Teaching practices and exposures to sign and symbol use in schools and homes. British Journal of Communication Disorders, 26, 149-162.* Vaughn, B. & Horner, R. (1995). Effects of concrete versus verbal choice systems on problem behavior. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 11, 89-92* VonTetzchner, S., Øvreeide, K.D., Jørgensen, K.K., Ormhaug, B., Oxholm, B.M., Warme, R. (2004). Acquisition of graphic communication by a young girl without comprehension of spoken language. Disability and Rehabilitation, 26 (2), 1335-1346. * Walker, G. R., Hinerman, P. S., Jenson, W., Petersen, P. (1982). Sign language as a prompt to teach a verbal “yes” and “no” discrimination to an autistic boy. Child Behavior Therapy, 3 (4), 77-86.

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* Watters, R., Wheeler, L. & Watters, W. (1981). The relative efficiency of two orders for training training autistic children in the expressive and receptive use of manual signs. Journal of Communication Disorders, 14, 273-285.Wetherby, A., Prizant, B., Schuler, A. (2000). Understanding the nature of communication and language impairments. In S. Warren & J. Reichle (Series Eds.) & A. Wetherby and B. Prizant (Vol. Eds.) Communication and language intervention series: Vol. 9. Autism spectrum disorders (pp.109-141). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.* Wherry, J. & Edwards, R. (1983). A comparison of verbal, sign, and simultaneous system for the acquisition of receptive language by an autistic boy. Journal of Communication Disorders, 16, 201-216.Wong, V., & Wong, S. N. (1991). Brainstem auditory evoked potential study in children with autistic disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 21, 329-340.* Yoder, P. & Layton, T. (1988). Speech following sign language training in autistic children with minimal verbal language. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18, 217 – 229.* Yoder, P. & Stone, W. (2006). Randomized comparison of two communication interventions for preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 74, (3) 426–435.

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SPEECH RATES OF TURKISH PRELINGUALLY HEARING-IMPAIRED CHILDREN

M. Cem Girgin Anadolu University

The aim of training children with hearing impairment in the auditory oral approach is to develop good speaking abilities. However, children with profound hearing-impairment show a wide range of spoken language abilities, some having highly intelligible speech while others have unintelligible speech. This is due to errors in speech production. While children with hearing-impairment speak, segmental and prosodic errors may occur, so the intelligibility of their speech is affected. Because of these segmental and prosodic errors, the speaking rate of hearing-impaired children can be slower than that of hearing children. The aim of the current study is to find out if there are differences between children with and without hearing-impairment in terms of speech and reading rates. Relationships between speech rate, intelligibility, hearing loss, and aided thresholds of children with hearing-impairment are investigated as well. Hearing impaired children’s speech and reading rates along with their speech and reading intelligiblity scores are compared. The speech samples of 25 high school students’ with profound hearing impairment pre-lingually were compared with those of 15 students without hearing impairment. Data on the rate of speech were collected by means of a laryngograph. Speech intelligibility was rated by a jury of naive listeners who were asked to write down what they heard after listening to recorded statements from the speech samples. Findings revealed a difference between speech and reading rates of hearing and hearing impaired children, and a relationship between speech rate and speech intelligibility. No relationship was found between hearing loss and speech rate, hearing loss and intelligibility, aided thresholds and speech rate, and aided thresholds and intelligibility. The diffference between hearing-impaired children’s speech and reading rate was not statistically significant while the difference between their speech and reading intelligibility was significant. Implications for the education of children with hearing impairment are presented.

IntroductionIndividuals’ adaptation to society and their success are mostly empowered through fluent and efficient use of communication channels. The core of interpersonal communication is language and its verbal dimension, speaking (Konrot, 1991; Vardar, 1982). Speech is one of the most immensely and frequently applied communication modes in interpersonal communication. Children acquire their native language and its verbal channel, speech, through their hearing ability starting from birth. They start using language for communication in an efficient and fluent manner in a short span of time, i.e. three to four years. Hearing carries an important role in the acquisition of speaking skills (Rabin et al., 1999). However, hearing loss present before birth or during the first year of life, severely interferes with acquisition of the mother tongue and speech (Osberger & Mc-Garr, 1982). When this happens, the chance to acquire the culture of his/her society is reduced for the child with hearing impairment and an interruption in their intellectual development is likely to occur (Tüfekçioğlu, 1989). Such problems lead to defects in communication process (Sanders, 1971) of children with hearing impairment.

In order for speech production to occur, feedback from interconnected sensorial channels should be perceived sufficiently (Crandell, Smaldino, & Flexer, 2005). Through this feedback, speakers can control their voice along with segmental and suprasegmental features of their speech, and correct their mistakes. In order to realize this function, a speaker primarly relies on the hearing channel (Rabin et al.,

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1999). Insufficiency or total lack of aural feedback stemming from sensory-neural hearing handicap leads to defects in the ability to notice and correct their own speech deficiencies and mistakes. As a result, speech patterns of individuals with hearing impairment deviate from that of the non-hearing impaired. Studies revealed that segmental errors occur in the production of vowel and consonant phonemes (Hudings & Numbers, 1942; Markides, 1970; Osberger & Mc-Garr, 1982). Prosodic errors, on the other hand, stem from situations such as intonation deficiencies caused by poor control of fundamental frequency (i.e. monotonous speech), inappropriate breath control, slow speech rate, abnormal uses of pauses, and abnormal uses of rhythm and stress (Girgin, 1999; John & Howarrth, 1965; Leder et al., 1978; Markides, 1970).

Speech intelligibility is affected by several factors including the degree of hearing loss, age when hearing aid is introduced, proper selection and use of hearing aids, learning settings and instructional approaches. Speech intelligibility has a crucial role in verbal communication. Speech intelligibility can be defined as the accuracy to which individuals with hearing impairment deliver speech, and the intelligibility of this speech to a non-hearing impaired listener (Brannon, 1986; Gordan & Brannan, 1994; Osberger & Mcgarr, 1982; Tüfekçioğlu, 1989). It has been emphasized since the study of Hudgins and Numbers (1942) that, there is a significant relationship between pre-lingually hearing-impaired children’s speech intelligibility and the degree of hearing loss. Studies scrutinizing speech rate, degree of hearing loss and aided thresholds have rarely been conducted for children with hearing impairment in a Turkish language environment, which necessitates new studies on these subject (Girgin, 1999). Thus, the current study examines Turkish-speaking children with hearing impairment in terms of these variables, and aims to answer the following research questions:

1- Do hearing children differ from hearing impaired children in terms of speech and reading rate? 2- Is there any difference between hearing impaired children’s speech and reading rates?3-Are there any relationships between speech intelligibility, speech rate, hearing loss and aided thresholds? 4-Is there any difference between speech and reading intelligibility?

MethodSubjects15 hearing high-school teenagers who were reported to have no hearing, speaking or reading problems were randomly selected from a list of students for the control group. The experimental group consisted of all the 25 students with hearing impairment enrolled at the high-school of the Education and Research Center for Children with Hearing Impairment (İÇEM) at Anadolu University. When this group was formed, attention was paid to the following specific criteria; (i) they should have sensory-neural hearing handicap in both ears, (ii) they should be prelingually hearing impaired, and (iii) they should not have a second handicap beside hearing impairment. The mean degree of hearing loss calculated for the best hearing ears of all 25 students was 102 dB HL, ranging from 89dB HL to 120dB HL.

StimuliIn order to investigate the research questions, a set of 30 pictures and 30 sentences written on cards were used. While selecting pictures, attention was paid to the contents of pictures ,they had to be familiar to the experiences of children with hearing impairment and their names had to be words easy to express. Sentences, on the other hand, were selected by classroom teachers based on the criterion that they were appropriate for their language proficiency.

ProceduresIn a quite room, both hearing and hearing impaired children selected 15 sentences and 15 pictures out of 30 sentences and 30 pictures, and their speech rate was analyzed through recording the statements by means of a laryngograph, an instrument used to record the larynx movements in speech. Means of statements for both groups of children with hearing and with hearing impairment were calculated and the speech rate variable was found. Means were compared through conducting independent-samples t-tests. Speech intelligibility of hearing children was considered as 100 %. In order to calculate speech intelligibility of children with hearing impairment, 15 picture and 15 read statements were listened to three times by four different naive listeners who were accustomed to the speech children with hearing impairment. Then, these listeners were asked to take down what they heard for each statement. To calculate the speech intelligibility proportion for each child with hearing impairment, the number of

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syllables that changed meaning was divided by the number of syllables understood correctly. Inter-rater reliability coefficients among naive listeners were calculated. All reliability coefficients were above .80 with a corresponding significance value of .001 or below, which indicated that there was a consensus among raters. Averages of four listeners’ scores were taken as the intelligibility score. In order to answer research questions that focused on relationships between variables, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficients were calculated since all variables used in the current study had a continuous nature. To compare speech and reading rate and to compare speech and reading intelligibility of children with hearing impairment, paired-samples t-tests were conducted.

ResultsDo hearing children differ from those with hearing impairment in terms of speech and reading rates?

In order to investigate whether children with hearing impairment differ from hearing children in terms of speech and reading rates, two independent-samples t-tests were conducted. Since two t-tests were conducted, the critical significance value was reduced to .025 in order to decrease the likelihood of conducting a Type I statistical error as suggested by Huck (2000). Summaries of the tests are provided in Table 1 below:

Table 1. Independent-samples t-tests comparing speech and reading rates of children with and without hearing impairment

GROUP N Mean Std. Dev. df t Sig.

Speech rate Hearing imp. 25 2,402 0,439 38 2,567 .014Hearing 15 1,985 0,585

Reading rate Hearing imp. 25 2,469 0,408 38 2,586 .013Hearing 15 2,061 0,589

The means in the row named speech rate indicate the average of seconds spent for producing statements. That is, the less time spent for producing statements, lower means are observed, which means that a better speech rate is observed. In this respect, hearing children had a better speech rate than hearing impaired children. The result of the independent-samples t-test indicated that the difference between children with and without hearing impairment in terms of speech rate was statistically significant (t38=2.567; p<.014). More specifically, hearing children produced statements in a significantly shorter time than those with hearing impairment.

The same analysis was repeated for the reading rates of children with and without hearing impairment. The means refer to the time spent for reading. Less time spent for reading indicates a better reading rate. A difference between the children with and without hearing impairment was observed and this difference was investigated through an independent-samples t-test to see whether the difference is statistically significant. The result indicated that hearing children had a significantly better reading rate than those with hearing impairment (t38=2.586; p<.013). Meaning that hearing children produced statements in a significantly shorter time than those with hearing impairment.

Is there any difference between speech and reading rates of children with hearing impairment?

In order to understand whether there is a significant difference between speech speed and reading speed of children with hearing impairment, a paired-samples t-test was conducted. As also indicated in Table 2 below, reading speed (=2.469) was not statistically higher than speech speed (=2.336) (t24=1.702; p<.102).

Table 2. Paired-samples t-test comparing reading and speech ratesN=25 Mean SD df t sig.Reading rate 2,469 0,408 24 1.702 .102Speech rate 2,336 0,543

The researcher found a relationship between reading and speech rate of children with hearing impairment. A Pearson correlation cofficient of .697 with a corresponding significance of .001 indicated that the rates were significantly related for Turkish children with hearing impairment.

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Are there any relationships between speech intelligibility, speech rate, hearing loss and aided thresholds?

In order to understand whether there were relationships between speech intelligibility, speech rate, hearing loss and aided thresholds, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficients among these continuous variables were calculated. A coefficient of -.415 was found with a corresponding significance level of .008 indicating that there was a significant negative correlation between speech rate and speech intelligibility. The result suggests that as the time spent for producing statements decreases, intelligibility increases. On the other hand, the relationship between hearing loss and speech rate (r=.057; p=787), the relationship between hearing loss and speech intelligibility (r=-.348; p=.088), the relationship between aided thresholds and speech rate (r=-.125; p=.561), and the relationship between aided thresholds and intelligibility (r=-.077; p=.720) were not statistically significant. Summary of investigated relationships is provided in Table 3 below:

Is there any difference between speech and reading intelligibilty?

Previous analysis revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between speech and reading rates. To analyze the data further, reading and speech intelligibility were compared through a paired-samples t-test. As also indicated in Table 4, hearing impaired children’s reading intelligibility was significantly better than their speech intelligibility (t24=3.205, p<.004) even though their speach speed and reading speed did not differ.

Table 4. Paired-samples t-test comparing reading and speech intelligibility

N=25 Mean SD df t sig.Reading intelligibility 88.519 9.876 24 3.205 .004Speech intelligibility 83.320 13.783

DiscussionAs indicated in Table 1, speech and reading rates (i.e. duration) of children with hearing impairment were significantly slower than those of hearing children. In other words, their speech and reading duration were longer in comparison to hearing children. Findings related to speech rate were in line with previous research (John & Howarth 1965; Nickerson, 1975). A similar finding was found for the reading rate in the current study as well. Slowness in their production worsens the quality of their speech and reading patterns, and leads to labored and monotonous production. Slowness observed in hearing impaired children’s production generally stems from difficulty in controlling organs used in speech production, their abnormal use of pauses (i.e. unnecessary or longer pauses) which is caused by problems in adjusting breath, and longer time is spent for producing phonemes. The best way to minimize hearing impaired children’s problems in terms of their production rate is to use their existing but meager listening ability efficiently to improve their production.

Table 2 shows that reading and speech rates of children with hearing impairment did not differ significantly. Besides, a high correlation was found between the reading and speech rate. This might be caused by the fact that Turkish is a phonemic language, that is, the language is spoken as it is written. While reading children with hearing impairment may produce speech segments more easily while speaking.

As indicated in Table 3, there is a significant relationship between speech rate and speech intelligibility. More specifically, as the speech speed increases, children control their organs used in speech production better, control their breath more efficiently and use shorter pauses, which can have a positive influence on their speech intelligibility. Nonetheless, the analyses did not reveal any

Table 3. Summary of relationships among variablesSpeech

intelligibility Speech rate Hearing loss

Ear Aided threshold

Speech intelligibility - -,415** -,348 -,077Speech rate - -,057 -,125Hearing loss - -,049* Correlation is significant at the p-level of .01

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relationship between hearing loss and speech rate, hearing loss and intelligibility, aided thresholds and speech rate, and aided thresholds and intelligibility. Particularly, the finding which revealed no relationship between intelligibility and hearing loss contradicted the findings of a previous study (Markides, 1985; Musselman, 1990). This finding might have been influenced by the profile of the participants who had either severe or profound hearing loss rather than partial hearing loss. Besides, the fact that these students were taught their mother tongue in a setting which provided instruction through an auditory oral approach might have caused a relatively different speech intelligibility pattern (Intelligibility; maximum: 99.23, minimum: 68.19, mean: 85.92). The finding that indicated no relationship between speech rate and hearing loss and between speech rate and aided thresholds might have been caused by these students’ being given the hearing aid at an early age and by being exposed to efficient listening strategies.

The last significant finding of the study indicated a statistically significant difference between speech and reading intelligibility of Turkish children with hearing impairment, reading intelligibility being significantly better. This finding is not in line with the literature on English speaking children with hearing-impairment. Conrad (1979), Davis and Silverman (1978), and Markides (1983) claimed that speech intelligibility of English speaking children with hearing-impairment is better than their reading intelligibility. However, a completely opposite finding is revealed in Turkish children with hearing-impairment. This might be due to the fact that Turkish is read as it is written (i.e. phonemic language). Turkish children with hearing-impairment whose morphologic decoding skills and phonetic awareness are sufficiently developed have an inclination to produce segments properly in reading whereas they cannot produce the same segments during speech.

Children with hearing impairment should be equipped with state of the art hearing devices so that they can improve their listening, speaking and language abilities starting from an early age and both the children with hearing impairment and their families should be supported in instructional settings. This need should lead to the development of appropriate programs so that they can use their residual hearing abilities in an efficient way (Cheng-Ju & Brown, 2004). While developing such programs, positive attitudes of families and teachers towards hearing impaired children, the cooperation between teachers and families, and having high expectations carry utmost importance (Clark, 1986; Tüfekçioğlu, 1998).

The ultimate aim of the auditory oral approaches is to equip children with hearing impairment with both intelligible speech skills (i.e. production) and listening comprehension (i.e. reception) (Girgin, 2003). Aural approaches based on intensive auditory and oral practices facilitate hearing impaired children’s lives in the hearing society. Besides, these approaches help children with hearing impairment speak intelligibly and fluently and reduce the problems they face in hearing society (Moeller, 2000). The children with hearing impairment who participated in the current study have been exposed to such an approach starting from an early age in the Education and Research Center for Children with Hearing Impairment (İÇEM).

ReferencesBrannon, J. B. (1986). The speech production and spoken language of the deaf. Language and Speech, 9, 127-139.Cheng-Ju., D. W., & Brown, P. M. (2004). Parents’ expectations of auditory-verbal therapy. The Volta Review, 104(1), 5-20.Clark, M. (1986). Introduction: For which population is an auditory approach suitable. The Volta Review, 88(5), 1-11.Conrad, R. (1979). The deaf school child. London: Harper and Row Ltd. Davis, H., & Silverman, S. R. (1978). Hearing and deafness. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Crandell, C. C., Smaldino, J. J., & Flexer, C. (2005). Sound field amplification: Applications to speech perception and classroom acoustics. New York: Thomson Delmar Learning. Girgin, M. C. (1999). Türkçe konuşan doğal işitsel sözel yöntemle eğitim gören işitme engelli kız çocukların konuşma anlaşılırlığı ile süre ve perde özellikleri ilişkisi. Eskişehir: Anadolu University Publications, No:116. Girgin, M. C. (2003). Introduction to education of hearing impaired children. Eskişehir: Anadolu University Press. Gordon, M., & Brannan, J. B. (1994). Assessing intelligibility. Children’s Expressive Phonologies, 14(2), 17-25. Huck, S. W. (2000). Reading statistics and research. New York: Longman.

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Hudgins, C. V., & Numbers, F. C. (1942). An investigation of the numbers, F. C. speech of the deaf. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 25, 289-392.John, J. E. J., & Howarth, N. J. (1965). The effect of time distorstions on the intelligibility of deaf children’s speech. Language and Speech, 8, 127-134.Konrot, A. (1991). Okul öncesi eğitim kurumlarında dil ve konuşma sorunlu çocuklar. Ya-Pa 7 Okulöncesi Eğitim ve Yaygınlaştırma Semineri. İstanbul: Yapa Publications.Markides, A. (1970). The speech of deaf and partially-hearing children with special reference to factors affecting intelligibility. British Journal of Disorders of Communication, 5, 126-140.Markides, A. (1983). The speech of hearing-impaired children. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Markides, A. (1985). Type of pure tone audiogram configuration and rated speech intelligibility. Journal of British Association Teachers of the Deaf, 9 (2), 33-36. Moeller, M. P. (2000). Early intervention and language development in children who are deaf and hard of hearing. Pediatrics, 106, 32-43.Musselman, C. R. (1990). The relationship between measures of hearing loss and speech intelligibility in young deaf children. Journal of Childhood Communication Disorders, 13 (2), 193-205.Nickerson. R. (1975). Characteristics of the speech of deaf person. The Volta Review, 77(6), 611-622.Osberger, M. J. & Mcgarr, N. S. (1982). Speech production characteristics of thehearing impaired. Speech and Language, 8, 222-283. Rabin, L., K., Taitelbaum, T., Tobin, Y., & Hildesheimer, M. (1999). The effect of partially restored of hearing on speech production of postlingually deafened adults with multichannel cochlear implants. Journal Accoustic Society of America, 106(5), 2843-2857. Sanders, A. D. (1971). Aural rehabilitation. New Jersey: Prentice–Hall.Tüfekçioğlu, U. (1989). Farklı eğitim ortamlarinda sözel iletişim eğitimi gören işitme engelli öğrencilerin konuşma dillerinin karşılaştırılması. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey.Vardar, B. (1982). Dilbilim temel kavram ve ilkeleri. Ankara: T.D.K. Publications.

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THE ASSESSMENT OF PROFESSIONAL STANDARD COMPETENCE OFTEACHERS OF STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS

Lee, Hae-Gyun, , Daegu University, South Korea

Kim, Jung-Hyun,Baekseok University

Kang, Jong-GuKangnam University,

The purpose of this study was to assess the level of competence needed for teachers of the visually impaired. The assessment was based on Professional Standard Competence developed by the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) for special education teachers in 2001. The researchers used questionnaires to acquire information about 190 South Korean teachers of students with visual impairments.The researchers found that participants scored higher on the degree of importance section than on the degree of accomplishment section. Although scores on the degree of accomplishment section were lower than the ones on the degree of importance section, they were rated as average. In addition, in the competence area, the degree of importance section was the highest in Strategy for the reading and writing of Braille and was the lowest in Historical foundation of education of individuals with visual impairments. The scores on the degree of accomplishment section were the highest in the Strategies for teaching Braille reading and writing and were the lowest in Use disability-specific assessment instrument.The findings of the degree of importance section showed that there was no difference between these teachers’ educational backgrounds and their teaching experiences. However, there was a significant variation of 1% in Communication, Professional and ethical practice, and Collaboration among the teacher groups of kindergarten, primary, junior high and high school. This study also showed a significant variation of 5% in Learning environment and social interaction and Assessment among these groups.

South Korean students with visual impairments have various academic achievement levels as well as many types of visual impairments from mild to severe. Students’ differential academic and impairment levels force special education teachers to develop their abilities and qualifications according to the students’ complex characteristics. The basic and fundamental professionalism of teachers for the visually impaired is principally constructed during their education and preparation, and is developed during their teaching experiences. Therefore, South Korea’s universities have to make an effort to improve pre-service teachers’ professionalism (Lim, 2001).

The competence required in competency-based teacher education (CBTE) has been developed since the 1970s in the United Sates. The U.S. teacher education programs tend to have disseminated competence-based teacher education since the 1970s and the teachers of students with visual impairments have acquired professional abilities (Council for Exceptional Children; 1993, 1995, 1997;

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Lee, 1986; Spungin, 1977). While the United States has periodically developed special education teacher preparation programs through the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), South Korea has neither developed nor used the standards of professional competence of special education teachers in universities and/or related institutions (Lim, 2001).

The CEC developed a new standard regarding special education teachers’ professional competence in 2001 (CEC, 2001). The new standard is composed of 10 domains (i.e. Foundations, Development and Characteristics of Learners, Individual Learning Differences, Instructional Strategies, Learning Environments & Social Interactions, Communication, Instructional Planning, Assessment, Professional & Ethical Practice, and Collaboration). It is also subdivided into 1) the common and core areas which are special education teachers’ basic qualification and 2) the special areas which are special education teachers’ intensified major courses.

The common and core areas have 126 items which include 54 knowledge areas and 72 skill areas in 10 domains, and are composed of the same content in seven teacher areas, excluding teachers of the gifted. On the other hand, special areas are composed of 474 items which include 259 knowledge areas and 215 skill areas in eight teacher areas such as; teachers of students with visual impairments; teachers of the deaf; teachers of students with physical and health impairments; teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders; teachers of students with mental retardation and developmental disabilities; teachers of students with learning disabilities; teachers in early childhood special education; and teachers of the gifted.

In addition, standard competence is composed of 69 items (48 knowledge areas and 21 skill areas) in 10 domains. The CEC uses these areas of knowledge and skill to assess the standards of special education teachers’ professional competence. Many countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, establish the standards for the preparation of special education teachers according to each disability area and help special education teachers enhance their professionalism (Lim, 2001; Winzer & Mazurek, 2000). Similarly, South Korea’s universities and institutions, which educate special education teachers, need to create and develop standards in order to improve special education teachers’ professionalism. However, South Korea does not yet have an appropriate program to assess individual teachers. Therefore, the researchers decided to assess South Korean special education teachers through the use of the standard competence items developed by the CEC in 2001.

Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of this study was to assess the following two aspects about standard competence required of teachers for students with visual impairments. First, this study was meant to assess the degree of importance and the degree of accomplishment regarding teachers’ competence (the degree of importance refers to how much importance teachers place on the items related to the teachers’ competence and the degree of accomplishment refers to how much teachers actually implement the items related to the teachers’ competence). Second, this study was meant to assess the teachers’ differences in the degree of importance according to grade level, educational background, and work experience.

Research QuestionsThe research questions that guided this study were as follows:1. How competent were the South Korean special education teachers?2. What was the relationship between their professionalism and their competence?

MethodParticipantsThe researchers surveyed 250 South Korean special education teachers in 12 special schools for students with visual impairments. All the special education teachers had their own knowledge and background about the education for students with visual impairments. The researchers received response letters from 212 teachers (84.8%). Since 22 response letters did not show enough information, the researchers decided to exclude these response letters. The table below shows the 190 teachers’ information about grade level, educational background, and work experience.

Table 1: Teachers’ population according to grade level, educational background, and work

experienceGrade level Educational background Work experience

34


Kinder-garten

Elemen-tary

School

Junior High

School

High School Special education

major as an undergraduate school degree

Did not major in special education

Special education major as a

graduate school degree

Less than five years

From six to 10 years

11 years or more

19 58 53 60 104 36 50 97 33 6010% of respondents were from kindergarten teachers, 30.5% from elementary school teachers, 27.9% from junior high school teachers, and 31.6% from high school teachers. Regarding educational background, 54.7% of teachers had a special education major as an undergraduate school degree, 18.9% of teachers did not major in special education, and 26.3% of teachers had a special education major as a graduate school degree. With work experience, 51% of teachers had less than five years of experience, 17.4% of teachers had six to 10 years of experience, and 31.6% of teachers had more than 11 years of experience.

Examination instrumentThe researchers rated the participants by using only 69 items including the areas of knowledge and skills in the 10 domains developed by the CEC in 2001. The researchers translated these examination items from English to Korean, and helped the South Korean special education teachers respond to the research questionnaires. The number of items per domain was as follows:

Table 2: The number of items per domain of the questionnaires

Domain Knowledge Skill Total

1.0 Foundation2.0 Development & Characteristics of Learners3.0 Individual Learning Differences4.0 Instructional Strategies5.0 Learning Environments & Social Interactions6.0 Communication7.0 Instructional Planning8.0 Assessment9.0 Professional & Ethical Practice10.0 Collaboration

66319212612

0005313612

663245251224

Total 48 21 69

ProceduresIn order to survey teachers with/out visual impairments, the researchers translated the items of standard competence into Braille, large print, and regular print. The researchers explained the questionnaires by telephone or email before distributing them, and sent the questionnaires to schools for students with visual impairments on July 5, 2003. In order to help teachers send back their response letters more easily, the researchers enclosed envelopes for the response letters. The researchers received response letters until July 30, 2003.

Analysis methodsThe researchers analyzed the response letters with the following methods:First, the researchers used a five-point likert scale to assess competence. The researchers assessed the means and the standard deviations from the examination results of a five-point likert scale. Second, the researchers used one-way ANOVA to assess the inter-group differences of all the 10 domains according to grade level, educational background, and work experience.

Results and InterpretationsThe analysis of the degree of importance section and the degree of accomplishment sectionTable 3 below shows the respondents’ ranking of knowledge and skill required for teachers of students with visual impairments. It indicates the ranking of each item among 69 items. The ranking is about the ranking of the degree of importance section and the degree of accomplishment section among 69 items in 10 domains of standard competence.

35


Table 3: Respondents’ ranking and mean of knowledge and skill required for teachers of students with

visual impairmentsTable 3-1: Respondents’ ranking and mean regarding Foundation

Ranking and MeanItem

Knowledge (K) or Skill (S)Importance*(**) Accomplishment* (**)

29*(4.19**)

69 (3.57)

41 (4.08)

46 (4.02)

38 (4.10)

40 (4.09)

66* (2.81**)

29 (3.18)

15 (3.34)

31 (3.17)

33 (3.17)

25 (3.19)

1.1. Federal entitlements that provide specialized equipment and materials for individuals with visual impairments1.2. Historical foundation of education of individuals with visual impairments1.3. Educational definitions, identification criteria, labeling issues, and incidence and prevalence figures for individuals with visual impairments1.4. Basic terminology related to the structure and function of the human visual system1.5. Basic terminology related to diseases and disorders of the human visual system1.6. Issues and trends in special education and the field of visual impairment

K

K

K

K

K

K8 (4.00) 5 (3.14) The ranking and mean out of 10 domains

*: Ranking out of 69 items **: Mean by the five-point likert scale

Table 3-1 implies that although respondents consider some items such as 1.1. to be important, they did not make much effort to implement these items. These evaluations are similar in the following tables.

Table 3-2: Respondents’ ranking and mean regarding Development and Characteristics of LearnersRanking and Mean

ItemKnowledge (K) or Skill (S)Importance Accomplishment

67 (3.76)31 (4.17)

20 (4.19)3 (4.45)

23 (4.26)62 (3.80)

62 (2.93)22 (3.21)

11 (3.35)3 (3.56)

9 (3.38)67 (2.77)

2.7. Development of the human visual system 2.8. Development of secondary senses when vision is impaired

2.9. Effects of visual impairment on development2.10. Impact of visual impairment on learning and experience

2.11. Psychosoial aspects of visual impairment2.12. Effects of medication on the visual system

KK

KK

KK

6 (4.12) 3 (3.19) The ranking and mean out of 10 domains

In table 3-2, respondents highly rated and implemented item 2.10. This implies that respondents generally consider that visual impairment would be greatly related to learning and experience.

Table 3-3 implies that respondents will play a very important role in students’ behavior as shown in the evaluation of 3.15.

Table 3-3: Respondents’ ranking and mean regarding Individual Learning DifferencesRanking and Mean


14 (4.32)

9 (4.38)

5 (4.43)

5 (3.45)

17 (3.32)

2 (3.57)

3.13. Effect of visual impairment on the family and the reciprocal impact on the individual's self-esteem3.14. Impact of additional exceptionalities on individuals with visual impairments3.15. Attitudes and actions of teachers that affect the behaviors of individuals with visual impairment

K

K

K


36


Table 3-4: Respondents’ ranking and mean regarding Instructional StrategiesRanking and Mean


1 (4.59)8 (4.39)

60 (3.84)

66 (3.77)

34 (4.14)25 (4.23)

24 (4.25)

11 (4.38)

17 (4.31)

12 (4.37)

15 (4.31)

10 (4.38)

19 (4.29)

45 (4.02)

4 (4.44)

7 (4.41)

42 (4.07)

18 (4.30)

27 (4.20)

13 (4.33)

6 (4.42)

28 (4.20)

21 (4.29)

2 (4.47)

1 (3.65)6 (3.41)

51 (3.02)

63 (2.92)

19 (3.32)50 (3.03)

55 (3.01)

8 (3.39)

48 (3.03)

16 (3.33)

30 (3.18)

13 (3.34)

28 (3.18)

56 (2.99)

4 (3.49)

21 (3.25)

24 (3.19)

14 (3.34)

54 (3.01)

12 (3.34)

7 (3.41)

18 (3.32)

10 (3.37)

20 (3.28)

4.16. Strategies for teaching Braille reading and writing4.17. Strategies for teaching handwriting to individuals with low vision4.18. Strategies for teaching signature writing to individuals who are blind4.19. Strategies for teaching listening and compensatory auditory skills4.20. Strategies for teaching typing and keyboarding skills4.21. Strategies for teaching technology skills to individuals with visual impairments4.22. Strategies for teaching use of the abacus, talking calculator, tactile graphics, and adapted science equipment4.23. Strategies for teaching basic concepts to individuals with visual impairments4.24. Strategies for teaching visual efficiency skills and use of print adaptation, optical devices, and non-optical devices4.25. Strategies for teaching organization and study skills to individuals with visual impairments4.26. Strategies to prepare individuals for structured pre-cane orientation and mobility assessment and instruction4.27. Strategies for teaching tactual perceptual skills to individuals with visual impairments4.28. Strategies for teaching human sexuality to individuals with visual impairments4.29. Strategies for teaching adapted physical and recreational skills to individuals with visual impairments4.30. Strategies for teaching social, daily living, and functional life skills to individuals with visual impairments4.31. Strategies for teaching carre-vocational skills and providing vocational counseling for individuals with visual impairments4.32. Strategies for promoting self-advocacy in individuals with visual impairments4.33. Technique for modifying instructional method and materials for individuals with visual impairment4.34. Strategies to prepare students with progressive eye conditions to achieve a positive transition to alternative skills4.35. Teach individuals with visual impairments to use thinking, problem-solving, and other cognitive strategies4.36. Prepare adapted or modified materials in Braille, accessible print, and other formats4.37. Transcribe, proofread, and interline materials in contracted literary and Nemeth Braille codes4.38. Use Braillewriter, slate and stylus, and computer technology to produce Braille materials4.39. Prepare individuals with visual impairments to access information and services from the community

KK

K

K

KK

K

K

K

K

K

K

K

K

K

K

K

K

K

S

S

S

S

S2 (4.26) 2 (3.24) The ranking and mean out of 10 domains

Table 3-4 implies that respondents usually consider Braille to be the most important learning tool for students with visual impairments and they are skilled in the instruction of these students with Braille.

37


Table 3-5: Respondents’ ranking and mean regarding Learning Environments and Social InteractionsRanking and Mean


43 (4.05)

47 (4.02)32 (4.16)

22 (4.27)

26 (4.22)

39 (3.12)

35 (3.15)34 (3.16)

45 (3.05)

49 (3.03)

5.40. Roles of paraeducators who work directly with individuals with visual impairments5.41. Role models with visual impairments and their importance5.42. Enhance instruction for individuals with visual impairments through modification of the environment5.43. Design multisensory learning environments that encourage active participation by individuals with visual impairments in group and individual activities5.44. Create learning environments that encourage self-advocacy and independence for individuals with visual impairments

K

KS

S

S


The rankings of table 3-5 imply that although respondents consider environment and interactions of students with visual impairments to be important, they experience difficulty in providing a supportive environment and encouraging interaction between these students.

Table 3-6: Respondents’ ranking and mean regarding CommunicationRanking and Mean


49 (3.99)

16 (4.31)

46 (3.05)

27 (3.19)

6.45. Strategies for teaching alternatives to nonverbal communication6.46. Prepare individuals with visual impairments to respond constructively to societal attitudes and actions

K

S


Table 3-6 implies that respondents experience difficulty in teaching students with visual impairments various communication methods.

Table 3-7: Respondents’ ranking and mean regarding Instructional PlanningRanking and Mean


36 (4.14)

30 (4.18)37 (4.13)

39 (4.09)

33 (4.15)

26 (3.19)

38 (3.12)53 (3.01)

23 (3.19)

32 (3.17)

7.47. Relationships among assessment, IEP development, and placement as they affect vision-related services7.48. Model programs for individuals with visual impairments7.49. Select and use skills to accomplish instructional objectives for individuals with visual impairments7.50. Sequence, implement, and evaluate learning objectives based on the expanded core curriculum for individuals with visual impairments7.51. Obtain and organize special materials to implement instructional goals for individuals with visual impairments

K

KS

S

S


Table 3-7 implies that respondents scored average regarding importance and implementation in curriculum and teaching in comparison with other domains.

38


Table 3-8: Respondents’ ranking and mean regarding AssessmentRanking and Mean


61 (3.80)

55 (3.91)

63 (3.79)

56 (3.89)

54 (3.94)

65 (3.78)

58 (3.87)

52 (3.95)53 (3.94)

57 (3.88)

68 (3.74)

48 (4.02)

42 (3.07)

65 (2.87)

64 (2.89)

57 (2.96)

61 (2.93)

59 (2.94)

68 (2.76)

69 (2.65)60 (2.93)

53 (3.01)

58 (2.95)

43 (3.06)

8.52. Specialized terminology used in assessing individuals with visual impairments8.53. Ethical considerations, laws, and policies for assessment of individuals with visual impairments8.54. Specialized policies on referral and placement procedures for individuals with visual impairments8.55. Specialized procedures for screening, pre-referral, referral, and identification of individuals with visual impairments8.56. Alternative assessment techniques for individuals with visual impairments8.57. Interpretation and application of score from assessments of individuals with visual impairments8.58. Interpret eye reports and other vision-related diagnostic information8.59. Use disability-specific assessment instruments8.60. Adapt and use assessment procedures when evaluating individuals with visual impairments8.61. Maintain disability-related records for individuals with visual impairments8.62. Gather background information and family history related to the individual's visual status8.63. Interpret and use assessment data for instructional planning with individuals with visual impairments

K

K

K

K

K

K

S

SS

S

S

S


Table 3-8 implies that respondents usually do not pay much attention to the assessment of students with visual impairment.

Table 3-9: Respondents’ ranking and mean regarding Professional and Ethical PracticeRanking and Mean


64 (3.78)

59 (3.85)

40 (3.09)

47 (3.04)

9.64. Organizations and publications relevant to the field of visual impairment9.65. Participate in the activities of professional organizations in the field of visual impairment

K

S


Table 3-9 implies that many respondents seem to not develop their professionalism related to visual impairment while teaching students with visual impairments.

Table 3-10: Respondents’ ranking and mean regarding CollaborationRanking and Mean


44 (4.04)

50 (3.98)

35 (4.14)

41 (3.08)

36 (3.13)

37 (3.13)

10.66. Strategies for assisting families and other team members in planning appropriate transitions for individuals with visual impairments10.67. Service, networks, publications for and organizations of individuals with visual impairments10.68. Help families and other team members understand the impact of a visual impairment on learning and experience10.69. Structure and supervise the activities of paraeducators and tutor

K

K

S

39


51 (3.97) 44 (3.06) who work with individuals with visual impairments S

7 (4.03) 7 (3.10) The ranking and mean out of 10 domainsTable 3-10 implies that although respondents do not ignore the importance of various resources for students with visual impairments, they seem to not pay much attention to these resources.

In summary, as Table 3 shows, the degree of importance section tended to have higher evaluation scores than the degree of accomplishment section. The mean of all the domains showed that the degree of importance section was scored 4.12 out of 5. On the contrary, the degree of accomplishment section was scored 3.14 out of 5. In addition, the mean of the degree of importance section was ranged from 3.50 to more in each domain, but the mean of the degree of accomplishment section in each domain was ranged from 2.50 to 3.49. These results showed that although teachers acknowledged the significance of items in each domain, their accomplishment level was lower than the level regarding importance.

The five highest rankings in the important degree section in 69 standard competence items were as follows:

No 1, Strategies for teaching Braille reading and writing (4.59).No 2, Prepare individuals with visual impairments to access information and services from the community (4.47).No 3, Impact of visual impairment on learning and experience (4.45).No 4, Strategies for teaching social, daily living, and functional life skills to individuals with visual impairments (4.44).No 5, Attitudes and actions of teachers that affect the behaviors of individuals with visual impairment (4.43).

In addition, the five lowest rankings in the important degree in 69 standard competence items were as follows:

No 65, Interpretation and application of score from assessments of individuals with visual impairments (3.78).No 66, Strategies for teaching listening and compensatory auditory skills (3.77). No 67, Development of the human visual system (3.76).No 68, Gather background information and family history related to the individual's visual status (3.74).No 69, Historical foundation of education of individuals with visual impairments (3.57).

As seen in the above ranking items, special education teachers regarded Strategies for teaching Braille reading and writing as the most important factor in teachers’ competence and Historical foundation of education of individuals with visual impairments as the least important one.

On the other hand, the five highest rankings in the degree of accomplishment section, which represented special education teachers’ current competence level, were as follows:

No 1, Strategies for teaching Braille reading and writing (3.65).No 2, Attitudes and actions of teachers that affect the behaviors of individuals with visual impairment (3.57).No 3, Impact of visual impairment on learning and experience (3.56).No 4, Strategies for teaching social, daily living, and functional life skills to individuals with visual impairments (3.49).No 5, Effect of visual impairment on the family and the reciprocal impact on the individual's self-esteem (3.57).

In addition, the five lowest rankings in the degree of accomplishment section, which represented special education teachers’ current competence level, were as follows:

No 65, Ethical considerations, laws, and policies for assessment of individuals with visual impairments (2.87).No 66, Federal entitlements that provide specialized equipment and materials for individuals with visual impairments (2.81).No 67, Effects of medication on the visual system (2.77).No 68, Interpret eye reports and other vision-related diagnostic information (2.76).No 69, Use disability-specific assessment instruments (2.65).

The above information about the degree of accomplishment section showed that teachers had the highest competence in Strategies for teaching Braille reading and writing and the lowest competence in Use disability-specific assessment instruments.

40


High rankings in the degree of importance section were also similar to those in the degree of accomplishment section. Both the degree of importance section and the degree of accomplishment section included four competence items of Strategies for teaching Braille reading and writing; Impact of visual impairment on learning and experience; Strategies for teaching social, daily living, and functional life skills to individuals with visual impairments; Attitudes and actions of teachers that affected the behaviors of individuals with visual impairment as top five competence items. As South Korean special education teachers considered four competence items as important knowledge and skill factors, their accomplishment levels in these items were also high.

In addition, the evaluation results regarding the 10 domains showed that Individual Learning Differences had the highest ranking both in the degree of importance section and the degree of accomplishment section. The evaluation results also showed that Assessment and Professional and Ethical Practice had the lowest rankings both in the degree of importance section and the degree of accomplishment section. As the evaluation results showed that special education teachers had low evaluations in self-achievement level, teachers might need to improve their competence through programs such as in-service training. However, the main aim of this study was not to assess special education teachers’ accomplishment level, but to determine how teachers evaluated the degree of importance section of standard competence. Therefore, the researchers hereafter speculated the findings by focusing on the degree of importance section.

The comparison of grade level, educational background and work experienceComparison of the degree of importance per grade levelTable 4 below shows the degree of importance section about standard competence required of teachers of students with visual impairments per grade level.

Table 4: The status of the degree of importance of each domain per grade levelGrade Level

Domain

Kindergarten(N=19)

Elementary school (N=58)

Junior High School (N=53)

High School (N=60)

M* SD** M SD M SD M SD

1.0 Foundation2.0 Development & Characteristics of Learners3.0 Individual Learning Differences4.0 Instructional Strategies5.0 Learning Environments &

Social Interactions6.0 Communication7.0 Instructional Planning8.0 Assessment9.0 Professional & Ethical Practice10.0 Collaboration

4.2714.315

4.5964.3394.368

4.3154.2424.0304.0524.157

.434

.526

.478

.449

.513

.671

.678

.642

.685

.703

3.8994.146

4.4194.3134.282

4.2844.1653.9163.9224.099

.698

.667

.613

.533

.638

.600

.683

.753

.852

.738

3.9594.000

4.1944.1543.883

3.9054.0153.5883.4813.792

.612

.607

.589

.544

.691

.766

.631

.731

.919

.706

4.0754.147

4.4164.2974.170

4.1754.1904.0413.9414.145

.664

.599

.693

.656

.703

.837

.757

.706

.939

.703

Total 4.264 .452 4.161 .514 3.949 .525 4.185 .600* M: Mean ** SD: Standard Deviation

As Table 4 illustrates, teachers had different means of the degree of importance section according to their grade level. However, all of the teachers considered 10 domains as important regardless of grade level. The mean ranking of the degree of importance section by grade level from highest to lowest was kindergarten, elementary school, high school and junior high school. In addition, all of the teacher groups evaluated Individual Learning Differences as the most important domain. On the other hand, the lowest domains in each teacher group were Assessment in kindergarten teachers, Foundation in elementary school teachers, and Professional & Ethical Practice in junior high school and high school teachers.

The researchers also examined the differences among four teacher groups in each domain, and found the following results through one-way ANOVA.

41


As Table 5 illustrates, the degree of importance section among four teacher groups about each domain had a significant variation of 1% in Communication; Professional & Ethical Practice and Collaboration. It also had a significant variation of 5% in Learning Environments & Social Interactions and Assessment. There was no significant variation in the other five domains.

Table 5: The difference of the degree of importance of each domain per grade level

Domain Variable SS Df MS F1.0 Foundation

2.0 Development & Characteristics of Learners

3.0 Individual Learning Differences

4.0 Instructional Strategies

5.0 Learning Environments & Social Interactions

6.0 Communication

7.0 Instructional Planning

8.0 Assessment

9.0 Professional & Ethical Practice

10.0 Collaboration

Inter-groupIntra-group

TotalInter-groupintra-group









Total

2.40376.69379.0961.575

70.72672.3012.869

72.04474.913

.95960.70361.6635.724

81.96587.6894.772

100.602105.374

1.21389.51990.7326.592

97.057103.649

8.610145.875154.486

4.38095.14799.528

31861893

1861893

1861893

1861893

1861893

1861893

1861893

1861893

1861893

186189

.801

.412

.525

.380

.956

.387

.320

.326

1.908.441

1.591.541

.404

.481

2.197.522

2.870.784

1.460.512

1.943

1.381

2.469

.980

4.330**

2.941*

.840

4.211**

3.660*

2.854*

* p<.05, ** p<.01The comparison of the degree of importance per educational backgroundTable 6 below shows the results of the mean and standard deviation regarding the degree of importance section of each domain per educational background.

Table 6: The status of the degree of importance of each domain per educational background Educational Background

Domain

Special education major in university(N=104)

Non-major in special education in university (N=36)

Special education major as a graduate school degree (N=50)

M SD M SD M SD

42



3.9874.105

4.3464.2804.115

4.1584.1013.8753.8124.036

.693

.638

.672

.592

.716

.786

.744

.753

.953

.731

3.9954.101

4.3334.3034.255

4.1524.2883.8843.8884.006

.647

.546

.552

.427

.607

.705

.509

.705

.871

.602

4.0634.173

4.4604.2114.124

4.1204.1083.8713.7804.050

.548

.633

.590

.620

.660

.703

.693

.752

.833

.803

Total 4.115 .584 4.149 .452 4.108 .541

Table 6 shows that all of the three teacher groups had a high mean in the degree of importance section. Although teachers who did not major in special education had a slightly higher mean than the other two teacher groups, teachers regardless of their educational background did not pose a big difference in the degree of importance section. In addition, all of the three teacher groups evaluated Individual Learning Differences as the most important domain. However, the three teacher groups had differences in their low evaluations. Teachers who had a special education major as an undergraduate or graduate school degree scored low on Professional & Ethical Practice, and teachers who did not major in special education scored low on Assessment.

Table 7:The difference of the degree of importance of each domain per educational background

Domain Variable SS Df MS F

1.0 Foundation





6.0 Communication


8.0 Assessment


10.0 Collaboration

Inter-groupintra-group






Totalinter-groupintra-group




Total

.20478.89379.096.174

72.12872.301.510

74.40374.913.219

61.44361.663.553

87.13587.689

5.175E-02105.322105.3741.00089.73290.732

3.496E-03103.646103.649

.256154.229154.486

3.958E-0299.48899.528

21871892

1871892

1871892

1871892

1871892

1871892

1871892

1871892

1871892

187189

.102

.422

8.682E-02.386

.255

.398

.110

.329

.277

.466

2.588E-02.563

.500

.480

1.748E-03.554

.128

.825

1.979E-02.532

.242

.225

.641

.334

.594

.046

1.042

.003

.155

.037

The researchers also examined the differences among the three teacher groups in each domain, and found the above results through one-way ANOVA. As Table 7 shows, the three teacher groups did not have a significant variation in each evaluation regarding the degree of importance section of each domain.

Table 8:

43


The status of the degree of importance of each domain per work experience Working

Experience Domain

Less than five years (N=97)

From six to 10 years (N=33)

11 years or more (N=60)

M SD M SD M SD


3.9694.125

4.4364.2934.107

4.1344.0983.8293.7884.020

.597

.592

.505

.454

.683

.723

.660

.738

.906

.738

4.0604.217

4.4644.3354.278

4.2424.2604.0804.0754.280

.688

.578

.686

.686

.734

.884

.775

.790

.867

.695

4.0444.066

4.2224.1854.130

4.1164.1363.8383.7253.920

.705

.681

.750

.665

.648

.709

.701

.707

.908

.700

Total 4.113 .493 4.239 .637 4.065 .577Table 9:

The difference of the degree of importance of each domain per work experienceDomain Variable SS Df MS F

1.0 Foundation





6.0 Communication


8.0 Assessment


10.0Collaboration

Inter-groupintra-group










Total

.31878.77979.096

.48471.81872.3012.031

72.88274.913

.62361.03961.662

.74386.94687.689

.372105.002105.374

.64490.08890.7321.681

101.968103.649

2.795151.691154.486

2.78896.74099.528

2187189

2187189

2187189

2187189

2187189

2187189

2187189

2187189

2187189

2187189

.159

.421

.242

.384

1.016.390

.312

.326

.371

.465

.186

.562

.322

.482

.840

.545

1.397.811

1.394.517

.337

.630

2.606

.955

.799

.331

.668

1.541

1.723

2.694

The comparison of the degree of importance per work experienceTable 8 above shows the results of the mean and standard deviation in relation to the degree of importance section of each domain per work experience.As Table 8 shows, there were some differences in the total. However, all of the three teacher groups evaluated each domain higher than the significant level. The mean ranking of the degree of importance section by work experience from highest to lowest was six to 10 years of teaching experience, less than five years, and 11 years or more respectively. In addition, all of the teacher groups evaluated Individual Learning Differences as the most important domain. On the other hand, the lowest rated domain in each teacher group was the Foundation domain in teachers of from six to 10 years, and Professional &

44


Ethical Practice in teachers of less than 5 years and 11 years or more.

The researchers also examined the differences among the three teacher groups in each domain, and found the Table 9 results through one-way ANOVAAs Table 9 above shows, three teacher groups did not have a significant variation in each evaluation regarding the degree of importance section of each domain.

Conclusion and ImplicationsThe researchers surveyed 190 South Korean special education teachers in 12 schools for students with visual impairments by using the standard competence developed by the CEC in the United States in 2001. The researchers rated the differences of the degree of importance section according to grade level, teachers’ educational background, and work experience. The researchers concluded the following:

First, in all the 10 domains, South Korean special education teachers rated the degree of importance section of standard competence higher than the significant level. However, special education teachers scored low on the degree of accomplishment section representing teachers’ current competence level in comparison with the degree of importance section. In addition, Strategies for teaching Braille reading and writing had the highest ranking in the degree of importance section and Historical foundation of education of individuals with visual impairments had the lowest ranking. Strategies for teaching Braille reading and writing had the highest ranking in the degree of accomplishment section and Use disability-specific assessment instruments had the lowest ranking.

Second, the comparison between educational background and work experience showed that teacher groups did not have a significant variation in each evaluation about the degree of importance section of each domain. However, teacher groups according to grade level had a significant variation of 1% in Communication; Professional & Ethical Practice, and Collaboration. These groups also had a significant variation of 5% in Learning Environments & Social Interactions and Assessment.

ImplicationsThe findings of this study imply that most South Korean teachers of students with visual impairments may have low competence. Therefore, it will be necessary for South Korean scholars to develop programs designed to improve pre-service and in-service teachers’ competence.

The results of this study also revealed that South Korean special education teachers acknowledged the importance of standard competence in 10 domains although their accomplishment levels were not as high as their awareness of standard competence. Special education teachers’ awareness of the importance of standard competence implies that additional efforts for bridging a gap between the degree of importance section and the degree of accomplishment section are necessary. Based on the results, the researchers suggest the following directions.

First, universities need to help special education teachers develop their standard competence through an abundance of teacher education programs. This training will promote special education teachers’ quality and professionalism for students with visual impairments. Second, South Korea needs to periodically develop and use the standards of special education teachers’ professional competence in universities or related institutions. Third, universities and their related institutions need to provide special education teachers with various programs such as in-service training to improve teachers’ competence.

This study only examined South Korean in-service teachers. Since South Korean pre-service programs have not provided pre-service teachers with competence training, South Korean teachers lack self-awareness of competence. Therefore, South Korea needs to give priority to train pre-service teachers through a standard competence program - this study emphasizes the importance of a teacher preparation program through a standard competence program.

LimitationsThe researchers only used ANOVA for analyzing the findings of this study. Although the researchers found many variables, the researchers did not use multivariate analysis. The researchers also did not use MANOVA. Although MANOVA might show clearer results between and among variables, this study did not examine these results. The researchers wanted to know how South Korean teachers are

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competent and the relationship between these teachers’ professionalism and their competence. Although the researchers only used ANOVA for the purpose of this study, other methods of analysis such as multivariate analysis may help find results between and among variables. Second, the researchers examined South Korean teachers using the competence standards developed in the United States. However, since South Korea and the United States had different socio-cultural conditions, the use of U.S. studies would have limitations to examine South Korean teachers. Therefore, the researchers need to develop a program tailored to assess South Korean teachers in future studies.

ReferencesCouncil for Exceptional Children. (1993). Policy manual : Standards of professional practice of the Council for Exceptional Children. Reston, VA : CEC.Council for Exceptional Children. (1995). What every special educator must know : The international standards for the preparation and certification of special education teachers. Reston, VA : Council for Exceptional Children.Council for Exceptional Children. (1997). CEC Today. Reston VA : Council for Exceptional Children. Council for Exceptional Children. (2001). www.cec.sped.org/psLee, H. G. (1986). The assessment of teachers in school for the blind regarding special competence of students with visual impairments. Daegu University: Unpublished.Lim, A. S. (2001). The study of teachers’ special competence of students with visual impairments. The Journal of Special Education: Theory and Practice, 2(4), 73-95.Spungin, S. J. (1977). Competence based curriculum for teacher of the visually handicapped : A national study. New York : American Foundation for Teacher of the Blind, Inc.Winzer, M. A. & Mazurek, K.(2000). Special Education in the 21st Century. Washington, D.C : Gallaudet University Press.

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http://www.cec.sped.org/ps/


REACTIVE ATTACHMENT DISORDER:CHALLENGES FOR EARLY IDENTIFICATION AND INTERVENTION WITHIN THE

SCHOOLS

Kimberly K. Floydand

Peggy HesterOld Dominion University

Harold C. Griffin,Jeannie Golden

andLora Lee Smith CanterEast Carolina University

Attachment is of key importance in childhood development. The quality of attachment relationship between the child and parent/primary caregiver may have an effect on the child and future relationships and social success (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998). When a child fails to bond with a caring adult, attachment becomes disordered and children may not be able to bond appropriately or at all with other people. This inability to relate and connect with others may disrupt or arrest not only children’s social development, but also their overall development. The purpose of this review is to synthesize information and research on characteristics, diagnosis, and interventions currently in practice in working with young children with Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD). A discussion will highlight the themes found during this review and conclude with implications for intervention and practice.

Introduction and Statement of the ProblemSocial development for children is important and it begins in the early years of their lives (Hartup, 1992; Katz & McClellan, 1997; Ladd & Coleman, 1993). From infancy, children interact with the physical and social world around them and begin to build relationships through active engagement and interdependence with others (Ladd & Coleman, 1993). One of the first developmental steps for young children begins through forming relationships with familiar adults during infancy (Howes, 1987).

This connection is referred to as attachment, and the quality of attachment relationships may have an effect on future social success and relationships (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998). Specifically, it has

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been suggested that children who have a secure attachment relationship with a caring adult are more disposed to interact with other children and have greater expectations that their interactions will be positive (Howes, 1987; Rubin et al., 1998). When children fail to bond with a caring adult, attachment becomes disordered and may impede appropriate bonding in future relationships. A failure to bond may be generated by a variety of early experiences (e.g., abandonment, neglect, abuse) characterized by pathologenic care. One of the diagnostic options for children with bonding and attachment difficulties manifesting in behaviors is the diagnosis of Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD). Recognized by an increasing numbers of students identified with RAD, school systems are beginning to realize the substantial needs these children must have addressed within the school setting (Davis, Kruczek, & McIntosh (2006).

One of the challenges with the identification of RAD lies in effective assessment instruments or protocols to diagnose RAD and distinguish RAD from other identifications. Once identified, there are few organized and empirically proven intervention methods to help ameliorate its negative effects on the development of children. The purpose of this review is to explore the implications between pathological care and a resulting impairment in attachment. This review will begin with a brief examination of basic attachment theory and the resulting implications should maltreatment occur. The authors will make the case that RAD is an issue that schools must deal with to help children reach their developmental potential. We will conclude with a discussion of the current implication for future assessment components and potential intervention strategies.

Background and SignificanceA leading child developmental issue is the concept of attachment. It is beyond the scope of this review to examine in length the typical course of attachment, but it is important to demonstrate a summary of classic attachment milestones. Children typically move from social responsiveness in which children react to smiling and facial expressions of caregivers, to differentiating responses from known to unknown caregivers. Between eight months and three years, children will demonstrate fondness for particular caregivers that provide support, guidance, and a secure foundation from which to explore the world around them. Beyond the age of three, the attachment of children to others is largely language and communication based, becoming increasingly entangled with cooperative activities, separation, and proximally based security. Bowlby (1980) theorized it is during these early developmental stages that children are able to view themselves as worthy of attention, praise, love, and thus provides substantial footing for future, positive relationships.

Dissimilarly, children who experience maltreatment or removal of a significant caregiver during the formative early years are at risk for developing significant deficits in social relatedness, competence, and development. Bowlby (1980) and Aisnworth (1978) were two of the early researchers that examined causation between social deprivation and later pathology. The work of these researchers, even though distinctively different in focus, supported the correlation between early child maltreatment and an increased risk for psychosocial difficulties. Bowlby conceded that a person’s interpersonal skills and relationships could be associated, even predicted, by viewing early relationships designs (Hardy, 2007). Additionally, data from divergent sources support the notion that a history of neglect and/or abuse compromises the ability to form stable attachments with a primary caregiver, and thus might result in Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) (Hanson & Spratt, 2000). The DSM-IV-TR (2000) conceptualizes RAD as a condition resulting from pathologenic care and characterized by an inability to engage in social relationships or form emotional attachment to others. Children with this condition may exhibit problematic behaviors due to deficits in social and emotional development as well as in other developmental areas (i.e., language, behavior, and communication). Table 1 provides a more detailed description of the diagnostic criterion for RAD.

Table 1DSM-IV-TRDiagnostic Criteria for Reactive Attachment Disorder of Infancy or Early

ChildhoodTypes

A. Markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts, beginning before age 5 years as evidenced by:

Inhibited:Persistent failure to initiate or respond in a developmentally appropriate fashion to most social interactions, as manifest by excessively inhibited, hyper vigilant, or highly ambivalent and contradictory responses

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Disinhibited:Diffuse attachments as manifest by indiscriminant sociability with marked inability to exhibit appropriate selective attachments

B. The disturbance in Criterion A is not accounted for solely by developmental delay and does not meet criteria for a pervasive developmental disorder.C. Pathogenic care as evidenced by at least one of the following: 1. persistent disregard of the child’s basic emotional needs for comfort, stimulation, and affection; 2. persistent disregard of the child’s basic physical needs; and 3. repeated changes in primary caregiver that prevent formation of stable attachments

D. There is a presumption that the care in Criterion C is responsible for the disturbed behavior in Criterion A.Diagnostic criteria and the prevalence of RAD continue to be areas of debate among researchers (Sheperis, Doggett, Hoda, Blanchard, Renfro-Michel, Holdiness, & Schlagheck, 2003). One such challenge in diagnosing RAD is the commonality of symptoms between RAD and other conduct and behavior disorders (Sheperis, et al., 2003). The distinguishing aspect of the clinical diagnosis of RAD is that it is a result of ongoing, pathogenic care (DSM-IV-TR, 2000).

As illustrated in the previous discussion, attachment is a critical issue in childhood development. When working with children in foster and adoptive homes the importance of attachment and attachment disorders is exacerbated. Cicchetti and Toth (1995) conceded that there is a greater likelihood of negative and incomplete social and cognitive development outcomes in maltreated children. Furthermore, the maladaptive behaviors extend to dysregluation, poor social skills development, and ultimately poor adaptation to the school environment (Cicchetti & Lynch, 1995).

Beyond just the medical and clinical walls, RAD affects school systems and childcare settings at alarming rates. Davis, Kruczek, & McIntosh (2006), cited that the prevalence rates and diagnosis has been on the rise in terms of special education services and identification, but little empirical research and literature have provided treatment of psychopathological disorders, such as RAD, within the school environment. RAD not only may be exacerbated by the academic and school arena, but the mere design and expectations of self-regulation within school itself, align children with RAD off the mark from the very onset (Schwartz & Davis, 2006). Therefore, it would behoove schools to have a stake in the development of an appropriate protocol for both identification and intervention systems, as much work is need to ameliorate the trauma from early maltreatment.

MethodThe purpose of this review is three-fold: (a) conduct a literature review of scholarly publications in the area of Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) that focus on the area early childhood, (b) identify effective measures associated with RAD, (c) and describe implications for intervention considerations.

ProceduresAn examination of the literature was accomplished by applying four procedures. These included (a) search, (b) inclusion criteria, (c) relevance, and (d) article analysis form (see Appendix A). The following section provides detail regarding each procedure.

Search ProceduresThe article search procedures were conducted by using the following components: (a) electronic-based searches in the Library Information Access System through the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), ProQuest, PsychInfo, and Infotrac using reactive attachment disorder with each of the following key descriptors or truncation: early childhood, measure, assessment, and preschool; (b) a hand-based search of refereed journals publishing articles on RAD, early childhood, and measure; and (c) a traditional search using the reference section of articles obtained through the above two methods.Inclusion CriteriaUsing the selection criteria procedures described above, a total of 50 articles were found The selection criterion was further refined by limiting the inclusion to reactive attachment disorder with the following categories: early childhood (n=11), then further refinement of measures (n=7). Articles published between 1994 and 2007 were reviewed to establish the relevance to the special topic of the reactive attachment disorder and the identification measures used with children birth through five years. Only peer-reviewed articles are present within the review.

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An article was determined relevant and included if it was published between 1994 and 2007 and the primary focus of the article was related to RAD in the areas of preschool, early childhood, and measures. Articles were excluded if measures were only mentioned as a consideration or a recommendation, or if assessment or treatment was conducted on children older than five. As formerly mentioned only articles from peer reviewed journals were included in this review.

Article AnalysisA content analysis form (Appendix A) was generated to provide a summary of each article The analysis form was divided into six categories: (a) Background information; (b) Participant Characteristics; (c) Research Design; (d) Practice characteristics; (e) Outcomes; and (f) Synthesis Findings.

LimitationsThis review was a focused examination of current articles (within the last thirteen years) specifically addressing reactive attachment disorder, measures, and early childhood. Because of the specific nature of this review, limitations are noted. One possible limitation may be the omission of important articles written prior to 1994, or work not published in peer reviewed journals (e.g., reports, conference papers, etc.). Another possible limitation may be the exclusion of articles outside the parameters of all three descriptors (i.e., reactive attachment disorder, measures, and early childhood). Only journal articles published in English were included in this review.

Analysis of ResearchSince this first inclusion in DSM manuals, an increasing number of research studies examined the relationship between poor attachment and pathological care and the identification of children diagnosed with RAD (Mukaddes, Bilge, Alyanak, & Kora, 2000). This review will investigate the following themes present in the current body of research: Comorbidity; Differential Diagnosis; Lack of Consistent Assessment Protocol.

Comorbidity As previously mentioned, one of the concerns of identifying of RAD, is the notion of identification challenges due to comorbidity factors. Cicchetti & Toth (1995) compared groups of nonmaltreated children with children who had experienced maltreatment from comparable socioeconomic backgrounds. These researchers found that the children who had experienced maltreatment manifested significantly greater maladaptive functioning across developmental domains. This finding suggests the presence of child maltreatment affects children over and above the effects of poverty. In keeping with this line of research, Hanson and Spratt (2000) suggested using caution before over identifying a group of children, as this might create a superfluous or partial diagnosis.

Additionally, the work by Richters and Volkmar (1994) deem it imperative to include the pathological familial background. Rosenstein and Horowitz (1996) opened the debate further to identify many factors affecting the diagnosis including traumatic familiar history and economic conditions. Not only does poverty and socioeconomic status level appear to be comorbidity factors, but other disorders can be comorbidity factors as well. For example, Hughes (1997) reported that children with RAD are typically intense and pervasive and struggle to find joy, mutuality, and reciprocity in their interactions with others, which parallels many therapist views of a child suffering from depression. Hanson & Spratt (2000) also noted that there is a potential overlap with post-traumatic stress disorder and substance use.

Another example of disorders being comorbidity factors is the ongoing practice of dually diagnosing children with Autism and RAD. Richters & Volkmar (1994) point out similarities between children with autism spectrum disorder, but also conclude that children with RAD typically do appear to be more socially related than do children with autism. Mukaddes, Alyanak, & Kora (2000) suggested distinguishing the two identifications can be based on the following: children with RAD do have a normal social capacity; they can recover and respond in socially appropriate ways; lack most autistic symptoms even when language deficits were existent; no restrictive areas of interest were noted when working with children with RAD; and, unlike many children with autism, there were no severe cognitive deficits which were resistant to change.

Differential DiagnosisThe recent increases in the identification and diagnosis of RAD have been debated (Sheperis et al., 2003). Many researchers believe that RAD mirrors many other DSM-IV-TR (2000) diagnostic

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categories, making a true identification difficult and questionable (Sheperis, Renfro-Michel, & Doggett, 2003). Table 2 presents several commonly shared diagnosis and crossover characteristics. Hanson and Spratt (2000) explored another quandary in diagnosing children with RAD; the researchers point out the fact that the terms bonding and attachment in and of themselves create diagnostic confusion, with many researchers seemingly not noting a difference between the two terms. By not defining clearly the terms assigned to the definitional aspect, present conceptualization difficulties when interpreting increases or decreases in identification of children with RAD will continue to exist.

Hall & Geher (2003) state further that the diagnosis of RAD may or may not include such psychosomatic complaints that may be confused with diagnosed depression. Additionally, the researchers recognized that it is perhaps futile for a definitive diagnosis of RAD given that so much information and knowledge regarding the disorder is not complete. Hanson & Spratt (2000) echod the challenges of differential diagnosis given that without identified disruptions in attachment, children could easily be diagnosed with a Conduct Disorder or Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

Table 2Diagnostic Differences in Childhood Disorders

DISORDER KEY COMPONENTS OF DIAGNOSIS

DIFFERNETIAL DIAGNOSIS FACTORS

Reactive Attachment Disorder of Infancy or Early Childhood 313.89

Overall symptomotology resulting from pathologenic care

Inhibited Type – Persistent inability to engage in or respond in appropriate social relationships

Disinhibited Type – Little to no discrimination given in selecting attachment figures

Symptomotology similar to other disorders listed, but occur due to ongoing pathogenic care (see DSM-IV-TR for definition)

Social and attachment issues present

May exhibit language, behavior, and communication deficits, but typically are a result of poor care versus a developmental origin

Conduct Disorder 312.81 Persistent pattern of severe behavior that violates the basic rights of others

May have been in restrictive emotional environment

Anti-social and aggressive behaviors lead to decreased ability to develop adequate social relationships

Oppositional Defiant Disorder 313.81

Pattern of defiant behavior toward authority figures

Behaviors centered around deflecting self blame

Behaviors overall are not intended to harm others

Social difficulties occur due to defiant behaviors

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 314.01

Pattern of impulsivity and hyperactivity causing disturbances in school and home functioning

Social deficits that may occur stem from these impulsive behaviors

Disinhibited social behavior resulting from impulsivity versus seeking comfort from attachment figure

Behaviors are not being done to intentionally bother another individual

Autistic Disorder 299.00 Restricted level of interests and activities

Normally accompanied by marked disturbance in communication and repetitive stereotypic behaviors

Social impairments stem from restricted field of interest and communication deficits present

Note: All information taken directly from DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2000)

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Lack of Consistent Assessment ProtocolFurther complicating the challenges comorbidity and differential diagnosis create when identifying RAD, there is currently no universally accepted assessment tool for identifying children with RAD (Hanson & Spratt, 2000). The lack of such a tool creates a situation where many children may be misdiagnosed. In addition, not having a well-developed assessment protocol may potentially limit the possibility of generating and researching effective intervention strategies used in clinical and school settings. Crittenden, Claussen, and Kozlowska (2007) cited that there is uncertainty about how to assess attachment and the implications of different assessment measures. Furthermore, if attachment is to become meaningful in clinical application, formal and replicable assessments are essential (pg. 78).

Although basic attachment theory is the guidepost for most researchers in examining RAD, various researchers and professionals may adhere to different assessment measures. Table 3 outlines assessments typically used when diagnosing preschool children with RAD. In an effort to standardize an assessment protocol for diagnosing RAD, Sheperis, Doggett, Hoda, Blanchard, Renfro-Michel, Holdiness, & Schlagheck (2003) evaluated the use and elements of assessments currently in practice for diagnosing children with RAD and subsequently proposed an assessment protocol for a more effective measure. These researchers commented on the difficulties of creating a universal protocol, highlighting how complicated it was to tease out the key factors for an accurate identification. Ultimately, they concluded that any assessment protocol should include the following key components: (a) distinguishing cognitive and lingual characteristics of RAD from other developmental disorders; (b) noting behavioral portions even though they overlap with other conduct disorders; (c) specifically addressing the origin of the disorders; and, (d) placing emphasis on all of this areas listed when making the diagnosis (Sheperis et al., 2003).

Table 3Psychometric Instruments Reference

Instrument Age Norms Outcome Measures Application to RADChild Behavioral Checklist (CBCL)

2-18 years Access behavior problems; access ability

Distinguished between externalizing and internalizing behaviors

Parent and Teacher Report Form of CBCL

2-18 years Home and school behavior reference

Identification of behaviors across settings

Eyeberg Child Inventory (ECBI)

2-16 years Assists in examining the severity of conduct disorder

Examines inappropriate behaviors and behavioral characteristics

Sutter-Eyeberg Student Behavior Inventory Revised (SESBI-R)

2-17 years Assists in examining the severity of conduct disorder in school environment

Assists in quantifying RAD symptoms; assists in differential diagnosis of RAD

Randolph Attachment Disorder Questionnaire(RADQ)

5-18 years Distinguishes between behavior and attachment disorders

Aids in differential diagnosis for the clinician

Parent Infant Global Assessment

0-3 Ranges from well-adapted to grossly impaired

Assists in identifying the source of the attachment problems –Caregiver v. larger social environment

Developmental Observation Checklist System-Revised

0-6 years Addresses concerns regarding general development, adjustment behavior, and parent stress and support

Aids in differentiating levels and predictors

Strange Situation Early infancy Defines attachment patterns Not used for clinical diagnosis, but assist in formulating attachment positives and negatives

ImplicationsIn an effort to enhance the skills of young children with RAD and to better prepare them for success in school and life, some of the challenges facing today’s schools were examined. Additionally, suggestions from the literature to improve school readiness intervention were considered.

Challenges for School Readiness and PerformanceChildren with RAD present a unique challenges entering school. Blair pointed out that social and emotional school readiness is critical to a smooth transition to kindergarten and early school success (2000). Children entering school diagnosed with RAD may present to schools with a myriad of behavioral, cognitive, and academic challenges and deficits. An aspect that many researchers agree

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upon is that children with RAD consistently exhibit more teacher-attention seeking behaviors, over dependence upon a teacher, significantly more emotional dependency, and are more likely to engage in proximity-seeking behaviors (Kobak et al., 2003, Blair, 2002, & Cicchetti, 2004).

There is limited research to review of programs serving children with RAD within the school setting, but much of what is available presents very similarly to that of other maltreated children (Perry, 2001). Like programs and interventions for maltreated children, programs and interventions for children with RAD would include, but would not be limited to: a) nurturing the child; b) understanding behaviors before punishing; c) interacting with children based on emotional age; d) being consistent, predictable, and repetitive; e) modeling and teach appropriate play and social behaviors; f) maintaining realistic expectations; g) being patient with child and self; and using resources (Perry, 2001).

Self-RegulationSelf-regulation presents significantly challenged options for children entering school (Schwartz & Davis, 2006). Therefore, a key for school personnel is to assist in improving a child’s ability to regulate his or her own feelings. Children with RAD would need more specific and targeted interventions to improve their self-regulation because of persistent and serious interpersonal deficits. Hanson and Sprat (2000) suggest cognitive behavioral management of mood symptoms, behavior modification, and psycho education as possible intervention strategies.

Social CompetenceChildren with RAD tend to be more aggressive, anti-social, and harm other children at school that is a manifestation of the child’s poor social competence. In a forethought of possible intervention strategies, Kennedy and Kennedy suggested that the teacher–student relationship, and by extension other relationships both in school and outside school, are inextricably tied to a child’s internal working model of a parent-child relationship, and that the teacher-child relationship may be the most influential factor and strongest predictor of school success (2004). Therefore, rigorous and focused efforts need to be concentrated on enhancing social competence. The outcome measures should correspond with the basic goals of attachment – proximity, security, safety, and self-regulation, as well as helping reframe the child’s behavior, keeping in mind the child’s basic need of compensation for unmet needs of attachment (Kobak et al, 2000). Without well-developed interventions in the school setting, children with RAD may have increasingly serious problems relating to others including teachers and peers (Ritchie, 1996).

Implications for Future ResearchDevelopment of Assessment ProtocolChildren with RAD are, at best, a challenge in properly identifying regardless of the child’s age. Therefore, continued research needs to address the reliability and validity of assessment measures and protocols to assist in accurately identifying children with RAD. Kratochwill considers observation as the hallmark for behavioral assessment, even more critical for children under the age of eight (1999). Observations need to occur in a variety of situations and conditions. Sheperis et al., (2003) outlined a conditioned observation system that highlight the variety of anxiety and conditions that heightened typical RAD behavioral characteristics (2003).

Intervention ConsiderationsIn a study by Wilson, it was determined that there are significant barriers to traditional therapies when working with children with RAD which include the inability to profit from experiences, minimal desire to change, little or no regard for authority, and poor impulse control (2001). Schwartz & Davis (2006) documented that few validated therapeutic interventions are published in peer-reviewed journals distinguished for children with RAD. Therefore, much of the interventions for children with RAD mimic therapies for children identified as abused and/or neglected as stated before. When the child with RAD is within the school setting, it is imperative for the school psychologist to take an active role in educating the teachers and staff of the critical role they each will play in the child’s success or failure at school.

It is important for teachers to know the dire need children with RAD possess for needing stability and sense of security (Schwartz & Davis, 2006). Mattison & Forness (1995) point out the importance of school psychologist in providing support, guidance, and establishment of behavioral manifestations of children with RAD to the child’s educators. Kobak et al., (2001) additionally outlined the key role psychologist and counselors play in the adaptive ability of children with the school environment.

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When the teachers understood more about RAD, they were more likely to demonstrate a willingness to support the child as well as assisting in helping to reframe the child’s unmet attachment needs. In addition, Kobak et al.,(2001) found that psychologists, counselors, and teachers are all key factors in helping the child with RAD develop a secure base and effectively regulate emotions through interactive teaching, counseling, and modeling of appropriate social behaviors.

When developing therapy goals for children diagnosed with RAD, careful plans should be generated around the child’s need for developing self-control, developing a self-identity, understanding natural consequences, and reinforcing reciprocity and nurturing. Zeanah (1999) identified that key factors for children with RAD to be successful within the confines of the school setting, the interventions must be child specific, developmentally appropriate, and reduction in negative practices and emotional pressuring. Haugaard & Hazan (2004) further recommend that any intervention should also address self-esteem and self-efficacy to improve overall functioning.

SummarySchwartz & Davis (2006) discussed that schools can become triggers of increased anxiety and possible rejection for students with RAD given the conflicting requests brought about by the natural consequences of delayed gratification, coupled with their inability to regulate emotions. Therefore, a key element to any intervention for children with RAD in the school environment must address self-regulation. It is imperative that children with RAD learn to regulate their feelings and actions. This learning will only occur with deliberate and consistent instruction. Creating a reliable, predictable, and secure learning environment are essential considerations when developing interventions for children with RAD. Given the history of maltreatment and distrust children with RAD have with adults, it is imperative that those entrusted with developing the intervention plans are well versed in attachment theory and development in order to create a plan of benefit and not detriment to the child.

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Minnis, H., Everett, K., Pelosi, A.J., Dunn, J., Knapp, M. (2006). Children in foster Care: Mental health, service use, and cost. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 15, 63-70.Mukaddes, N.M., Bilge, S., Alyanak, B, & Kora, M.M. (2000). Clinical characteristics and treatment responses in cases diagnosed as reactive attachment disorder. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 30(4), 273-287.

Richters M.M.,& Volkmar F.R. (1994). Reactive attachment disorder of infancy or early childhood . Journal of American Academy Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 328–332.Rosenstein, D.S., & Horowitz, H.A. (1996). Adolescent attachment and psychopathology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(2), 244-253.Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W., & Parker, J. G. (1998). Peer interactions, relationships, and groups. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 619–700). New York: Wiley.Schwartz, E., & Davis, A.S. (2006). Reactive attachment disorder: Implications for school readiness and school functioning. Psychology in Schools., 43(4), 471-479. Sheperis, C.J., Doggett, R.A., Hoda, N.E., Blanchard, T., Renfro-Michel, E.L., Holdiness, S.H., & Schlagheck, R. (2003). The development of an assessment protocol for Reactive attachment disorder. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 25(4), 291-310.Sheperis, C.J., Renfro-Michel, E.L., & Doggett, R.A. (2003). In-home treatment of reactive attachment disorder in a therapeutic foster care system: A case example. Journal of Mental Health Counseling. 25(1), 76-88.Wilson, S.L. (2001). Attachment disorders: Review and current status. The Journal Of Psychology, 135(1), 37-52.Zeanah, C.H., Smyke, A.T., & Koga, S.F. (2005) Attachment in institutionalized and community children in Romania. Child Development, 76(5), 1015-1028.

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“NEW SKILLS AND ABILITIES TO ENABLE ME TO SUPPORT MY PUPILS IN A FORWARD THINKING POSITIVE WAY”: A SELF-DISCOVERY PROGRAMME FOR

TEACHERS IN MAINSTREAM SCHOOL.

Lesley Powell, and

Anna CheshireCoventry University

The purpose of this study is to adapt, deliver, and pilot test the Self-discovery Programme (SDP) for teachers in mainstream school. The study used a pre-test post-test design. Quantitative data were collected by self-administered questionnaires given to teachers at two points in time: baseline (immediately pre-SDP) and immediately post-SDP. Qualitative data were collected via open questions at baseline and post-SDP to gain more in-depth information about teacher’s experience of the SDP. In addition, observations were conducted at four points in time: sessions 1, 2, 6, and 10. Results suggest that overall the SDP-Teachers had been an enjoyable experience. The results of this study will add to the sparse literature and evidence base concerning interventions for teachers in mainstream schools, particularly interventions that consist of complementary and alternative medicine.

IntroductionTeacher StressIt is a commonly held belief that teaching can be a highly stressful profession (Jarvis, 2002). This is supported by national survey data from the UK (Dunham & Varma, 1976; Travers & Cooper, 1996). Travers and Cooper (1996) found that one quarter of the 1,790 teachers surveyed, from a cross-section of school types, sectors and teaching grades, reported that they regarded their profession as very or extremely stressful. The National Union of Teachers report that stress is one of the biggest problems facing teachers today, and that it is the main health and safety concern in four out of five schools (NUT, 1999). Compared to other occupational groups (e.g. doctors, dentists, nurses) teachers experience lower job satisfaction and poorer mental health, such as anxiety and depression (Travers & Cooper, 1993).

The nature and causes of teacher stress are complex (Borg & Riding, 1991). Studies have examined the role different factors may play in relation to teacher stress such as environmental factors, contextual

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factors, and teacher coping and personality characteristics (Mearns & Cain, 2003). Although classroom discipline is a well documented source of teacher stress (Lewis, 1999), Kyriacou (2001) suggests that few studies have examined the impact of pupil behaviour problems and pupil-teacher interaction on teacher stress.

Teacher stress related to pupil behavioural problemsInternational research has provided mixed findings on the effect pupil behavioural problems have on teacher stress. When teachers are questioned as to what causes them stress in relation to their work, pupil behaviour is rarely cited (Okebukola & Jegede, 1992; Pullis, 1992). However, in the UK, Ho (1996) found five main issues to emerge as potential sources of teacher stress, one of which was pupil misbehaviour. A more recent study by Williams and Gersch (2004) also found that London based teachers in mainstream school reported misbehaviour of pupils (including noisy pupils and pupils’ poor attitudes to work) as a source of stress. However teacher reports of student misbehaviour may be biased, as a study by Whiteman, Young, and Fisher (1985) demonstrated: the more stress teachers were under, the more negative their interpretation of student behaviour became. A report published by OFSTED on managing challenging behaviour in schools (OFSTED, 2005) reports more pupil behaviour problems in secondary compared with primary schools. The most common form of poor behaviour was the persistent low-level disruption of lessons that interrupts learning, can be exhausting and tedious for teachers, and may influence teachers’ motivation, confidence, and morale.

Interventions to manage teacher stressThere is little research in the UK on the effectiveness of interventions to help reduce teacher stress (Jarvis, 2002; Kyriacou, 2001). Hall, Hall, and Abaci (1997) reported changes in teachers following a two-year part-time masters course in human relations, which used an experiential learning methodology based mainly on humanistic psychological theory. They found participants reported a reduction in stress, a more humanistic orientation towards pupil control (that is a more democratic approach to discipline), an increased sense of internal locus of control (i.e. an individual’s belief that they have control over what happens to them in their life), and an improved sense of personal accomplishment. These findings were supported by qualitative interviews in which participants’ discussed issues which included: being able to manage their stress better, giving pupils more responsibility in the classroom, and feeling more in control of their lives.

A Swedish study by Jacobsson, Pousette, and Thylefors (2001) examined possible factors related to feelings of mastery among teachers, to inform the development of guidelines for stress management interventions. They found that feelings of mastery were best predicted by learning orientation, positive feedback, and goad clarity. Learning orientation can be defined as continuous learning and professional development, which has been shown to predict professional accomplishment (Kuo, 1989). Further recommendations for interventions and professional development include encouraging teachers to develop more effective coping strategies by allowing them to reflect on the strategies they use (Lewis, 1999).

In the UK the Quiet Place Project offers holistic support for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties, their families, and the school. It offers teachers support in terms of stress management to negate the effects of teacher stress on pupils. A pilot qualitative study offers some evidence to the usefulness of the project in offering direct and indirect support in terms of teacher stress levels (Renwick & Spalding, 2002).

Complementary therapy-based interventionsNo UK studies were found to examine complementary therapy-based interventions as a mechanism to reduce stress in teachers. Two studies in the USA have examined various meditation techniques with positive outcomes (Anderson, 1996; Anderson, Levinson, Barker, & Kiewra, 1999; Winzelberg & Luskin, 1999). In a study using meditation techniques among teachers in South Africa, teachers reported decreased tension, personal mastery, increased sense of identity and tranquillity, improved coping behaviour and social interaction, and experiencing transcending experiences Kirsten (2004). Solloway (2000) demonstrated that not only could meditation techniques reduce teacher stress but the positive effects extended into the classroom and to the children. Teachers were taught a Contemplative Practitioner model of classroom practice. They learnt a meditation technique for use at home, which used the breath to anchor the attention in the moment. In addition, they were taught mindfulness practice (intentionally bringing awareness to the present) to use in the classroom. Qualitative evaluation reported improved student-teacher cooperation and interaction within the classroom leading to a more

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pleasant working environment. Also, students began to adopt the breathing technique that they saw their teachers using to keep themselves on-task in their work.

In conclusion, there have been a limited amount of studies on stress management interventions and on complementary therapy-based interventions for teachers, particularly in the UK. Those that have been conducted suggest preliminary evidence for the efficacy of meditation techniques at reducing teacher stress that may extend to other areas of the teacher’s life and to the lives of their pupils.

The Self-Discovery ProgrammeThe Self-Discovery Programme (Cullen-Powell, McCormak, & Barlow, 2001; Powell, 2005) was developed for children with special health and educational needs, emotional and behavioural difficulties, and children at risk of exclusion from mainstream school. Evaluation of the Self-Discovery Programme (SDP) for children has been conducted with positive results (Cullen-Powell & Barlow, 2005; Powell, Barlow, & Bagh, 2005). The primary aims of the Self-Discovery Programme (SDP) are to enhance self-awareness, increase self-esteem, and improve communication and social skills. The SDP is set in the theoretical framework of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1988). Strategies shown to enhance self-efficacy are mastery experience, role modelling, persuasion, and reinterpretation of physiological and affective state (Bandura, 1988). The SDP provides an environment in which simple relaxation, breathing, and meditation techniques can be practised (mastery experience), and participants can observe their peers also practising the techniques (role modelling). The tutor provides clear instructions and explains that by using the techniques participants have a means of relaxing themselves during times of stress, and thus will be able to consider their response from a place of stillness rather than a place of heightened affect (persuasion). The relaxation techniques also provide a means of down-regulating physiological arousal and affective states (e.g. stress response).

The purpose of this study is to adapt, deliver, and pilot test the SDP for teachers in mainstream school. The aims of the study are to:

Adapt the SDP for teachers. Deliver the SDP to teachers in mainstream school. Evaluate the SDP in terms of delivery, content, practical application, and value to teachers. Examine teachers’ psychological well-being before and after the SDP. Review and modify the SDP based on the results of the evaluation and teacher / tutor feedback

during the Programme.

MethodParticipantsEighteen participants were recruited from a Secondary School in Coventry. Fourteen were teachers, three were learning mentors to children, and one was an assistant to learning support. Participants were recruited via the Head of Nurture at the School. The Head of Nurture received information leaflets to help with the recruiting process. All participants completed a consent form and a baseline questionnaire prior to commencement on the SDP.

ProcedureThe study used a pre-test post-test design. Quantitative data were collected by self-administered questionnaires given to teachers at two points in time: baseline (immediately pre-SDP) and immediately post-SDP. Qualitative data were collected via open questions on the questionnaires. At baseline they were used to ask teachers to articulate their expectations of the SDP and what they hope to gain from attending the SDP. Immediately after the SDP, they were used to ask teachers to provide information on their experience of the SDP and to provide feedback on the delivery, content, and practical application of the SDP in their respective environment. In addition, observations by a researcher were conducted at four points in time: sessions 1, 2, 6, and 10. They were taken to inform the latter two objectives of this research. That is, to provide information that will contribute to the evaluation, review, and modification of the SDP for teachers.

Measuring InstrumentsParticipant demographics were collected in the Baseline questionnaire only. The following standard measuring instruments were used to assess participants' psychological well-being at both time points.

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Psychological well-being was measured by the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) developed by Zigmond and Snaith (1983). The HADS is quick and easy to complete, has established reliability and validity (Moorey et al., 1991), and was designed to detect the presence and severity of relatively mild degrees of mood disorder in non-psychiatric, hospital out-patients. Scores range from 0-21, with higher scores indicating greater anxiety and greater depression.

Perceived Stress was measured using The Perceived Stress Scales (PSS10). The 10 PSS items explore feelings and thoughts during the last month, and respondents are asked how often they felt a certain way. The PSS10 has established validity and reliability (Cohen & Williamson, 1988).Self-efficacy was measured using the Generalised Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES) as modified for use in the UK (Barlow, Williams, & Wright, 1996). The GSES has established reliability and validity, and was designed to examine the strength of an individual's belief in his or her ability to respond to new or difficult situations and to cope with any associated obstacles or setbacks.

Participant health status was measured using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). The VAS is a 10cm horizontal line, anchored 0 (Poor) health, to 10 (Perfect) health.

Positive reappraisal involves reframing a situation to see it in a positive light. It was assessed using a subscale from the COPE, which has been shown to have established validity and reliability (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989).

The Self-Discovery Programme-TeachersThe tutor, already trained to deliver the SDP to children, delivered the SDP to teachers. The SDP comprised 10 sessions spread over one academic year. Each session was 1 hour in length and was delivered after school hours from 3.45 to 4.45pm. A room to deliver the SDP was provided by the school for the duration of the SDP.The primary themes of the SDP-Teachers include simple stretching exercises, relaxation techniques, self-hand massage, peer hand and arm massage, colour, the senses, and communication including voice work and trust. Themes were in alignment with the themes of the SDP-children. At the start of each session teachers were welcomed with a handshake from the tutor (this is also an activity undertaken in the SDP-children).

AnalysisQuantitative data were subject to simple frequencies and percentages where applicable. Student t-tests were used to compare mean scores on variables pre-post SDP. Qualitative data from the questionnaires and observations were subject to standard content analysis.

ResultsParticipant characteristicsThe majority of participants were female (94%), were married or living with a partner (61%), White European (89%), and all had formal educational qualifications. Participants had a mean age of 40 (SD = 8) years. Eighty-nine percent were employed full-time and a total of 4 (22%) participants reported health problems including: Clinical anaemia, low thyroid function, rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, and eczema. (See Table 1.)

Table 1Participants’ Characteristics

Number(n=18)

%

Female 17 94Male 1 6

Single 4 22Married 10 56Living with Partner 1 6Divorced 2 11Separated 1 6

White / European 16 89Asian 1 6Black/Afro Caribbean 1 6

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Educational qualificationsYes 18 100

Health ProblemsYes 4 22

Participants all worked in a Secondary School in Coventry. They comprised 14 teachers including 1 unqualified teacher, 1 assistant head teacher, 1 head of learning, 1 SEN teacher, the head of nurture, and the head of English, 3 learning mentors, and 1 assistant to learning. Sixteen participants were employed full-time and 2 were part-time. Participants had a mean of 13 years (SD = 10) teaching experience.

Qualitative data – Baseline (expectations of the SDP)Seven participants wrote that they expected to learn coping strategies to deal with the day-to-day challenges and stress at work, and two participants hoped this would extend to their personal life. Three participants felt they would be learning about relaxation and three participants also expected to learn relaxation techniques to help their colleagues and pupils.

Ways of coping more productively with things that can affect the working life, to help oneself, pupils and colleagues. P14Deeper insight into turning challenges into a more positive experience and outcome. P14

Two participants expected to learn how to increase their self-esteem. Two participants were not sure what to expect. One participant hoped that the Programme would help her to help her pupils.

New skills and abilities to enable me to support my pupils in a forward thinking positive way; to be able to reach their full potential in life. P9

ObservationsIntroductory session (session one). At the first session, fifteen teachers were present. One teacher was absent due to ill-health and two teachers failed to attend. The aim of the introductory session was to introduce the SDP aims and objectives to participants, and to introduce the tutor to the group.

Initially when teachers arrived for the session they were relaxed and chatty with one another. The group then sat down in a circle with the tutor. The group was attentive and very quiet, which seemed to reflect a slight nervousness and anticipation of what was to come. All teachers participated in the stretching and relaxation exercises. However, they were generally quiet throughout the session, even when the tutor asked the group questions. Throughout the session teachers appeared reticent: reserved verbal responses and lack of facial expression. Some teachers appeared self-conscious whilst taking part in the exercises. However, the atmosphere became more relaxed after the final meditation/relaxation exercise, which involved a visualisation and the joining of hands. Teachers appeared more open, were smiling more, were actively attentive, and seemed to be more connected as a group.

Session Two. At session two, 10 teachers were present. Two teachers were absent due to ill-health, two teachers had meetings with parents, three teachers failed to attend, and one teacher withdrew. The teachers appeared more relaxed this week. On arrival to the session, conversation was directed at the whole group including the tutor rather than between small groups of individuals. The exception to this was one participant who had a cold sat and outside the circle for the duration of the session.

As the session began teachers seemed more attentive and their gaze was focused mainly on the tutor. Teachers talked about their experience of the first session. This was discussed with the group and, there was increased cohesion and interaction. Teachers listened respectfully and appeared interested in what their colleagues were saying and made relevant comments in response. One teacher said that a time had occurred when she felt the need to do one of the relaxation exercises practiced in the first session to help her relax. However, as she was in a classroom situation, she involved the children in her class. This had been a very positive experience and the children had responded positively and appeared to enjoy it.

The tutor explained to everyone that they would be starting to learn peer hand massage today and asked for a volunteer to demonstrate on. Once the demonstration was completed, the group split into pairs to practise on one another. The group was generally very quiet when practising the massage; any talking

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that did occur was about the massage. When finished, teachers talked excitedly to their massage partner sharing their experience of giving and receiving massage. When asked if they had enjoyed the massage teachers said lovely in unison. Teachers looked relaxed and had clearly enjoyed the experience. The teacher who sat outside of the circle commented it is relaxing just watching… You can just sense the calmness in the room.During the final exercise (hand holding meditation) teachers appeared less self- conscious than at the first session; facial expressions were relaxed. At the end of the session teachers shared their experiences of touch and massage with the group and there was a short discussion about the importance of positive touch.

Session six. Eight teachers were present. Nine teachers gave no reason for their absence. However, it was noted that invariably teachers have to speak with parents or are called upon for other duties after school, sometimes at short notice.

The session began with the tutor explaining to the teachers that this week’s session would be about colour. Body language was now very relaxed; teachers began to relax in their chairs, were more open, and more engaging. They showed their interest in the session by making lots of eye contact with the tutor, verbal and non-verbal agreement with what she was saying and were a lot more ready to make comments or give their opinion about the subject.

After some exercises using colour, the tutor opened up a discussion with the group about the importance of colour in our everyday lives. However, at this point the room became very noisy. The tutor brought the group back by introducing some of the previous weeks stretching and relaxation exercises. One teacher said she had used the stretching and relaxation exercises after she had been sitting still at the theatre for a long period of time. Another teacher shared with the group that she had used the calming palm massage technique helpful during class. Thus, teachers appeared to be using the techniques learned at work and in their personal life.

The group requested that they practice self-massage to which the tutor was happy to oblige. However, the atmosphere had become lively and noisy as teachers talked excitedly about the subject matter. The tutor brought the group back by suggesting a short meditation before learning self-hand massage. Relaxing music was played in the background. All teachers kept their eyes closed throughout the exercise and eventually became quiet. The meditation succeeded in calming the atmosphere to some extent; but it soon returned to being lively and chatty. It was clear that the group was in a relaxed, but inquisitive and eager to learn frame of mind.

The tutor moved on swiftly to demonstrating the hand massage and again the atmosphere quietened as the group followed instructions. At the end of this session the atmosphere was relaxed yet alert as teachers were always quick to respond or start talking once the exercise had finished. At the end of the session no one left straight away.

This session had a very lively but happy atmosphere to it. The chatting was nearly always about the session / exercise and reflected the groups’ interest. Their interest was also reflected by their body language, particularly eye contact with the tutor and eagerness to discuss the subjects. It was also clear that some of the teachers had begun to incorporate some of the exercises they were learning into their everyday lives and finding them beneficial. This was reflected by the stories teachers shared about when they had used the exercises.

Session ten. At session ten, six teachers were present. No reasons were given for the non-attenders. The session began with a short relaxation; teachers had their eyes closed and practiced deep breathing. Everybody looked relaxed and comfortable. Next was a stretching exercise. There was a short discussion on ways to incorporate the exercises learned into a daily routine and to some of the barriers to exercise. The atmosphere was gentle and quiet.

The tutor showed teachers how to give themselves a face massage. She demonstrated and talked them through it while teachers copied. Again the atmosphere was good humoured, one teacher looked like she was getting sleepy while she was doing the face massage and the others teased her about falling asleep. This was followed by a re-cap on self-hand massage.

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One teacher shared with the tutor how another participant (who was absent at this session) had begun shaking hands with the children she taught to greet them. This is a technique used in the SDP for children. Apparently some of the children were unsure at first, but soon got used to it and some children even asked for it at the next class.

Before leaving the session all participants present thanked the tutor and suggested that they had found each session useful. One teacher shared with the group that she had not realised how stressed she was feeling until she started to calm down during the Programme. Teachers also said they hoped there would be funding next year for another course. Teachers offered that they had found meeting each week a very helpful means of supporting each other and wanted to maintain this momentum. There was a definite arrangement amongst teachers to meet next week for 20 minutes in the ‘nurture’ room for relaxation and then to go to the pub. One participant volunteered to do a relaxation exercise at the session.

Quantitative data – change over timeThis analysis is based on 7 sets of completed questionnaires. T-test revealed that there were no statistically significant differences on study variables or age between responders and non-responders. Comparisons between study variables at baseline and follow-up revealed no statistically significant differences on any of the study variables. However, comparisons indicate the reduction in anxiety was approaching statistical significance. All the results were in the expected direction, with the exception of depression, which increased fractionally. Mean scores on study variables at baseline and follow-up are presented in Table 2.

At baseline 5 (71%) and 2 (29%) participants were at risk of clinically anxious mood and clinically depressed mood, respectively. At follow-up, participants at risk of clinically anxious mood had reduced to 3 (43%); participants at risk from clinically depressed mood remained the same 2 (29%).

Table 2Mean scores on study variables at baseline and follow-up

BaselineMean (standard deviation)

Follow-upMean (standard deviation)

p value

AnxietyRange 0 – 21, = worse 9.57 (4.20) 7.00 (4.24) .060

DepressionRange 0 – 21, = worse 5.43 (4.79) 5.57 (4.86) .846

Perceived stress scaleRange 0- 40 = worse 19.43 (9.78) 14.43 (9.57) .206

Generalised Self-EfficacyRange 10 – 40 = better

29.86 (5.21) 31.71 (3.86) .267

Positive ReappraisalRange 0 - 16 = better 10.71 (2.93) 12.14 (1.95) .202

Current health statusRange 0 –10, = better 5.21 (2.66) 5.96 (2.82) .507

Qualitative data – Post-ProgrammeExpectationsFour teachers said that the SDP met with their expectations and one further suggested that it had given her new techniques to deal with challenging students and situations. Two teachers said they had not known what to expect and one did not answer this question.

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Practicalities of the SDP Content: Six of the teachers thought the content had been good, in particular they had found the content to be interesting and varied. One added that she liked the fact they covered things that they could take away and try at home. One teacher commented the hand massage had been repetitive. One did not answer this question.

Delivery: Most teachers described the delivery as calming and welcoming. However, two of the teachers commented that they felt that it lacked pace.

Timing: Three teachers were happy with the timing. Two commented that they had found it difficult to stop/leave their work behind at the end of the day. Another said she thought a 4pm start would have been better. One did not answer this question.

Length of sessions: Four teachers were satisfied with the length of the sessions, one thought they could have been longer, one thought they were a little too long and one did not answer this question.

Teachers experience of the SDPThree teachers wrote about how the Programme had given them important time to themselves. In this time they particularly enjoyed the relaxation and being able to unwind. Teachers found the breathing, relaxation, self and peer hand massage, and visualisation techniques useful. Two of these teachers said they had told others about these techniques and one had also used the breathing and massage techniques with some of her students. One said she now did the hand massage on all members of her family.

Three teachers said they had enjoyed the social side of it, spending time with colleagues that they would not necessarily meet in their normal working day. The social contact allowed teachers to share their problems and knowing that other people felt the same was very important to them.

One teacher wrote about how she had used the hand massage she had learnt in the sessions on a close friend who was dying of cancer. She felt as if she had been able to do something to help her friend who was suffering greatly and she felt their relationship had become closer as a result. One teacher, who had only attended one session, said sessions had not been right for her because she was not the kind of person to talk about her emotions, so she had not felt comfortable in the sessions. Typical comments included:

Calming relaxing techniques – a range of them, plus how lots of people feel the same (that legitimises my own feelings). How important and useful it is to find time for myself. How easy it is to do something to help / improve my “feelings” or take control of my emotions (i.e. techniques to self calm / leave issues/problems outside the room etc). P15

Without doubt, learning the hand massage technique was a valuable experience – I took the “skill” a step further and moved onto feet and gave both to my dear friend who was in the last weeks of fighting cancer. Being able to offer her this relaxing treatment created a new level of intimacy to our friendship and really made me feel useful in the face of such suffering. We found a lotion we both liked the smell of and burned a candle and they were very special times. She’d gone now but I would not have felt so “physically” close to her had I not learnt this technique from The tutor. Thank you. P3

I felt uncomfortable with the session – I wanted to benefit from it, but felt it wasn’t for me mentally. I am the kind of person who doesn’t talk about my feelings / emotions – I wish I could, but just can’t. P5

Suggested improvements to the SDP One teacher felt she would not want to change anything about the SDP. Others gave a number of suggestions, including, running the Programme on a fortnightly ongoing basis, crib sheets for reminders of useful exercises, a breakdown of the sessions at the start of the course so it felt more structured, shorter sessions, and spend more time on alternative therapies. One teacher who had felt that the course was not for her suggested having individual meetings with staff before the start of the course so staff could establish if it was something that would be useful for them.

Value of the SDP for teachers in mainstream schools

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All seven teachers felt this course would be useful for teachers in a mainstream school. However, one suggested it my be better to have it off site, which she felt would help enable teachers to leave their day behind.

In this section three teachers gave their thanks for the opportunity/experience. Another said that, for those teachers that had stayed in the programme, it had helped them to realise the importance of socialising in a relaxing environment, and that they try to continue to do so now that the Programme had finished.

One real benefit was that for those who stayed in the Programme. It made us realise how important socialising in a relaxing environment is. We will continue to meet on a regular basis. Overall very useful. Thank you. P15

In addition, it was suggested that it would be useful to have the first session as an open session. Thus, teachers could ascertain if the course was for them, if they decided they would like to continue they could then take home a questionnaire to complete before the next session.

DiscussionThe results of this small pilot study suggest that overall the SDP-Teachers had been a positive experience. Teachers’ initial expectations had been met. Teachers reported on the benefits of learning a range of techniques that helped them to feel calm and helped them to relax. In addition, teachers were pleased to learn techniques that were both easy to implement and were easily transferable to their work and personal life. Thus, teachers had used techniques learned on the SDP to help them to deal with challenging situations at work, to help their peers, and in one case, to be able to offer something to a dying friend was particularly poignant. These benefits reflect the improvement in teachers’ levels of anxiety, self-efficacy (confidence), positive appraisal, and current health status, measured by the questionnaires. The fractional increase in the level of depression may be a result of bereavement experienced by two teachers and the poor health of one teacher during the Programme.

The importance of the social experience of the Programme is emphasised in the data. Sharing work issues with colleagues and finding out that their colleagues had similar experiences and feelings were considered beneficial. The SDP clearly offers social support that is different from what teachers generally receive from colleagues, for example, in the staff room at lunchtimes. One positive outcome was that teachers had continued to meet each week after work and valued this time together. A follow-up study to determine whether this support network continues and in what format would be of interest to explore.

Teachers reported that the SDP would be a useful intervention for teachers in mainstream schools, which may reflect concern about teacher stress and relative lack of interventions and support currently offered to teachers. The literature suggests that pupil misbehaviour, particularly in secondary education, is a major factor contributing to teacher stress. In addition, the ability to cope with such behaviour is necessary for positive pupil-teacher interaction and pupils integration into school life (Birch & Ladd, 1997; Boesen, 1998; Johnson, 2000). The SDP provided a range of techniques that not only contributed to teachers feeling able to do something for themselves in challenging situations, but also enabled them to involve children within their class.

The results of our study support the existing but sparse literature that suggests the value of providing teachers with stress management interventions that incorporate support, such as the Quiet Place Project (Renwick & Spalding, 2002) and some meditative and relaxation techniques as demonstrated by Solloway (2000). The SDP provided a supportive environment, facilitated self-mastery, and provided practical skills that can be used to induce a sense of calm, as well as being transferable to the classroom and to life in general.

Practical implicationsWith respect to the Programme, the content and length of the session appeared appropriate. Although the delivery was reported to be calming and welcoming there was a suggestion that the delivery could have been at a faster pace. However, this may reflect teachers’ difficulty in switching off from their work at the end of the day. Thus, the suggestion that the timing of the session may be better if it was later in the day (i.e. 4p.m.) and possibly off-site may help resolve this problem (although the latter has cost and travel implications, therefore may not be practical). Further, one aim of the SDP was to help calm and relax teachers, this perhaps acted as an antagonist to teachers general day to day experience:

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multi-tasking, and working in a lively and responsive / reactive environment. That is, teachers invariably have more than one conversation at one time, are used to noise, and work in a dynamic environment. The SDP was in essence a complete contrast to this, and may have challenged some teachers. It is difficult, even with the best of intention to suddenly stop and relax the mind when the mind and the body are still engaged, active and concerned with the problems of the day. Thus, the timing of the SDP may need to be considered as suggested above. Alternatively, a five to ten minutes get it off your chest session may be of benefit at the start of the Programme. However, all participants reported that the SDP would be a useful intervention for teachers in mainstream school.

LimitationsThe study was set up as a pilot study with a small sample, therefore findings cannot be generalised. In addition, the high drop-out of teachers suggests that the introductory session may need to screen for those who feel that the SDP is appropriate for them, as suggested in the report. However, the positive findings suggest that a larger study to include more than one school and a more rigorous evaluation is warranted.

SDP ModificationBased on the observations and follow-up data, there are a number of modifications to the SDP-Teachers. These include: starting the Programme at a later time (i.e. 4p.m.); to provide an introductory session that includes information on the SDP, its content, purpose, and aims prior to recruitment that may help to resolve teacher withdrawal; to offer the Programme on a fortnightly basis; providing a course handbook to include information about the rationale and aims of the SDP, its content, and simple instructions on relevant activities such as stretching exercises, relaxation, and massage techniques learnt. In addition, teachers felt that information on other complementary and alternative therapies would be useful.

ConclusionOverall, the SDP-Teachers had been an enjoyable experience. The results of this study will add to the sparse literature and evidence base concerning interventions for teachers in mainstream schools, particularly interventions that consist of complementary and alternative medicine.

References

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ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING DISABLED STUDENTS IN JORDAN:CURRENT PRACTICES AND OBSTACLES

Mayada Al-NatourHatem AlKhamraYahya Al-Smadi

The University of Jordan

This study investigated the assessment practices used by resource room teachers in Jordan to determine eligibility for learning disability, and to identify assessment obstacles. The study also investigated whether assessment practices and obstacles of assessment differ among resource room teachers as a function of gender and academic qualification. 150 resource room teachers were randomly selected out of 455 to complete a survey designed to serve the purpose of the study. Results indicated that most teachers rely heavily on teacher-made tests of academic achievement to make eligibility decisions. Curriculum based assessment; students' response to intervention (RTI) and dynamic assessment were found to be the least practices used by teachers. With regard to assessment obstacles, results revealed that one of the major obstacles to assessment were high rate of referral especially for low achievers. Results also indicated statistically significant differences in assessment practices for teachers' qualification but not for teacher’s gender. Concerning the obstacles faced by teachers both variables showed no significant differences. Implications of these findings for assessment practices and for future research in Jordan are provided.

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IntroductionThere is a great amount of published research on the topic of assessment and decision making regarding students with Learning Disabilities (LD) worldwide,. This research intends to highlight a framework for determining eligibility of students with learning disabilities and raises questions about the credibility of such decision making processes (Ysseldyke, 2005; Fletcher, Denton & Francis, 2005; Dean & Burns, 2002).

Based on a review of twenty years of research in the field of assessment and decision making for learning disabilities, Ysseldyke (2005) concluded the following sources of problems regarding the performance of the assessment function to identify and serve students with learning disabilities: (a) the inconsistency of decisions made by special education teams in the field of learning disability, (b) the fact that most decisions were based on students' characteristics rather than data-based assessment, (c) the declaration of many low achieving students as LD students, and (d) the absence of adequate measures for psychological process and abilities despite the availability of adequate norm-referenced tests.

One source of this uncertainty might be the use of different criteria for determining the eligibility of LD students. The most widely used criteria for eligibility determination are the ability/achievement discrepancies, and response to intervention (RTI), which were recently adopted by the new Individual with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 2004 (IDEA) in the United States. The discrepancy criteria dominated the assessment and identification of LD students for many years. Nevertheless, the validity of the discrepancy criteria has been questioned (Cone, Wilson, Bradley, & Reese, 1985; Gresham, 2002; Gresham et al., 1996; MacMillan & Siperstein, 2002; Is this 2001? If not missing reference Shepard & Smith, 1983; Wilson, 1985, and Peterson and Shinn, 2002).

Recent scholars like Shinn (2007) defended the use of alternative approaches to identify LD students. He presented the RTI process within a larger problem-solving framework as an alternative for eligibility decisions of LD students.However, in his article, Ysseldyke (2005) speculated an emerging condition called Resistance of RTI, and many questions have been raised about the newly adapted criteria of decision making. Research has to find answers for frequent questions raised by researchers, such as: how bad does the response have to be to qualify for the LD label? And is RTI stable over time? Therefore, the law (IDEA act, 2004) gave the freedom of choice for the use of either method to make eligibility decisions under the category of Specific Learning Disability (SLD).

It is now clear that there is still much controversy over the criteria used in determining eligibility for LD students in the developed countries. What would be the case in developing countries where the provision of services for LD students is just at the beginning stage? Over the past years, the Ministry of Education in Jordan has played an important role through the Directorate of Special Education in supporting students with learning disabilities by providing these students with remedial and special education services. These services are provided through resource rooms, which were initially established in the early nineties.

These resource rooms are located within some public schools- less than 10% of all public schools- and are supposedly equipped with the necessary equipment. Usually, the resource rooms provide special education services to 20 students, using the pull out model, that is a student is pulled out from his or her regular class for a period of time, varying from one to three class period(s) each day. Basically, the resource room teacher assesses students who are referred by classroom teachers to resource rooms for eligibility. These resource room teachers are also the sole providers of special education services. Unlike other countries where such decisions are made by a multi disciplinary team, where psychologists play a major role in the assessment of students with learning disability, resource room teachers in Jordan are responsible to make eligibility decisions of learning disability and provide educational services (Al-Natour, 2008). These teachers are either holders of a community college diploma in learning disabilities, or a bachelor’s degree in special education. Eligible students for learning disability receive instruction in the Arabic language and mathematics in small group format or individualized instruction.

For several years, two researchers of this study supervised practicum training of student teachers majoring in special education at the university of Jordan , when they visited resource rooms, which

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hosted student teachers. Both researchers noticed variability among resource room teachers in making eligibility decisions regarding students with learning disabilities and the lack of tools for making such eligibility decisions. These practices of eligibility and assessment have been questioned due to the absence of national guidelines for assessment, lack of formal assessment tools and variability of competencies of resource room teachers to carry out such decisions (McBride, 2007).

These observations set the groundwork for formulating research questions. The intention was to examine assessment practices and obstacles facing resource room teachers from their point of view. There is no doubt that these areas of problems exist in the case of Jordan. The questions that remain are: what are the actual specific assessment practices most widely used and what are the most pressing obstacles facing the Jordanian professionals. To this end, the study hopes to explicate the implications of assessment practices and the associated obstacles on the provision of quality education to students with learning disabilities in Jordan

Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of this study was to examine current practices used to determine eligibility for special education services for students with learning disability in Jordan, and to report obstacles to assessing students with learning disabilities from the perspective of resource room teachers.Research Questions:This study attempted to answer the following questions:

1- What are the main assessment practices used by resource room teachers to determine eligibility for learning disabilities?

2- What are the obstacles encountered by resource room teachers to determine eligibility for learning disabilities?

3- Do resource room teachers' assessment practices differ due to teacher's gender, and academic qualification?

4- Do assessment obstacles encountered by resource room teachers differ due to the teacher's gender, academic qualification?

MethodDesignA survey research method was used to investigate the research problem formulated in this study. The independent variables were represented by teachers' gender, degree, teaching experience, and academic qualification. Practices of diagnosis and assessment of learning disabilities and the rating of obstacles faced in the diagnosis and assessment procedures represented the dependent variables.

Participants:A randomly selected sample of 150 resource room teachers from a total population of 455 resource room teachers from both public and private sectors located in 34 directorates spread all around the kingdom of Jordan from north to south. Amman the capital had the biggest population. of subjects. It should be noted the final return and why of only 123 to match results below.Table 1 reports the distribution of teachers according to gender, and academic qualification. Table 1 shows that 42.3% of respondents were males and 57.7% were females. With regard to academic qualification, teachers holding a bachelor degree in Special education were 26.8%, Diploma in Learning disabilities 28.5%, other bachelor degrees 17.9%, and MA in Special Education were 26.8%.

Table 1Distribution of Resource Room Teachers According to Gender, Academic Qualification

Variable Frequency Percentage

GenderMale 52 42.3%Female 71 57.7%Total 123Academic QualificationBA in SPED 33 26.8%Diploma in LD 35 28.5%Bachelor-others 22 17.9%MA in SPED 33 26.8%Total 123

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Instrument The researchers developed a survey instrument consisting of three parts: The first part entailed the demographic data of the respondents. The second part consisted of 20-items measuring assessment practices used by resource room teachers for determining eligibility of LD students, where teachers responded using a yes-no format. These items were formulated based on a review of relevant literature (Yesseldyke, 2005; Dean& Burns, 2002; Fletcher, Denton & Francis, 2005; Mellard, Deshler & Barth, 2004; Gunderson & Siegel, 2001). The third part consisted of 14-items representing obstacles faced by resource room teachers to determine eligibility for learning disabilities. Teachers were asked to rate their responses using a three point Likert scale (Always, Sometimes, and Never).

To establish the face validity of the instrument, an initial version of the survey was given to ten faculty members from the Department of Counseling and Special Education, and the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Jordan. The panel of experts made comments and provided feedback on a few items and suggested merging some items due to similarity of their meanings, and re-phrasing some for more clarity; these suggested changes were taken into consideration. Also prior to distribution, the instrument was piloted on 25 resource room teachers working in public and private schools. Teachers' comments were incorporated in the final version of the instrument. However; this piloted sample was excluded from the sample of the study.

Reliability of this instrument was also established using the test-retest method. The correlation coefficient was calculated for both parts (second and third) of the survey: The practices of assessment part had a correlation coefficient of (.91), the obstacles of assessment part were (.87). Also, internal consistency was calculated using Cronbach Alpha for the obstacles of assessment part, with a value of (.86).

ProcedureA letter from the University of Jordan was sent to the Directorate of Special Education/ Ministry of Education supplemented by the survey. A request was made by the researchers to send the survey to the selected resource room teachers (150 resource room teachers) through the internal mail of the Ministry of Education. A letter accompanied each copy from the researchers explaining the study and the survey and requesting teachers' participation. Teachers were assured that the study was for scientific purposes only and that their responses were confidential and anonymous. They were urged to respond to all items to the best of their knowledge.After two weeks of sending the survey, (108) surveys were sent back to the researchers. Follow-up calls were made to the rest of the selected sample to urge them to complete the survey. The total number obtained was 123 surveys out of 150, reflecting a return rate of (82%). Maybe state this in prior section under participants.

Data Analysis A variety of statistical techniques were used to analyze the research data. These techniques included: means, standard deviations, t-tests for independent samples, and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

ResultsData analysis revealed that most participants focused on teacher- made tests of academic achievement as a major component of assessment used in determining eligibility for learning disabilities. This item had the highest mean of (0.89) agreements among resource teachers. Meanwhile, the lowest means of responses were obtained for the following items: Curriculum based assessment (mean 0.02), Students' Response to Intervention (mean 0.02), followed by Dynamic assessment (mean 0.01). Table 2 indicates resource room teachers' responses to assessment practices ranked in a descending order.

Table 2A Descended Ranking Order of Teachers' Responses to Assessment Practices Used for Eligibility

Determination of Learning Disabilities

NumberItemsMy decision on determining eligibility for Learning disability services was made upon: Mean

Std. Deviation

1. Assessment of academic achievement based on teacher made tests. 0.89 0.312. Information about social/ behavioral problems gathered through Checklists 0.82 0.38

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rating scales and observations.3. Reviewing school transcripts to determine under-achievement or variability of

students' performance. 0.79 0.41

4. Case study history 0.78 0.425. Criterion referenced tests (i.e. Jordan national tests of Reading and Math) 0.77 0.426. Measurement of Perceptual Ability (i.e. visual and auditory perception) 0.76 0.437. Exclusion factor to rule out other disabilities (i.e. medical examination) 0.72 0.458. Aptitude-achievement consistency analysis 0.72 0.459. Referral of classroom teachers 0.67 0.4710. Personal knowledge and experience of students 0.63 0.4811. Using LD screening tools (checklists or rating scales) 0.63 0.4812. Deviation from grade level (Two years school age difference) 0.52 0.5013. Deviation from grade level (One year school age difference) 0.41 0.4914. Counselors opinions in the identification of LD students 0.35 0.4815. Determine severe discrepancy through standard score comparisons of

intellectual abilities and achievement 0.28 0.45

16. Using IQ tests to identify subtest scatter (verbal-performance discrepancies) 0.26 0.4417. Determining severe discrepancy using regression analysis 0.12 0.3318. Curriculum based assessment (CBA) 0.02 0.1319. Students' Responsiveness to Intervention (RTI) 0.02 0.1320. Dynamic assessment 0.01 0.09

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Table 3Problems in the assessment of LD students faced by Special Education teachers

Number ItemThe most frequent assessment problems I encountered in the assessment and decision making of LD students are: Mean

Std. Deviation

1- Due to Misconceptions about LD, general Education teachers for evaluation-especially for low achievers make higher rate of referrals. 2.6667 .55318

2- The evaluation and assessment of LD students is a time consuming process 2.6198 .686253- Resource room teachers are not fully qualified to assess students with LD 2.5528 .546274- Lack of proper training in using assessment tools 2.4065 .675545- Errors in referral and diagnosis made by the school system 2.2623 .677916- Capacity limitations to accept further LD students in resource rooms, even if

qualified for services 2.2439 .71679

7- Lack of governmental criteria's, regulations and protocols regarding the assessment of LD students 2.2314 .73892

8- Assessment tools used by resource room teachers do not distinguish LD students from low achievers and other mild disabilities 2.1626 .76151

9- Assessment tools is not always available in schools 2.1545 .6657010- Most assessment tools lack appropriate psychometric characteristics

(Reliability and validity) 2.1453 .69809

11- Most test results used in the assessment process does not always translate to effective educational goals 2.0339 .66580

12- Most test results used in the assessment process do not reflect the real strength and weaknesses of students 1.9661 .66580

13- Parents pressure to seek special education programs for their children influence eligibility decisions 1.9350 .74372

14- The use of non native tests without proper adaptation and standardization to the local environment 1.8739 .79782

T test for independent samples and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to determine if the apparent differences shown in the data were statistically significant. The results revealed that there was no statistically significant differences attributed to teacher gender in teachers' assessment practices for eligibility of learning disability students (T = -1.37, p = 0.17) or obstacles seen by resource room teachers (T=0.179, p=0.8).

In addition, the ANOVA test revealed that there was no statistically significant differences found due to teachers qualification related to obstacles (F =0.536 p=0.6). While there were significant differences found in teachers' qualification in regard to assessment practices (F =4.53, p=. 005).

Table4F-Test Results for the influence of teachers’ qualification on teachers’ assessment

practices and obstacles faced by teachersSum of Squares df Mean

Square F Sig.

Total Assessment Practices

Between Groups 70.155 3 23.385 4.538 .005*

Within Groups 613.259 119 5.153

Total 683.415 122Total Obstacles

Between Groups 57.610 3 19.203 .536 .659

Within Groups 4265.805 119 35.847

Total 4323.415 122*p<0.05

Discussion and Conclusions

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This study aimed to discuss the assessment practices used by resource room teachers in Jordan; however, it was not in our intention to evaluate such practices, especially in light of the debate and controversy over the assessment criteria used in the identification and decision making of students with learning disabilities. The discrepancy formulas are criticized in the field of learning disability, and other methods of assessment have been recommended such as students' response to intervention (RTI). Nevertheless, many researchers are raising serious questions regarding the reliability of such practices (McMaster, Fuchs, Fuchs & Compton, 2005).Findings of this study suggested that most used assessment practices to determining eligibility for learning disabilities in Jordan rely on teachers made tests of achievement. This can be interpreted by the lack of formal assessment tools in Jordan; therefore, teachers are forced to develop alternative means of assessment based on their own knowledge of learning disabilities, and curriculum offered in Jordan. On the other hand, assessment practices with the least means were Curriculum based assessment, Students' Responsiveness to Intervention (RTI), and Dynamic assessment. These findings were not surprising since resource room teachers in Jordan are not familiar with these practices. These concepts were only introduced recently to the field of learning disabilities. Therefore, most teachers were not accustomed to such practices.

The high rate of referrals by general education teachers was rated as the most frequent problem encountered by resource room teachers. All referred students must be subjected to further evaluation on the part of resource room teachers which lay more burden, especially that this process is a time consuming one. The high rate of referrals by general education teachers can be explained by the inconsistent level of knowledge about learning disabilities among general education teachers and their tendency to minimize the number of students who are facing academic failure in their classes. Our explanation is consistent with research or findings reported by Ysseldyke (2004) of the fact that many regular education teachers have a tendency to refer students that fail to make satisfactory academic progress or exhibits troubling behaviors.

Resource room teachers considered their own qualification in assessment to be a major problem. In most countries the process of assessment and evaluation of students with special needs is administered by psychologists; however, this is not the case in Jordan, where the process of assessment for eligibility decisions relies on resource room teachers whom pre-service qualification and training does not match such responsibilities. Most pre-service training programs put a huge emphasis on educational aspects of special education rather than on assessment methods. This confession by teachers spread a lot of skepticism about the credibility of the service as a whole. Indeed, this fact standing alone is sufficient to indicate that much is needed for the re-training of teachers to improve their practices and thus services.

T-test results indicated no significant differences on assessment practices and obstacles of assessment due to the teacher's gender. In most cases both males and females had similar pre-service training which influences their practices of assessment;. In addition, resource room teachers usually c carried out their work under similar conditions; therefore, significant differences in teachers’ ratings for obstacles of assessment were not found.

ANOVA test revealed significant differences in teachers' qualification in regard to assessment practices in favor of teachers with Masters Degree in special education. Not surprisingly, teachers with master's degree in special education are expected to have more in-depth knowledge regarding assessment. During their educational track, they would have experienced advanced courses related to assessment and its methods, which had an impact on their practices. On the other hand, obstacles of assessment did not differ according to teachers' qualification. Regardless of academic qualification, all workers in the field perceived obstacles the same.

In light of the previous findings, it is necessary to pay more attention for both pre-service and in-service training offered in the domain of assessment and eligibility under the category of learning disabilities. Furthermore, national criteria for determining eligibility for learning disabilities in Jordan should be addressed to overcome any uncertainty of such decisions.

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ReferencesAl-Natour, M. (2008) Special needs education, Program development/ learning disabilities. Final Report, submitted for the Ministry of Education. The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. (ERfKE 1) project. Cone, T. E., Wilson, L. R., Bradley, C. M., & Reese, J. H. (1985). Characteristics of LD students in Iowa: An empirical investigation. Learning Disability Quarterly, 8, 211-220.Dean, V., & Burnes, M. (2002). Inclusion of intrinsic processing difficulties in LD diagnostic models: A critical review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 25, 170-176.Fletcher, J., Denton, C., & Francis, D. (2005). Validity of alternative approaches for the identification of learning disabilities: Operationalizing unexpected underachievement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38 (6), 545-552.Gresham, F. M. (2002). Misidentification of students into high incidence disability categories: Implications for appropriate education. Washington DC: President's Commission on Excellence in Special Education.Gresham, F. M., MacMillan, D. L., & Bocian, K. M. (1996). Learning disabilities, low achievement, and mild mental retardation: More alike than different? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(6), 570-581.Gunderson, L. & Siegel, L. (2001). The evils of the use of IQ tests to define learning disabilities in first and second language learners. The Reading Teacher, 55 (1), 48-55.MacMillan, D. L., & Siperstein, G. N. (2001). Learning disabilities as operationally defined by schools. Paper presented at the Learning Disabilities Summit, retrieved from http://www.nrcld.org/resources/ldsummit/macmillan.shtml McBride, S. (2007) Review of special education- Grades 1-12. Summary Report, prepared for the Ministry of Education, The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. (ERfKE 1) project. McMaster, K., Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. & Compton, D. (2005). Responding to nonresponders: An experimental field trial of identification and intervention methods. Exceptional Children , 17 (14), 445-463.Mellard, D., Deshler, D., & Barth, A. (2004). LD identification: It's not simply a matter of building a better mousetrap. Learning Disability Quarterly, 27, 229-242.Peterson, K. M., & Shinn, M. R. (2002). Severe discrepancy models: Which best explains school identification practices for learning disabilities? School Psychology Review, 31, 459-476.Salvia, J., & Ysseldyke, J. (2004). Assessment in special and inclusive education. (9th ed) Boston, MA; Houghton Mifflin. Shepard, L. A., & Smith, M. L. (1983). An evaluation of the identification of learning disabled students in Colorado. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 115-127.Shinn, M. R.(2007). Identifying Students at Risk, Monitoring Performance, and Determining Eligibility Within Response to Intervention: Research on Educational Need and Benefit From Academic Intervention. School Psychology Review, 36 (4), 601-617.Wilson, L. (1985). Large-scale learning disability identification: The reprieve of a concept. Exceptional Children, 52, 44-51.Ysseldyke, J. (2005). Assessment and decision making for students with learning disabilities: What if this is as good as it gets. Learning Disability Quarterly, 28, 125-128.

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http://www.nrcld.org/resources/ldsummit/macmillan.shtml


A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SELF-ESTEEM OF ADOLESCENT BOYS WITH AND WITHOUT LEARNING DISABILITIES IN AN INCLUSIVE SCHOOL

Sibusiso Ntshangase,Andile Mdikana

andCandice Cronk

University of the Witwatersrand

Participants in this study were twenty-nine adolescent boys (n = 29) between the ages of sixteen and eighteen years, who were attending an inclusive private school in the affluent suburb of Johannesburg. Fourteen participants had never been diagnosed with learning difficulties and had attended mainstream schools throughout their school careers. Fifteen participants were previously at a special school for learners with barriers to learning, entry into which required a diagnosis of a learning disability of some form. During the time of this study all participants had been in the mainstream school for a minimum period of two years. The Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventory Third Edition (CFSEI 3) was utilised to elicit participants’ perceptions of their abilities and attributes as well as feelings of self-worth. Data was analysed using the descriptive statistical procedure. A two independent sample T-test indicated that there were no significant differences found between the two groups of participants for each of the CFSEI self-esteem subscales as well as for Global self-esteem. While this research has limited generalizability, it appears to hint at the potential benefits of inclusion and it also highlights the potential value of self-esteem interventions as an important part of implementing inclusion in schools.

IntroductionThe inclusion of learners with learning disabilities (LD) into mainstream schools is currently one of the foremost international education policy issues and has generated much debate. However there has been very little systematic research conducted on the many facets of inclusion. Manset and Semmel (1997) note that due to the strong advocacy emphasis associated with inclusionary practices, the body of data examining the impact of inclusion on learners with mild barriers to learning was relatively small. One of the fundamental aspects of inclusion that has not been adequately studied is learners’ self-perceptions in inclusive educational settings (Kelly & Norwich, 2004). School experiences are acknowledged to play a fundamental role in the development of self-perceptions, which can in turn affect the learner’s self-esteem in the long term (Elbaum & Vaughn, in press). The experiences of adolescent learners with LD in mainstream and remedial schools can be multifaceted and complex and yet, as Prinsloo (2001) notes, that the ways in which learners with LD experience inclusion or exclusion in education, as well as the effects of inclusion, has yet to be satisfactorily determined. It is thus vital for research to move beyond the exploration of the practices and impact of inclusion and study learners’ understand, experiences and perceptions of inclusion on such personality aspects as self-worth, confidence and self-respect.

Self-esteem has been shown to have a pervasive and powerful impact on human emotion, cognition, behaviour and motivation (Campbell & Lavallee, 1993). The evaluations that individuals have about themselves and their competencies are vital aspects of self that can be pervasive and may influence all others aspects of conduct and psychological well-being (Shaffer, 2005). According to Harter (1993) high self-esteem is important not only for learners’ academic achievement but also for their long-term

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general well-being and personal development. Research consistently links self-esteem to the healthy development of children and adolescents and reveals that low self-esteem can affect such diverse areas as school adjustment, scholastic achievement, school behaviour and emotional adjustment (Covington, 1992; Martinez & Semrud-Clikeman, 2004). Heyman (1990) reports that a low self-esteem is also deemed a risk factor for depression amongst adolescents, as it leads to feelings of inadequacy or incompetence in many spheres of life (Harter, 1993). In addition, research has shown that low self-esteem is often a predictor for the use of maladaptive strategies, such as self-handicapping and learned helplessness, at school. Adolescents with low self-esteem tend to show high use of maladaptive strategies whereas those with high self-esteem use more adaptive achievement strategies (Aunola, Stattin & Nurmi, 2000). Learners with LD are particularly deemed to be at risk for low self-esteem because they experience significant difficulty in school, both in terms of academic performance and peer acceptance (Marcal, 1992; Martinez & Semrud-Clikeman, 2004).

Learners with LD, who are in mainstream schools, are deemed be at a risk for low self-esteem associated with the significant difficulties they experience in mainstream schools, both in terms of academic performance and peer acceptance (Martinez & Semrud-Clikeman, 2004; Gans, Kenny, Ghany, 2003). These learners, due to their histories of repeated failure at school, are likely to feel as though academic outcomes are beyond their control, thus perceiving themselves as less competent than their peers. There has been widespread interest in researching the self-perceptions of children and adolescents with LD due to the concern that academic failure or difficulty may affect global self-concept; as well as due to the concern about the self-perpetuating cycle of failure (Heyman, 1990). This cycle starts with early failure, which leads to a lowered sense of competence, which then contributes to lowered expectations for future success, which in turn reduces achievement efforts and then results in further failure (Cooley & Ayres, 1988, cited in Gans et al, 2003; Heyman, 1990). Due to the propensity for such negative cycles to occur, it is pivotal that current research focus on specific aspects of self-perceptions with a view to gaining information that can later be used in the development of intervention strategies aimed at ameliorating negative self-perceptions. Interventions that address the emotional and social functioning of learners with barriers to learning are therefore vital (Martinez & Semrud-Clikeman, 2004). Proponents of inclusion argue that among the potential benefits for learners with LD within an inclusive environment are increases in self-esteem and self-worth, as learners within the inclusive environment are believed to be less likely to be stigmatised and perceived as being less able by their peers (Baker, Wang, & Walberg, 1995; Banerji & Dailey, 1995, cited in Klingner, Vaughn, Schumm, Cohen & Forgan, 1998; Grolnick & Ryan, 1990; Nowicki, 2003). Research on the benefits of inclusion for learners with LD has however been largely differing. For instance, on one hand, studies by Coleman (1983) and Grolnick & Ryan (1990) has shown that LD students in special school placement tend to have higher self-esteem overall than do those students with LD in mainstream school settings. On the other hand numerous studies report that integration of learners with LD into inclusive classrooms does not appear to benefit self-esteem overall (e.g. Shessel & Reiff, 1999, cited in Bakker & Bosman, 2003). Consequently research has been highlighting a need for continued research to address the conflicting data on self-perceptions and type of school settings, as well as to compare students with and without LD in the same school setting (Bear et al, 1991; Gans et al, 2003).

This study aimed to investigate the levels of self-esteem of adolescent boys who were attending an inclusive school. A comparison was drawn between learners who had previously been diagnosed with LD, and learners who have never been diagnosed with LD. For the purpose of this study self-esteem was conceptualized as a multi-dimensional entity comprising of academic, parental/home, social, personal as well as general self-esteem (Battle, 2002; Kelly & Norwich, 2004). The definition of an inclusive school was adopted from the South African Education White Paper 6 policy on inclusive education (Department of Education, 2001) which defines an inclusive school as a school environment that recognises and respect the differences among all learners and strives to build on the similarities. This is an environment which strives to chance attitudes, behaviour, teaching methodologies, curricula to meet the needs of all learners and maximise the participation of all learners in the curricula.

It is hoped that the results of this study would provide insights into possible recommendations aimed at facilitating inclusion in schools.

Research questionsThe research question for this study was;

Is there a difference in the levels of self-esteem for male adolescent learners with learning disabilities in an inclusive school, and those without learning disabilities attending the same inclusive school?

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MethodParticipantsThe sample for this study was derived from a target population of learners in a private inclusive school in an affluent suburb of Johannesburg. The school was targeted for reasons of practicality and accessibility by the researchers. A non-probability or purposive sample of learners (Welman & Kruger, 2001) was identified by the researchers and learners that matched the sample frame were recruited to participate in the study. Such a sampling strategy was appropriate as some of the participants had to be selected based on the criteria of them having previously attended a special school. The sample included adolescent boys between the ages of fifteen and eighteen years. One participant was fifteen years old; fourteen participants were sixteen years old; twelve participants were seventeen years old; and three participants were eighteen years old. Boys were selected as the specific target group of this research, due to the fact that there are generally more boys than girls with learning disabilities enrolled in specialised schools, and thus there are likely to be more boys with LD’s that have been included in mainstream schools (Prinsloo, 2001). Boys were thus selected to allow for sample availability and to ensure comparability between the two sample groups.

The sample (N = 30) comprised two groups, with 15 participants in each group. The first group comprised adolescent boys that have attended mainstream schools throughout their schooling career. The second group comprised adolescent boys who have moved at some stage in their high school career from a specialised school into the mainstream. The sample included boys that had moved from the specialised school two to four years ago before this study was conducted. These boys were previously labelled with some form of learning disability, based on psycho-educational tests and assessments, upon entry into the specialised school. While 30 questionnaires were completed, the final sample only comprised 29 participants as after scoring one of the questionnaires from the Mainstream group, was deemed invalid due to a score of 7 out of 8 on the defensiveness scale. The recommended cut-off score is 4 out of 8, which indicates the extent to which the defensiveness of the child may diminish the validity of the quotient (Battle, 2002).

Research instrumentIn this study self-esteem was assessed using the Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventory (CFSEI-3) developed by Battle (2002). The CFSEI-3 has been used mostly in studies of children’s self-esteem (Mann, Hosman, Schaalma & de Vries, 2004). It is a norm-referenced, self-report inventory, designed to elicit perceptions of personal traits and characteristics in children aged 6-0 through 18-11 years. The instrument is also designed to measure self-esteem of children across a range of grades starting from Grade 1 through Grade 12. It comprised of three age-related forms of the inventory. All three forms can be administered to either individuals or groups in 15 to 20 minutes. The inventory items are suitable for independent reading by learners with at-least average, grade three reading skills. All forms of the CFSEI-3 yield a total score, the Global Self-Esteem Quotient (GSEQ), which represents overall performance. This study employed the Adolescent Form of the CFSEI-3, designed for use with adolescents aged 13 through 18 years. This form contains a total of 67 items, grouped into five subscales, namely, Academic, General, Parental/Home, Social and Personal Self-Esteem. The subscale standard scores are summed to create a GSEQ (Battle, 2002).

The CFSEI-3 has been widely used in the South African context and has been proven to be reliable and valid for use in a multi-cultural context (Battle, 2002).

Research procedureFormal permission to conduct the study was obtained from the deputy headmaster of the school. He received a copy of the research proposal for his perusal. The sample was then identified and selected in consultation with the deputy headmaster. The questionnaires were administered during school hours. The questionnaire was administered only after consent had been obtained from both the parents and the participants. Each participant received a subject information sheet that detailed the particulars of the study. In addition to the questionnaire, participants were required to complete a demographic cover sheet, which requested their age, grade level at school and race group. This information was used for the purpose of analysing the results.

The questionnaire was only administered in English. The participants were asked to complete the questionnaires independently without any assistance from any secondary parties. They were requested to direct all questions for clarity or assistance to the researcher. It too the participants between thirty

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and forty minutes to completed the questionnaire. The CFSEI-3 was scored by the researcher according to the instructions in the manual.

Data analysisA descriptive quantitative approach was adopted for the purpose of analysing data. In this study, the independent variable was the presence or absence of learning disabilities and the dependent variable was level of self-esteem. Participants fell into either a high or low self-esteem category for each self-esteem subscale (Academic, General, Parental/Home, Social, Personal), as well as for the Global self-esteem quotient. Descriptive statistics was utilised to reveal the ranges, means and standard deviations of the variable, self-esteem, with regard to the two sample groups. A two independent sample t-test was then used to determine the difference between the means of the two independent groups. Any differences between the two sample groups in terms of the self-esteem subscales and the global self-esteem quotient was noted and tested for significance.

Results Table 1 presents the ranges, means and standard deviations of the Global Self-Esteem of the two sample groups, namely included group (those learners who came from special school) and the mainstream group (those learners who have always been in mainstream schools. The Global self-esteem scores for the included group ranged from a minimum of 79 to a maximum of 119, with a mean of 97.47 and a standard deviation of 12.02. The self-esteem scores for the mainstream group ranged from a minimum of 85 to a maximum of 119, with a mean of 104.71 and a standard deviation of 9.75.

Table 1: Means and Standard Deviations of the Sample’s Global Self-Esteem

Sample Group N Range Mean Standard Deviation The included group N = 15 79 - 119 X = 97.47 S X = 12.02The mainstream group

N = 14 85 - 119 X = 104.71 S X = 9.75

The distribution of the Global Self-Esteem Quotients for the two groups is graphically presented in figure 1.

Figure 1: Distribution of Global Self-Esteem Quotients in Sample

The frequency distribution of the self-esteem scores as indicated by the Global Self-Esteem Quotient is graphically presented in figure 2. The results showed that in terms of Global Self-esteem, no participants’ fell within the very high, high or the very low self-esteem category range. One participant from the included group was in the low self-esteem range. The remainder of the participants fell within the below average, average and above average categories. A large number of participants from both the groups, 15 in total - 8 from the Included group and 7 from the Mainstream group, fell within the average self-esteem range, which is expected from a normal distribution frequency. For the Mainstream group there was a total of 5 scores below the mean, and a total of 9 scores above the mean. This is in comparison to the Included group in which there were a total of 6 scores below the mean and 9 scores above the mean.

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Figure 2: Frequency Distribution of the Self-Esteem Scores

Table 2 presents the ranges, means and standard deviations of the self-esteem subscales (Academic; General; Parental/Home; Social; Personal) for the two sample groups. The Academic self-esteem scores for the included group ranged from a minimum score of 3 to a maximum score of 12, with a mean of 7.6 and a standard deviation of 2.82. The academic self-esteem scores for the mainstream group ranged from a minimum of 4 to a maximum of 12, with a mean of 8 and a standard deviation of 2.45. Scores for General self-esteem ranged from 3 to 13, with a mean of 10.14 and a standard deviation of 2.83 for the included group and ranged from 6 to 13, with a mean of 10.86 and a standard deviation of 2.14 for the mainstream group. Scores for Parental/Home self-esteem ranged from 5 to 14, mean of 9.3 and a standard deviation of 3.01 for the included group, while the mainstream group showed a range of 4 to 14, mean of 11.36 and a standard deviation of 2.56. The social self-esteem scores showed a range of 5 to 13 - mean 10.47 and standard deviation 2.56 - for the included group, and a range of 9 to 13 - mean 11.43 and a standard deviation of 1.39. Personal self-esteem scores showed a range of 5 to 14, mean of 10.8 and standard deviation of 2.31 for the included group, and a range of 8 to 14, mean 12 and standard deviation of 2.04 for the mainstream group.

Table 2:Means and Standard Deviations of the Sample’s Self-Esteem Sub-Scales

Self-esteem Sub-Scale

Sample group Range Mean Standard Deviation

Academic Included N = 15Mainstream N = 14

3 - 124 - 12

7.68

S x = 2.82S x = 2.45

General Included Mainstream

3 - 136 - 13

10.1410.86

S x = 2.83S x = 2.14

Parental/Home

Included Mainstream

5 - 144 - 14

9.311.36

S x = 3.01S x = 2.56

Social Included Mainstream

5 - 139 - 13

10.4711.43

S x = 2.56S x = 1.39

Personal Included Mainstream

5 - 148 - 14

10.812

S x = 2.31S x = 2.04

Figures 3 and 4 present information about the distribution of scores (converted to self-esteem category ratings) for the two sample groups for each of the self-esteem subscales - Academic, General, Parental/Home, Social and Personal. Across both groups, there were no scores that fell within either the Very High or High self-esteem categories. Results for the included sample group (N = 15) are as follows. In terms of Academic self-esteem, 7 participants scored at an Average level, 4 participants scored at a Below Average level, 3 participants fell within the Low category and 1 participant fell within the Very low category. In terms of General self-esteem, there were 5 participants in the Above Average category, 8 participants in the Average category and 1 each in the Below Average and Very Low categories. In terms of Parental/Home self-esteem, 2 participants fell in the Above Average Category, 10 were in the Average category and 3 were in the Low category. For the Social subscale, 2 participants were at the Above Average level, 10 were at an Average level, 2 were in the Below Average category and 1 was in the Low category. For the Personal subscale, results indicated that 3 participants were in the Above Average category, 10 were in the Average category and there was I participant each in the Below Average and Low categories.

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Figure 3: Distribution of Self-Esteem Subscale Scores by Category Rating - Included Group

Results for the Mainstream sample group (N = 14) are as follows. In terms of the Academic subscale, there were 8 participants in the Average category, and 3 participants each in both the Below Average and Low categories. For the General self-esteem subscale, 5 participants ranked in the Above Average category, 8 ranked in the Average category and 1 ranked in the Below Average category. In terms of Parental/Home self-esteem, there were 5 participants that fell in the Above Average category, 8 in the Average category and 1 in the Low category. In terms of Social self-esteem, 3 participants were rated at an Above Average level, while 11 participants rated at the Average level. The Personal subscale showed 7 participants each in both the Above Average and Average categories.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

No. per category

VeryHigh

High AboveAvg

Avg BelowAvg

Low VeryLow

Self-Esteem Categories

Distribution of Self-Esteem Subscale Category Ratings - Mainstream group

AcademicGeneralParentalSocialPersonal

Figure 4: Distribution of Self-Esteem Subscale Scores by Category Rating - Mainstream Group

Analysis of Results of the T-testsT-tests were conducted to determine whether there was any statistical difference in the means of the two groups, for the Global self-esteem quotients, as well as for the subscales of self-esteem. By viewing self-esteem as a multidimensional entity, this research was able to determine the difference between the sample groups on different facets of self-esteem, thus allowing for a comparison of Global self-esteem as well as nuanced interpretations of the different facets of self-esteem. Results of the two independent sample T-tests are presented in table 3.

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Table 3: Results of the T-Tests

Variable Mean Std Dev df tGLOBAL SELF-ESTEEMIncluded Group N = 15 Mainstream Group N = 14

X = 97.46X = 104.71

S = 12.02S = 9.75

t = 27 1.76 Not significant

SELF-ESTEEM SUBSCALES ACADEMIC Included Group Mainstream Group

X = 7.6X = 8

S = 2.82S = 2.45


GENERALIncluded Group Mainstream Group

X = 10.14X = 10.86

S = 2.83S = 2.14


PARENTAL/HOMEIncluded Group Mainstream Group

X = 9.3X = 11.36

S = 3.01S = 2.56


SOCIALIncluded Group Mainstream Group

X = 10.47X = 11.43

S = 2.56S = 1.39


PERSONALIncluded Group Mainstream Group

X = 10.8X = 12

S = 2.31S = 2.04


** Significance tested level (p<0.01)

No significant difference could be demonstrated between the Global self-esteem quotients of the two groups. Similarly, results of the T-tests for each of the self-esteem subscales show no statistical difference between the two sample groups. Significance was tested at the 0.01 level of significance.

Discussion This study aimed to assess whether there was any difference in the self-esteem levels of adolescent boys, with some form of learning disability, who had moved from a special school setting and had been in an inclusive school setting, and adolescent boys without learning disabilities, who have attended mainstream schooling throughout their school careers.

The difference in Global self-esteem levels was noted for the two groups which suggest that the included and mainstream adolescent boys do not have disparities in their overall levels of self-esteem. This result is very encouraging for schools promoting inclusive practices as it implies that overall sense of worth for included and mainstreamed learners is not disparate. Such indications are in line with other research findings that have reported no differences in the global self-worth of children with and without LD (Bear & Minke, 1996, cited in Gans, et al, 2003).

Overall there was an indication that about one-third of the total sample showed a self-esteem level below the average level. This point to the potential need for self-esteem interventions aimed at ameliorating negative self-esteem particularly at schools offering inclusive placements. It also hints at the socio-emotional needs of students who are included in the mainstream. Importantly, the learners that showed low levels of Global self-esteem were those participants that also showed low levels of academic self-esteem. This finding is consistent with studies that indicate that learners’ global perceptions may be affected by their lowered academic self-esteem levels (Marcal, 1992). It is also important to note that even though the majority of learners indicated a healthy high esteem, literature indicate that some adolescents may portray an image of high esteem in order to be socially accepted (Elksnin & Elksnin, 2004). Interventions aimed at promoting self-esteem therefore need not to focus on those individuals whose esteem is low only, but equally important is a focus on those individuals whose esteem is high mainly due to a desire to be seen as socially desirable. Any future intervention dealing with issues of self-esteem would need to deal with the notion of trying to present a very positive image of the self as a kind of compensatory measure to portray a high self-esteem.

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A review of the Academic self-esteem scale results within each group indicates that there were 7 participants from the included group and 8 participants from the mainstream group whose Academic self-esteem was on an Average level – which is expected from a normally distributed sample. There were 4 participants from the included group and 3 participants from the mainstream group who displayed Below Average Academic self-esteem. There were 3 participants from each group that displayed Low academic self-esteem and 1 participant from the included group whose Academic self-esteem was at a Very Low level. There were thus 8 participants - just over half the included group, whose academic self-esteem was below the average range. Such findings may indicate the potential role of Social Comparison Theory as when the learners with LD compare themselves with typically achieving peers they tend to perceive their abilities as being far lower than they would if they compared themselves with other individuals with LD – learners with LD are not easily identified in the mainstream (Renick & Harter, 1989, cited in Gans, et al, 2003). In addition, there were 6 participants from the mainstream group whose academic self-esteem was below average levels. The results were interesting in that they were quite similar for the two groups. Such results, suggests that there are many individuals who have less than adequate perceptions about their abilities to perform academic tasks. This suggests that students from both groups may need support in their academic efforts, and as such, interventions aimed at improving academic self-esteem in the classroom as a whole could be valuable.

In terms of general self-esteem, the T-test indicated no significant difference between the two groups, which suggests that both groups appear to perceive their overall self-worth on similar levels. This finding supports previous studies that show that self-concept scores tend to be similar for learners with and without LD with respect to friendship, appearance and self-worth (Banerji & Dailey, 1995; Vaughn, Elbaum & Schumm, 1996, cited in Salend & Garrick Duhaney, 1999). An interpretation of the general self-esteem scores within each group shows that there were 5 participants from each group whose general self-esteem was at an Above Average level, and 8 participants from each group who fell in the Average self-esteem category. There was a participant from each group whose general self-esteem was recorded as being Below Average and 1 participant from the included group who fell in the Very Low category. Findings for general self-esteem are encouraging, especially for the included group, in that equal numbers of participants for the two groups fell within the Above Average and Average categories which suggests adequate perceptions of self-worth. Participants in the Below Average and very Low categories require self-esteem interventions to try and improve their overall feelings of self-worth. In addition, those individuals in the Above Average category may require some intervention to teach them to evaluate themselves and their abilities appropriately and accurately and not in a socially desirable way (Battle, 2002).

The results of the T-test for Parental/Home self-esteem subscale showed no significant difference between the two groups suggesting that there is no difference between the individuals’ perceptions of their status at home. Such subjective perceptions include perceptions about relationships with parents and/or guardians and perceptions about how parents and guardians view the individual (Battle, 2002).

A review of the Parental/Home self-esteem scores within each group indicates that there were a large number of participants in the Average range (10 from the included group and 8 from the mainstream group). There were also 2 participants from the included group and 5 participants from the mainstream group that ranked at an Above Average level. The finding of 3 participants from the included group and 1 participant from the mainstream group, in the Low esteem category is disconcerting and indicates that future self-esteem interventions may need to involve the active participation of parents. Self-esteem plays a role in many systems of an individual’s life and thus it is important to include key role-players like parents and teachers when planning and conducting interventions.

Results of the T-test for the Social self-esteem subscale indicated no statistical difference between the two groups, which suggests no difference in the way that included students and mainstream students perceive the quality of their relationships with peers. This is an important finding in that this research indicates perceived quality of peer relationships to be similar for the two groups which is inconsistent with other research that has reported that individual’s with LD’s may show deficits in social behaviour and may be unaccepted, rejected or ignored by their peers without LD (Pavri, et al, 2000).

Interpretation of the Social self-esteem subscale scores within each group hints at the potential social impacts and benefits of inclusive practices. There were 2 participants from the included group and 3 from the mainstream group in the Above Average category, and 10 participants from the included group and 11 participants from the mainstream group that fell in the Average category. This suggests

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that most of the sample have adequate perceptions about the quality of their social relationships. While these findings are encouraging, there remain some included learners whose social self-esteem is in the below average range. There were 2 individuals from the included group whose social esteem was ranked in the Below Average category and 1 individual from the included group in the Low category. The presence of these included learners in the below average and low categories suggests that some included individuals may have difficulties forming social relationships with their peers. Such a finding is in accordance with research that has noted that students with LD may internalise rejection by their peers, which may in turn influence their feelings about social competence and their ability to initiate and sustain social relationships in the future (Gans, Kenny, Ghany, 2003). It is essential that these individuals are monitored and provided with support where necessary.

Results of the T-test for the Personal subscale indicated no statistically significant difference between the way the two groups perceive their most intimate thoughts about their self-worth and anxieties. Personal self-esteem is a very important facet of overall self-esteem and thus it is very encouraging that no difference was noted in the level of personal self-esteem for the two groups. This finding is in accordance with previous research that reported that despite possible lowered academic self-esteem, individuals with LD in inclusive settings tend to display positive feelings about their overall self-worth (Bear, et al, 1998).

Interpretation of the Personal self-esteem subscale scores indicates that there were 2 included participants in the Above Average range. The majority of participants from the included group fell into the Average category, which indicates at least adequate perceptions of one’s self-worth. Half the participants from the mainstream group fell into the Above Average category and half fell into the Average category. There was one participant from the included group in the Below Average category and one participant in the Low category.

ConclusionThe findings of this research, while exploratory, descriptive and limited in generalisability have hinted at the potential benefits of inclusion on the self-esteem levels of included learners with LD. There was no statistically significant difference noted between the two groups for each of the self-esteem subscale dimensions, as well as for global self-esteem, which is a very encouraging result. The research findings however also noted that some included individuals might be in need of academic, social and emotional support when they move into the mainstream. The research also indicated that mainstreamed individuals may also benefit from self-esteem interventions. It is hoped that this research will stimulate further research in this area, and will contribute to providing some information that may be valuable in the design of future self-esteem interventions at a secondary school level.

ReferencesAunola, K., Stattin, H., & Nurmi, J. (2000). Adolescent’s achievement strategies, school adjustment, and externalising and internalising problem behaviours. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29 (3), 289-306. Bakker, J.T.A., & Bosman, A.M.T. (2003). Self-image and peer acceptance of Dutch students in regular and special education. Learning Disability Quarterly, 26 (1), 5-15. Battle, J. (2002). Culture-free self-esteem inventories – Examiner’s manual. Texas: Pro-ed. Bear, G.G., Minke, K.M., Griffin, S.M., & Deemer, S.A. (1998). Achievement-related perceptions of children with learning disabilities and normal achievement: group and developmental differences. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31 (1), 91-104. Campbell, J.D. & Lavallee, L.F. (1993). Who am I? The role of self-concept confusion in understanding the behaviour of people with low self-esteem. In R.F. Baumeister (Ed.), Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard (pp.3-20). New York: Plenum Press. Department of Education. (2001). White paper 6 on inclusive education, Pretoria.Elbaum, B., & Vaughn, S. (in press). Can school-based interventions enhance the self-concept of students with learning disabilities? A Research Synthesis. Elksnin, L.K., & Elksnin, N. (2004). The social-emotional side of learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 27 (1), 3-8. Gans, A.M., Kenny, M.C., & Ghany, D.L. (2003). Comparing the self-concept of students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of learning Disabilities, 36 (3), 287-294. Grolnick, W.S., & Ryan, R.M. (1990). Self-perceptions, motivation and adjustment in children with learning disabilities: A multiple group comparison study. Journal of learning Disabilities, 23 (3), 177-184.

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Harter, S. (1993). Causes and consequences of low self-esteem in children and adolescents. In R.F. Baumeister (Ed.), Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard (pp. 87-116). New York: Plenum Press. Heyman, W.B. (1990). The self-perception of a learning disability and its relationship to academic self-concept and self-esteem. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23 (8), 472-475. Kelly, N., & Norwich, B. (2004). Pupils’ perceptions of self and labels: Moderate learning difficulties in mainstream and special schools. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 411-435. Kligner, J.K., Vaughn, S., Schumm, J.S., Cohen, P., & Forgan, J.W. (1998). Inclusion or pull-out: Which do students prefer? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31 (2), 148-159. Mann, M., Hosman, C.M.H., Schaalma, H.P., & de Vries, N.K. (2004). Self-esteem in a broad spectrum approach for mental health promotion. Health education research, 19 (4), 357-372. Manset, G., & Semmel, M,I. (1997). Are inclusive programs for students with mild disabilities effective? A comparative review of model programs. The Journal of Special Education, 31 (2), 155-181. Martinez, R.S., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2004). Emotional adjustment of young adolescents with multiple versus single learning disabilities. Journal of learning Disabilities, 37 (5), 411-420. Nowicki, E.A. (2003). A meta-analysis of the social competence of children with learning disabilities compared to classmates of low and average to high achievement. Learning Disability Quarterly, 26 (3), 171-189. Pavri, S., & Luftig, R. (2000). The social face of inclusive education: Are students with learning disabilities really included in the classroom? Preventing School Failure, 45 (1), 8-15. Prinsloo, E. (2001). Working towards inclusive education in South African classrooms. South African Journal of Education, 21 (4), 344-348. Salend, S.J., & Garrick Duhaney, L.M. (1999). The impact of inclusion on students with and without disabilities and their educators. Remedial and Special Education, 20 (2), 114-127. Shaffer, D.R. (2005). Social and personality development (5th ed.). California: Wadsworth.

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TEACHING EMERGENCY PHONE NUMBERS TO YOUTH WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

Arzu OzenAnadolu University

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization effects of antecedent prompt and testing procedure (APTP) on teaching emergency phone numbers to youth with developmental disabilities. Three youths with mental retardation participated in the study. All participants were inclusion students at a regular school. A multiple probe design across behaviors with probe conditions was used in the study. Maintenance (i.e., one and three weeks after the termination of the intervention) and generalization across trainers probe sessions were conducted. Parents’ opinions regarding teaching emergency phone . numbers to their children were also included in the study The findings showed that APTP was effective teaching emergency phone numbers to youths with mental retardation at acquisition, maintenance, and generalization levels. Furthermore, the social validity results of the study were very positive in general.

Youth with developmental disabilities come across many threats in their daily lives. Families and professionals feel anxious about the risk their children’s face. Hence, there is no doubt about the necessity of teaching specific skills which facilitates and/or ensures the safety of the youth with disabilities. The teaching of safety skills is critical as youth with developmental disabilities step into adulthood. Community safety requires a wide variety of skills including recognizing and avoiding dangerous situation, crossing streets safely, knowing how to speak when needed, and making an emergency phone call in dangerous situations (Bambara, Browder, & Koger, 2006).

Slaton, Schuster, Collins, & Carnine (1994) utilized the term functional to describe skills that (a) are immediately useful, (b) are required in a variety of settings such as school, vocational settings, and/or home, (c) promote independence, and (d) encourage youth with disabilities to participate in natural environments.

There is considerable research investigating the effects of teaching safety and emergency skills to children and youth with developmental disabilities such as crossing a street (Batu, Ergenekon, Erbas, & Akmanoglu, 2004; Horner, Jones, & Williams, 1985), safety skills that are necessary during a fire (Rae & Roll, 1985), first-aid skills (Gast & Winterling, 1992), food preparation skills and using electronic tools that are commonly used at home (Lalli & Browder, 1993), functional sight words in community-based recreational settings (Schloss & Alper, 1995), and reading product warning labels (Collins & Griffen, 1996). The results of the above studies can be summarized as follows: Children and youth with developmental disabilities were able to learn these safety skills and generalized the acquired skills across different situations. When the instructional procedures of these studies are examined, it is seen that response prompting procedures, especially time delay procedure, are commonly used.

Literature has shown that response prompting strategies are effective on teaching various functional academic skills. Antecedent prompt and testing procedure (APTP) is one of the response prompting strategies. APTP has been successfully used to teach discrete as well as chained skills to children with developmental disabilities (Tekin-Iftar & Kircaali-Iftar, 2006). The review of the literature on APTP indicated that there is a limited number of studies which examine the effectiveness of the procedure.

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Therefore, further research studies are needed to investigate the effects of APTP on teaching various skills to children with developmental disabilities.

Sarber, Halasz, Messmer, Bicket, & Lutzker (1983) examined the effects of APTP on teaching nutritious menu preparation skills, and purchasing skills to a woman with mild mental retardation. The findings of the study reported that the participant learned to prepare nutritious menus and use appropriate purchasing skills.

Ersoy, Tekin-Iftar, & Kircaali-Iftar (2005) designed a study to analyze the acquisition, generalization, and maintenance effects of APTP on teaching changing sanitary napkins on a doll to three young females with developmental disabilities. Results showed that participants of the study were able to acquire and maintain the skills and to generalize the acquired skills to novel situations. Furthermore, social validity based on the parents’ opinions was examined in the study and the results were positive in general.

In other studies, the effectiveness of APTP was analyzed on teaching labeling pictures (Rowan & Pear, 1985), riding on a bus (Welch, Nietupski, & Hamre-Nietupski, 1985), and sex–related skills (Shapiro & Sheridan, 1985).

A comparison study was conducted by Singleton, Schuster, Morse, & Collins (1999) to compare the effectiveness and efficiency of APTP and simultaneous prompting procedure (known as a systematic form of APTP) on teaching grocery sight words to four adolescents with moderate mental retardation. Results of the study indicated that both procedures were effective for teaching the target sight words to the participants. However, APTP was more efficient on measures of acquisition whereas simultaneous prompting was more efficient on maintenance and generalization.

Thus, the effects of the APTP procedure has been investigated in a limited number of instances. The teaching of emergency phone numbers as a community safety skill can be considered as an important safety skill since, youth with developmental disabilities may face various threatening situation, that put them in jeopardy at home or in other settings.

The purpose the present investigation was to find out the effects of APTP on teaching emergency phone numbers to youth with developmental disabilities. Furthermore, parents’ opinions regarding teaching emergency phone numbers to their children were examined in the study. This study was designed to answer the following research questions: (1) Does using APTP on teaching emergency phone numbers to youth with developmental disabilities result in (a) acquisition of the target skills, (b) maintenance of the acquired skills one and three weeks after the termination of the intervention, (c) generalization of the acquired skills across persons (2) What are the parents’ opinions (social validity) about the aims, procedures, and results of the study?

MethodParticipants and SettingsThree children/adolescents with developmental disabilities were the participants of the study. All of the participants were attending the Developmental Disabilities Unit of the Research Institute for the Handicapped at Anadolu University in Eskisehir Turkey for receiving support services for three years. Support services (two hours per week) were provided on one to one basis to teach various academic and social skills. None of the participants had any experience with any response prompting strategies. Parents of the participants were informed about this project and asked to rank the possible target behaviors that their children needed to learn. Parents gave highest ranking to teaching emergency phone numbers.

Ercan was a 13 years old male student with mental retardation. He was diagnosed at the local Guidance and Research Center. He had an IQ of 70 as measured by Stanford Binet and Wechsler. He was an inclusion student at a public school. He had age-appropriate self-care skills, fine and gross motor s, daily living , and basic reading and writing skills. His main weaknesses were in social skills, communication and leisure, and independent living skills.

Ersin was a 12 years old male student with mental retardation. He was diagnosed at the same Guidance and Research Center. He had an IQ of 69 as measured by Stanford Binet. He was an inclusion student at a public school. Like his peer Ercan, Ersin had age-appropriate self-care skills, fine and gross motor

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skills, and daily living skills. He had basic reading and writing skills as well. His main weaknesses were in social, communication, and independent living skills.

Gaye was a 12 years old female student with mental retardation. She was an inclusion student at a public school. She had age-appropriate self-care skills, fine and gross motor skills, and daily living skills. Her reading and writing skills were at introductory level. Her main weaknesses were in social skils, communication, independent living skills, and community-based skills.

The participants needed the following prerequisite skills for this study: (a) reading and writing at basic level (Grade 2-3 level ), (b) following two-step verbal instructions, (c) telling his/her home phone number, (d) selecting reinforcers for himself/herself, and (e) reading three-digit numbers. Reading and writing skills were examined through reviewing school records as well as interviewing the classroom teachers. Following two-steps verbal instructions were assessed by delivering simple instructions such as Open the door; Sit down. etc. Telling their home phone number was tested by asking for it (e.g., Ercan, could you please tell your phone number?). Reinforcer selection skills were tested by asking their preferences. The skill of reading three-digit numbers was assessed by asking the participants to read the three-digit numbers written on a flash card. Correct reading on 10 out of 15 trials was the criterion for this skill.

All experimental sessions were conducted in a classroom at the unit by the researcher. The researcher holds a doctoral degree in special education and had 15 years of experience in teaching students with developmental disabilities at the time the study had been conducted. There were two sets of tables, and chairs for the students and teacher. The teacher had a coffee table for placing the instructional materials. The teacher and participants sat face to face. There were a bookshelf, computer, blackboard in the classroom as well. All sessions were videotaped and were conducted between 2:30 pm and 3:30 pm. with the teacher and participants present. Three sessions were conducted per week for each student.

MaterialsTwenty cm x 20 cm laminated flash cards were used in the study. Each flash card had an emergency phone number written by 24 points in Times New Roman and a picture showing the corresponding emergency event. The pictures for the related emergency phone numbers were selected from the 2nd grade Life Sciences book. The pictures were colored by the researcher to make them more attractive for the participants.

Tangible and social reinforcers were used in the study. Stationery items, souvenirs of the favorite football teams, accessories and music tapes were used as tangible reinforcers. Data collection forms, a handycam camera, and edible reinforcers were also used in the study.

Screening ProceduresPrior to initial baseline conditions, the researcher selected 49 emergency phone numbers from the phone directory and a list at the post office. The possible emergency phone numbers to be taught in the study were selected based on the criteria of being functional in daily lives of the participants. Fifteen emergency phone numbers were identified as possible target stimuli by asking parents. The researcher conducted screening sessions as follows: The researcher secured the subjects’ attention and presented a candidate target stimulus by asking Ercan, please tell me the number for the Fire Department. and waited for 4 s for a response. There were three trials for each candidate target stimulus during screening sessions and three screening sessions were conducted for each student daily. The researcher did not provide any behavioral consequences for the responses. In other words, all responses were ignored. Nine unknown emergency phone numbers were determined for each student and three training sets were presented for each student via these numbers. Training sets for each student are listed in Table 1 on the next page.

Experimental Design

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A multiple probe design across training sets and replicated across students was used to assess the effectiveness of APTP on teaching emergency phone numbers to three individuals with developmental disabilities. The dependent variable of the study was the percentage of correct responses and the independent variable of the study was the APTP procedure. The independent variable was introduced to one training set at a time. Experimental control was demonstrated when the student was responding at or near to zero levels during full probe conditions before the intervention had been introduced and then reached criterion only after the intervention was introduced (Tawney & Gast, 1984; Wolery, Bailey, & Sugai, 1988).

Table 1Tarining sets for each student

Students Tarining Sets Emergency Phone NumbersErcan 1

2

3

Police department (155)Fire Department (110)Unknown numbers (118)

Water Breakdown (185)Medical Emergency (112)Electricity Breakdown (186)

Phone Breakdown (121)Natural Gas Breakdown (187)Radio-TV Breakdown (125)

Ersin 1

2

3



Phone Breakdown (121)Natural Gas Breakdown (187)Radio-TV Breakdown (125

Gaye 1

2

3



Phone Breakdown (121)Natural Gas Breakdown (187)Radio-TV Breakdown (125)

General ProceduresAll experimental sessions were conducted in a 1:1 instructional format. A total of nine emergency phone numbers were taught in the study. A full probe condition across training sets was conducted before the instruction of each training set and after criterion was reached for each set. A minimum of three consecutive full probe sessions were conducted in each full probe condition. One training session was conducted per day and one daily probe session was conducted 30 min after the training session. Each emergency phone number was asked three times. Thus, nine trials were delivered for each student during all experimental sessions. Four second response interval was used in the study.

Probe SessionsBaseline/Full Probe SessionsA full probe condition across training sets was conducted before the instruction of each training set and after criterion was reached for each set. A minimum of three consecutive full probe sessions were conducted in each full probe condition. Each full probe session was conducted as follows: The teacher had the materials ready, delivered the attentional cue to the student (e.g., Ersin, are you ready to work

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with me?) and, after receiving an affirmative response, the teacher presented the target stimulus, and asked the task direction (e.g., Ersin, can you tell the phone number for the police department?) and waited 4 s for a student response. Correct responses within 4 s (e.g., It is 155.) resulted in verbal praise (e.g., Very good, 155 is the phone number for the police department.). Incorrect responses or no responses within response interval were ignored, and the teacher presented the next trial. Students’ attention and their cooperation behaviors were reinforced verbally at the end of each session (e.g., Very good Ersin. You were very attentive and cooperative with me today.).

Daily Probe SessionsDaily probe sessions were conducted since a controlling prompt was always presented in each training trial. Following each training session, a daily probe session was conducted. Daily probe sessions were conducted just like full probe sessions with two exceptions. First, only the training set that was currently being taught was assessed in the daily probe sessions instead of all training sets. Second, tangible reinforcers were delivered during daily probe sessions instead of social reinforcement in order to deliver differential reinforcement to increase the number of correct responses.

APTP Intervention SessionsIntervention sessions consisted of two steps. First prompting sessions where APTP, were delivered and after a while (30 min) probe sessions (daily probe sessions) were conducted to test the acquisition. Daily probe sessions were conducted since a controlling prompt was always presented in each training trial. APTP was introduced during training sessions. After getting stable data during the first full probe condition (baseline condition), the teacher started to teach the first training set composed of emergency numbers. Each student was taught one training set at a time. One training session was conducted three times per week. Training sessions were conducted as follows: The teacher had the materials ready, and delivered the attentional cue to the student (e.g., Ersin, are you ready to work with me?) and, after receiving an affirmative response, the teacher presented the target stimulus, asked the task direction (e.g., Ersin, can you tell the phone number for the police department?), and provided the prompt (the teacher showed the flash card and provided a verbal prompt: Ersin, the phone number for the police department is 155) and waited 4 s for a student response. Correct responses within 4 s (e.g., It is 155.) resulted with verbal praise (e.g., Very good, 155 is the phone number of the police department.). Incorrect responses or no responses within the response interval were ignored, and the teacher presented the next trial. Students’ attention and their cooperation behaviors were reinforced verbally at the end of each session (e.g., Very good Ersin. You were very attentive and cooperative with me today.).

Maintenance and Generalization Probe SessionsMaintenance sessions were conducted one and three weeks after the final full probe condition. Maintenance sessions were identical to the full probe sessions. Reinforcement was thinned by providing the reinforcer only at the end of the sessions during the maintenance sessions.

Generalization across persons was conducted in a pretest-posttest format. Generalization probe sessions occurred in the same way with full probe sessions except these sessions were conducted by other teachers.

Interobserver and Procedural ReliabilityReliability data were collected during20 % of the experimental sessions (20 % of full probe sessions, 20% of intervention sessions, 20% of generalization sessions). Interobserver agreement was calculated by using the point by point method with a formula of the number of agreements divided by the number of agreements plus disagreements multiplied by 100 (Tawney & Gast, 1984). Interobserver agreement data indicated 100 % agreement across the experimental sessions for Ercan, 100 % agreement across the experimental sessions for Ersin, and 100 % agreement across the experimental sessions for Gaye.

Independent variable reliability (procedural reliability) data were collected to estimate whether the teacher delivered APTP and other experimental sessions (e.g., baseline, generalization, and maintenance sessions) as they were planned in the study. Independent variable reliability was calculated by dividing the number of observed teacher behaviors by the number of planned teacher behaviors, and multiplied by 100 (Billingsley, White, & Munson, 1980). Percentages of the teacher’s compliance with the planned steps in all experimental sessions for all participants were consistently high overall. The teacher delivered the sessions with 95 % compliance with Ercan, 93% compliance with Ersin, and 90% compliance with Gaye.

Results

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Instructional DataFigures 1 through 3 depict data collected on the percentages of correct responses during full probe, daily probe and maintenance sessions.

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B

Ercan

B I P I P I P MaintenanceFigure 1. Percentage of correct responses without prompt for the target skills for Ercan during baseline, intervention, and maintenance probe sessions. Data collected during daily probe sessions are plotted for the


Figure 2. Percentage of correct responses without prompt for the target skills for Ersin during baseline, intervention, and maintenance probe sessions. Data collected during daily probe sessions are plotted for the intervention sessions.

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Ersin


Figure 3. Percentage of correct responses without prompt for the target skills for Gaye during baseline, intervention, and maintenance probe sessions. Data collected during daily probe sessions are plotted for the intervention sessions

Data showed that APTP was effective on teaching emergency phone numbers to three students with developmental disabilities. No procedural modification was needed during study.

The instructional data for each student are prsented in Table 2. Data for instructional efficiency were collected for the number of training sessions, the number of training trials, the number and percentage of training errors, amount of training and probe time, and the number and percentage of probe errors. As seen in Table 2, a total of 49 training sessions and 147 training trials were required for the students

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B I P I P

Gaye


to reach criterion on the emergency phone numbers. Ercan required 14 training sessions and 42 training trials, Ersin needed 18 training sessions and 54 training trials, and Gaye required 17 training sessions and 51 training trials to reach criterion across training sets.

A total of 290 min of training time was required to reach criterion on all three sets for all students. Ercan required 82 min, Ersin required 116 min, and Gaye required approximately 92 min of training time to reach criterion on all training sets. Approximately 35 min of probe time was required to reach criterion for all students. No training errors occurred during training sessions.

The total probe errors across training sets were 12%, 24%, and 33% for Ercan, Ersin, and Gaye respectively. The total probe errors across students was 24%. The number of probe errors across students was 35 out of 147 trails during probe sessions.

Maintenance and Generalization DataMaintenance data were collected one and three weeks after the final full probe session. Data showed that one student with developmental disabilities (i.e., Ercan) participated in this study maintained the acquired emergency phone numbers at criterion level in two out of the three training sets. He performed with 63% accuracy with his third training set.

Generalization across persons data showed that all students generalized the acquired emergency phone numbers to other teachers to a certain extent. Pretest generalization measures across all training sets for all students showed that the students had no correct responding initially. Individual posttest generalization measures showed that Ercan generalized the acquired skills with 100% accuracy across persons and Ersin generalized the acquired skills with 78% accuracy across persons. No generalization posttest data and maintenance data were collected for Gaye due to subject attrition.

Social ValidityMothers in the study reported without hesitation that they were very pleased about their children’s participation in this study. All mothers indicated that their children have to stay at home alone for certain periods in a day and it is very vital for them to know these numbers when they are in any dangerous situation in order to survive. Furthermore, all mothers reported that they would be happy if their children would participate in similar studies in the future. They especially reported that it is very important for them that their children learn to make emergency phone calls to police department, fire department, emergency room etc., and speak or leave a message when they need to.

DiscussionThe purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of APTP on teaching emergency phone numbers to youth with developmental disabilities. Furthermore, parents’ opinions regarding teaching emergency phone numbers to their children were examined in the study. Based on the data collected, several findings are worthy of discussion.

First, data indicated that APTP was effective on teaching emergency phone numbers to youth with developmental disabilities. These findings are consistent with the findings of the previous studies which aimed to teach various dicsrete skills (Roman & Pear, 1985; Shapiro & Sheridan, 1985; Singleton et al., 1999; Welch et al., 1985). Limited research was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of APTP on teaching discrete skills to individuals with developmental disabilities. Therefore, it could be argued that the findings of the present study enhance the current literature.Second, the data also indicated that APTP was effective on both maintaining and generalizing the acquired skills. Maintenance data were collected one and three weeks after the termination of the instruction and generalization across persons data were obtained in the study. These findings were also consistent with the findings of the previous studies (Roman & Pear, 1985; Shapiro & Sheridan, 1985; Singleton et al., 1999; Welch et al., 1985).

Third, social validity findings of the study were positive overall. Social validity aspect of the APTP intervention was not examined in the previous studies except Ersoy et al., 2005.

Although the findings of the present study are encouraging, the findings should be interpreted cautiously due to following limitations. First, three subjects with developmental disabilities attended the study and the study was limited by teaching emergency phone numbers. Second, all emergency

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phone numbers taught in the study consisted of three digit numbers. Therefore, the subjects sometimes experienced some confusion on remembering some numbers. In order to overcome this problem, the mothers were advised to hang a note paper indicating the emergency phone numbers and the pictures symbolizing each emergency situation on the refrigerator and bookcase of the subjects after the termination of instruction. Third, the subjects of the study had mild developmental disabilities. Therefore, the results should be interpreted by considering this population only.

Although there are limitations of the study, the following points should be considered as the positive aspects of the study. First, the instructional procedure, APTP, used in the study let the instructor use two or more prompts at a time when needed. Since there is not a prompt hierarchy in the instructional procedure, a detailed prompt fading strategy was not needed during the study. Therefore, APTP can be considered as a user friendly procedure. Another contribution of this instructional procedure can be interpreted in terms of efficiency. Since APTP does not require a detailed prompt fading strategy, the study was completed in a relatively short period of time. The APTP deos not require the instructor have delay intervals between task direction and controlling prompt and this feature also contributed to the efficiency of instruction.

The following future research suggestions can be made when results of the study are taken into consideration. Further research should be conducted to examine similar effects with the students with moderate to severe developmental disabilities with different target behaviors. Moreover, teaching chained skills with APTP can be designed in the future studies. Future research can be conducted to teach speaking on the phone and leaving a message to emergency centers when needed.

ReferencesBambara, L. M., Browder, D., M., & Koger, F. (2006). Home and Community. In M. E. Snell & F. Brown. Instruction of students with severe disabilities. Upper saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.Batu, S., Ergenekon, Y., Erbas, D., & Akmanoglu, N. (2004). Teaching pedestrian skills to individuals with developmental disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 13, 147-164.Collins, B. C., & Griffen, A. K. (1996). Teaching students with moderate disabilities to make safe responses to product warning labels. Education & Treatment of Children, 19, 16-30.Ersoy, G., Tekin-Iftar, E., & Kırcaali-Iftar, G. (2006). Effects of antecedent prompt and test on teaching menstural care skills to females with disabilities. Paper presented at the 32nd Annual Convention of The Association for the Behavior Analysis , Atlanta, Georgia.Gast, D. L., & Winterling, V. (1992). Teaching first–aid skills to students with moderate handicaps in small group instruction. Education & Treatment of Children, 15, 101- 124.Horner, R. H., Jones, D.N., & Williams, J. A. (1985). A functional approach to teaching generalized street crossing. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 10, 71-78.Lalli, J. S., & Browder, D. M. (1993). Comparison of sigth word training procedures with validation of the most practical procedure in teaching reading for daily living. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 14, 107-127.Rae, R.,& Roll, D. (1985). Fire safety training with adults who are profoundly retarded. Mental Retardation, 23, 26-30.Rowan. V. V., & Pear. J. J. (1985). A comparison of the effects of interpersonal and concurrent training sequels on the acquisition, retention, and generalization of picture names. Applied Research in Mental Retardation, 6, 127-145.Sarber, R. E., Halasz, M. M., Messmer, M.C., Bickett, Aland D., & Lutzker, J. R. (1983). Teaching menu planning and grocery shopping skills to mentally retarded mother. Mental Retardation, 21, 101-106.Schloss, P. J., & Alper, S. (1995). Acquisition of functional sight words in community-based recreation settings. Journal of Special Education 29, 84-96.Shapiro, E. S., & Sheridan, C. A. (1985). Systematic assessment and training of sex education for a mentally retarded woman. Applied Research in Mental Retardation, 6, 307-317.Slaton, D. E., Schuster, J. W., Collins, B. C., & Carnine, D. (1994). A functional approach to academic instruction. In. E. Cipani, & F. Spooner (Eds.), Curricular and instructional approaches for person with severe disabilities (pp. 149-183). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Singleton, D. K., Schuster, J. W., Morse, E., & Collins, B. C. (1999). A comparison of antecedent prompt and test and simultaneous prompting procedures in teaching grocery words to adolescent with

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mental retardation. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 34, 182-199. Tawney, J. W., & Gast, D. L. (1984). Single subject research design in special education. Columbus, OH: Merrill.Tekin-Iftar, E., & Kircaali-Iftar, G. (2006). Ozel egitimde yanlissiz ogretim yontemleri. [Errorless teaching procedures in special education 3rd Ed.)]. Ankara, Turkey: Nobel Yayin Dagitim.Welch, J., Nietupski, J., & Hamre-Nietupski, S. (1985). Teaching public transportation problem solving skills to young adults with moderate handicaps. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 20, 287-295.Wolery, M., Bailey, D. B., & Sugai, G. M. (1988). Effective teaching: Principles and procedures of applied behavioral analysis with exceptional students. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

THROUGH A NEW LENS: YOUNG ADOLESCENT GIRLS’ PERCEPTIONS OF

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THEIR SCHOOL EXPERIENCE IN AN ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION PROGRAM

Kaili Chen ZhangThe University of Hong Kong

The purposes of this study were to investigate female juvenile delinquents and at-risk girls’ perceptions of their new school experience at a residential alternative education program in Singapore. Participants’ views about the three key components of the alternative school are presented. Student characteristics and services offered at the school are also included. Implications and suggestions are made for the planning and implementation of effective programs and services for girls engaged in delinquent behaviors.

There are always multiple perspectives and viewpoints involved in defining and identifying what is best practice in terms of interventions for youths engaged in delinquent behaviors. Some intervention programs have focused on addressing academic issues, some have an emphasis on building stronger bonds between the community and the young offenders, while others help girls leave prostitution (Northwest Regional Educational Lab, 1998). Many services for youth offenders also include development of vocational skills promoting the capacity of adolescences to sustain independence and self-reliance. Perhaps the most promising success is the reports of alternative educational programs and services which provide school systems an alternative to expelling or suspending youths in trouble, and help them avoid future delinquent behavior.

Indeed, in recent years, alternative educational services have become increasingly popular in the U. S. and other countries. They have grown because it has been recognized that helping youths develop educational skills can be one of the most effective approaches to the prevention and intervention of delinquency (e.g., Chesney-Lind & Shelden, 2004; Kentucky Center for School Safety, n.d.). School difficulties and negative attitudes toward school, as evidenced by anti-social behavior, failing grades, truancy, and dropping out, both reflect and contribute to at-risk behavior. Therefore, services that support academic performance and remove barriers to the young offenders’ success in school are essential components of intervention programs.

In recent years, another noteworthy phenomenon is the rapid increase in criminal behavior by young women and girls which has made them the fastest growing segment of the juvenile justice system (American Bar Association and National Bar Association, 2001). As the increase in female juvenile delinquency shows, there is an urgent need to address the challenges facing at-risk young women and girls. Yet, appropriate attention to intervention, supervision, and ongoing care of at-risk and delinquent young women and girls has been lacking (Chesney-Lind & Shelden, 2004; Northwest Regional Educational Lab, 1998). In addition, research on effects of alternative education for girls has received relatively little attention from investigators. In order to make educational services and programs more responsive to the specific needs of girls engaged in delinquent behaviors, the first step involves examination of student perceptions and views. In light of the literature review, this study was designed investigate female juvenile delinquent and at-risk girls’ perceptions of their new school experience at a residential alternative education program in Singapore. Responses from the participants are illustrative of their needs and suggest intervention strategies that are valued by the students. Implications of this study will be valuable for alternative programs and services for youths in the context of best practice.

In this study, the term young adolescents is operationally defined as young persons between childhood and adulthood, i.e., those who are in the 12 to 19 age range. This term is used interchangeably with teens, adolescents, and youths. Perception refers to view, opinion, attitude, and perspective.

MethodSettingThe research site was an alternative education program for at-risk girls and female juvenile delinquents in Singapore. It was designed and implemented as a gender-responsive diversion program. Its commitment was to give girls in trouble a second chance to pursue academic studies and to provide them a temporary residential home away from home. Currently, it served an average population of 60, grades 6 through 12, from various regions of Singapore. The following sections delineate the services offered at the home. To meet the educational needs of juvenile delinquents and at-risk girls, an experiential learning program was established at the research site in 2004. In addition to the learning program, two other

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pillar elements, i.e., the personal development programs and mentoring services and support group were also created to further address the concerns and conflicts young girls experience and help them in their journey of learning and growth. This intense level of academic, emotional, and social support for students at AG Home were designed to foster a pastoral environment among students at the home. The following sections will briefly describe each of the three key programs.

Experiential learning program. AG Home offers each resident the opportunity to catch up with their studies through the provision of the General Certificate of Education (GCE) N Level and O Level academic courses. The current student-teacher ratio was 1:10. With a strong emphasis on visual and experiential learning, corners dedicated to aquatic studies, botany and pet care were also set up. Interested students also had opportunities to go on periodic visits to pet farms, beauty salons, and various art studios. These specialized departments and experiential learning opportunities were introduced to engage the students so that there is little idle time and their day is more interesting and busier. The link between the experience and vocational training/employment was also another emphasis as it was believed at the home that an orientation toward the future can serve as a protective factor by allowing girls to look beyond immediate life circumstances.

Personal development program. Many of the girls at the home got into trouble due to the bad choices they made. Indeed it is one’s core belief and values that motivates one to make good choices and do what is right (Calhoun, 2004). In fact, many successful prevention initiatives are driven by deeply held moral or religious beliefs (Calhoun). At the home, the personal development program was developed with the recognition of the link between physical and moral, spiritual well-being and students’ readiness to learn and achieve. It adopted a Christian perspective and considered the challenges and issues young girls face as they mature.

This program was also created to help the girls to look at life’s priorities and assess their personal foundations. With this in mind, a series of workshops about personal, social, and health education (PSHE) had been developed and conducted. From these workshops girls learned about healthy diets and life styles, issues of morality and sexuality, parenting skills, as well as assertiveness skills, communication and many other social skills. The PSHE curriculum also promoted the belief that delaying sexual activity offers girls a protective factor against trauma, unwanted pregnancy, and other risks that could lead to delinquency. The level of personal practice, discourses of Christianity and feminism were interwoven in a way that was specifically intended to address the girls’ concerns about sexual relationships and gender roles. For example, in the PSHE program, girls not only had opportunities to talk about love, beauty, and chastity, they also learned that their worth and value are not found in the image the media portray, but in the fearful and wonderful way that God made them, and are, therefore, infinitely valuable. In addition, PSHE was also an integral part of school life of which many aspects also contribute to the PSHE of the students. All students underwent one hour of instruction, reflection and coaching from Monday to Friday in this area.

Mentoring services and support groups. These were the two other methods the research site used to provide emotional and social growth opportunities for girls at the home. To help girls make a positive transition to womanhood and prevent future delinquency, social support from others is essential (Northwest Regional Educational Lab, 1998). Unfortunately, many of the girls came from broken families and were left to their own devices since they were young. These girls missed positive female role models at home, discipline and guidance, and the absence of an authority figure who can help them with reason to make the value choices which so often confront and confuse them.ParticipantsThe current total population of the facility was 93% Chinese, 4% Indians, 3% Malay and others. Residents at the research site are typically referred by the Juvenile Court of Singapore, agencies (e.g., family centers), schools, the Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Sports, or churches. All students (N=53) at the home were invited to participate in the study as volunteers. They were assured that their information is safe and that all information derived from this study would be reported in terms of numbers and group findings, never in terms of real names. Fifty students agreed to participate, representing 94% of students enrolled at the home.Participants ranged in age from 12 to 19 years old and were in grades six through eleven. Due to the fact that currently there is no consensual definition of E/BD or standard and reliable screening instrument for children and youth at different ages in Singapore (Chen & Tan, 2006), students at the home did not have a formal diagnosis of emotional/behavioral difficulties (E/BD). However, school records of the participants indicated that girls at the home had a history of significant behavioral, emotional, social, and school related problems at their home campuses. Offences committed by the girls range from status offence to property crime, dealing with drugs, and rioting.

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The research method of this study was straightforward. With the aim of investigating female juvenile delinquent and at-risk girls’ new school experience at the home, an interview protocol was constructed for the study. The interview questions were raised to elicit responses to the learning program, the personal development program, and the mentoring services and support groups. The author and two research assistants conducted structured interviews with each of the participants. At stage 1, all sets of data were analyzed using coding analysis of similar comments to facilitate the grouping of like-responses. Statements and comments made by the girls were then categorized with regard to their perceptions of their school experience. At the last stage of data analysis, findings were analyzed and presented in three parts, each part describes the participants’ responses to each of the three key components at the home.

ResultsGirls’ Perceptions of Their New School Experience at the home Experiential learning program. Participants were first asked how they felt about studying at the learning program, as compared to studying in regular schools/their former schools. Responses showed that the learning program was helpful. With regard to the learning environment at the program, 84% of the participants indicated that they had sufficient time to complete the syllabus and course materials. Most participants reported that at the program, there were suitable places to study after school (88%) and that they have been able to relate to what was being taught (86%). Most participants (75%) also appreciated the space and freedom they had at the program. Comments from students included: the learning program is more flexible than other schools; it allows me to learn at my own pace; the environment is quieter and less crowded which help me to concentrate and sizes of the classes were very small. Though in general, the participants were satisfied with the learning program, there was also a smaller percentage students reported that there was a lack of technology and multimedia resources (12%) as well as personal items and stationeries (10%).

When participants were asked what were the things they liked about the learning program, they listed the helpful teachers (60%), the flexible school structure (50%) and the small class size (44%). About 24% of the students mentioned that they liked the learning program because it was an alternative school and that it was conducive and that individualized instruction was provided. About 15% of the participants indicated that while they were in their former schools, their creativities were often misinterpreted and abilities overlooked, but the learning program here gave them opportunities to discover and develop their strengths and potentials. Participants also indicated that the convenient location of the learning program was another advantage. Since the learning program was located at the home, students could save time from travelling and be more focused. In addition, they could no longer run away from school or hang out with their bad friends from outside. Though many of the participants’ comments about the learning program were positive, there was a smaller percentage of students (20%) reported that the learning program was the same as the regular schools. A minority of students (10%) indicated they did not benefit from the teaching offered at the learning program, and two (4%) others reported that it was difficult to cope at the learning program as it was not as well-structured as the regular schools.In terms of interactions with the teachers, about 74% of the students reported that teachers were accessible, and they could typically reach them by walk-in office visit (36%), phone call (22%), and email (6%). Some participants (N=20) also mentioned that they appreciated the teachers here because they were friendlier and more approachable, and did not treat them as probationers nor show favoritism like many teachers in the regular school did. When asked how the teachers had helped them, a fair number of students (35%) mentioned that teachers at the learning program talked to them nicely, motivated them and had expectations for them. About 23% of the participants reported that their teachers often guided them patiently and with understanding.

Most of the students described their teachers as accommodating (96%) and willing to assist when they had academic or personal problems (60%). More than half of the students (52%) reported that their teachers were generally caring and supportive and 28% mentioned that teachers were sensitive to their academic needs and paid more attention to them than their teachers in the regular school. Overall, participants enjoyed their teachers and were thankful that they were very willing to go the extra mile with them by helping them with homework, giving after-lesson tutorials, and advising and encouraging them when they did not believe themselves. Personal development program. According to the responses, the personal development services they benefited most from were the Teen Pregnancy Unit (72%), followed by the Home Enterprise (32%), the Rehabilitation Programs (32%), and the Crisis and Child Protection Center (30%). About 27% of the girls commented that it was the passion and commitment they had developed through their

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participation in the program that help make better choices in life and become better persons. Five percent of the participants indicated that their new faith in God had helped them make their efforts succeed. Many of the students (54%) also indicated that pastors and counselors were also very helpful when they encountered difficulties in their studies.

Participants were also asked what services they would like to have in addition to what were currently offered. Nearly half of the participants (46%) expressed interest in having a home economics class that teaches them homemaking skills, and 24% would like to attend a leadership development program. A fair number of students (16%) indicated that they hoped the home could set up a service learning program. There were also a few others mentioned that they could benefit from programs such as a full fledged vocational training center (14%) and weekly Bible studies (12%).

Mentoring services and support groups. Responses from the majority of the participants (55%) showed that their mentors were supportive and showed genuine concerns to them. Twelve percent of the participants reported that their mentors were not only nice, they also confronted them when necessary, and worked hard to help them solve their personal problems.

About half of the participants (51%) commented that because of their concerns about confidentiality, they were reluctant to discuss sensitive issues such as sex and relationship with their families, and yet they were able to trust and to openly communicate these matters with their mentors. Interviews with the girls also indicated that the time they spent with their mentors had helped them clarify their understanding about personal issues (45%), and they were able to ask for personal advice when facing challenges (45%). When asked what their mentors did for them besides meeting them on a regular basis, many of them (35%) said that they enjoyed journaling with a mentor who read and replied to their concerns and issues. Sending messages through cell phone Short Messaging Service (SMS) to the mentors and being able to receive responses right away also made many of the girls (47%) feel being important. Interestingly, when asked what were the areas they would like to get more guidance from their mentors, education was listed by the participants as a priority (58%), followed by social life (46%), relationships (42%), bad habits (38%), future career (18%), and religion faith (12%).

Support groups which consist of both mentors and peers were created to provide girls opportunities to discuss their frustrations and problem-solve issues in their lives with their peers under the guidance of adults. Some girls (25%) reported that they were able to consider new career paths and get much-needed economic knowledge through their support group discussions. Forty-five percent of the participants mentioned that the support group meetings also provide a positive way for them to spend free time and as a result established and strengthened supportive friendship.

SummaryStudent perceptions of their school experience are integral to program development, implementation, and evaluation, and examinations of these perceptions are proven tools in effective programming (Settles & Orwick, 2003). This study was set out to obtain their overall perceptions of their new school experience at the current alternative program. The value of this study lays in its ability listen to girls’ views which provide insights into how alternative education can effectively meet their needs and make changes to improve their experience and performance at school. As it is with most other studies, this study had some limitations. Though up to 94% percent of the students at the program participated, due to the limited numbers of participants, there was a lack of generalizability of the study results. In addition, research is limited in effects of programs for girls and young women. Current information about the adequacy of alternative education services for girls engaged in delinquent behavior is also lacking.While there are some flaws, this study did reveal a couple interesting finding. Student reported thatthey appreciated the convenient location, the optimal learning environment, and the space and freedom here at the program. However, what they liked most about the learning program were the helpful teachers.

Reports from the participants also showed that the personal development program and the mentoring and support groups were able to support their needs beyond the classroom. The personal development program had helped them to make good choices and obtain needed health and social services in the community, and the Teen Pregnancy Unit was the most beneficial program. Responses also indicated that girls would like to have courses that teach them home economics and leadership skills. With regard to the mentoring services and support groups, participants reported that they had enjoyed the meaningful relationships with their mentors and that they appreciated their guidance and counseling. Education, social life, relationships, bad habits, future career and faith were areas they needed more guidance.

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Discussion and SuggestionsSeeing school experience from the students’ perspectives provides insights into how alternative education can meet their needs and make changes to improve their experience and performance. Findings of the study indicated that in order to effectively respond to the unique needs of female juvenile delinquents and at risk girls, an intense level of academic, emotional, and social support and a pastoral environment that communicates a depth of caring are essential.

The girls’ perceptions of their learning experience at the learning program also indicated that the small student-staff ratio and the experiential learning opportunities incorporated into the learning program model were effective. The learning program’s focusing on the immediate needs of each student allowed for a learner-centered environment that encouraged the girls to take an active role in learning and relationship building. However, according to the responses, it is suggested that learning program should provide more learning resources and structure.

Meaningful relationships with staff at the program are also critical. Involvement with at least one significant positive adult or a positive peer group is essential in providing effective and lasting outcomes. Further, programming must help at-risk girls and juvenile female offenders develop and strengthen personal support networks, including positive peer group and mentors, in order to reconnect them into the community. An emphasis on the development of vocational and effective decision-making skills can also be helpful.The heart of the success of alternative education is the teachers. Girls repeatedly stated that it was the caring and helpful teachers and mentors who made the difference. Girls appreciated the staff who helped them cope with negative attitudes toward the value of education and went the extra mile with them when they struggled with studies. The importance of having dedicated, caring teachers cannot be overestimated.

The quality of school experience and student characteristics can not be separated as the combination of both is essential to the student’s success. Therefore, programming adapted to girls’ developmental needs and holistic development is more likely to result in positive outcomes, including healthy attitudes, behaviors and lifestyles, as well as positive outlook of life. Though our society has made progress in serving girls in trouble, many schools and communities are still unprepared to meet the needs of girls who are involved in or at-risk of becoming involved in the juvenile justice system. There is much to be done to effectively guide prevention and intervention efforts and fill gaps in service for young girls and young women. Examining perceptions of students in the alternative school helps to enhance the quality of programs. Further investigation in this area could contribute to enhancing quality of alternative education services.

ReferencesAmerican Bar Association and National Bar Association. (2001). Justice by gender: The lack of appropriate prevention, diversion, and treatment alternatives for girls in the justice system. Washington, DC: Author.Calhoun, J. A. (2004). The deeper principles of prevention. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 13(1), 2-4. Chen, K., & Tan, C. S. (2006). Education and services for children and youth with emotional/behavioral problems in Singapore. Preventing School Failure, 50(2), 37- 42.Chesney-Lind, M., & Shelden, R. G. (2004). Girls, delinquency, and juvenile justice (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing.Kentucky Center for School Safety. (n.d.). Best practices in alternative education:Kentucky and beyond. Retrieved May 25, 2007 from http://www.kysafeschools.org/clear/best/alted.htmlSettles, D., & Orwick, B. (2003). Alternative education: Past, present and next steps.Richmond, KY: Kentucky Center for School Safety Clearinghouse.Northwest Regional Educational Lab. (1998). Guiding principles for promising female programming: An inventory of best practices. Portland, OR: Author.

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PERSPECTIVES OF TURKISH MOTHERS ONHAVING A CHILD WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

Atilla CavkaytarSema Batu

andOya Beklan CetinAnadolu University

The purpose of the present study was to examine the perspectives of Turkish mothers of their children with developmental disabilities A descriptive study was conducted via collecting data using semi-structured interviews. 39 mothers of children with developmental disabilities who were enrolled in a university unit. The data analysis has shown that mothers of children with developmental disabilities face many difficulties and changes in their daily family lives after the birth of their child with developmental disabilities. The results were discussed with the reference to other related studies.

Parents, in general, have the responsibility of preparing an appropriate environment of love, care, and meeting the needs of their children who follow a normal pattern of development. Parents’ responsibilities rapidly multiply when their child has developmental disabilities. The responsibilities they face are many, among them: different teaching skills, counseling, behavior management, parenting their other children at home, maintaining appropriate communication between husband and wife, creating sustainable relationship with the school (Heward, 1996; Sucuoglu, 1997). At the same time, parents of children with developmental disabilities need to learn to accept the fact that their child is different from their typically developing peers, and to keep up with frequent trips to the hospital, doctor, physiotherapist, and the special education teacher (Kroth & Edge, 1997). Often the focus is solely on the child, and the parents’ feelings might be forgotten (Garguilo & Graves, 1991).

Having a child with developmental disabilities causes a crisis in the home (Dyson, 1993). As Kroth and Edge (1997) mentioned, most of the parents show similar responses when they learn that they have a child with a disability. Other authors reported that parents have different responses depending on the religious, socio-economic, and educational levels of the parents, and the level of disability of their child (Blackhurst & Berdine, 1992; Norton, 1976). Whichever perspective one supports, one may conclude that having a child with developmental disability strongly affects family dynamics. Many families change their daily and social lives because of the child with disability (Hallahan & Kauffman, 1997). A research examining the problems of the parents who have children with disabilities during their daily lives pointed out changes in the daily routines and their social lives as their financial responsibilities increased (Donmez, Bayhan, & Artan, 2001).

Parental reaction to a disability is highly individualistic. Each parent responds in his/her own way (Gargiulo, 1985; Gargiulo & Graves, 1991). Different approaches related to the

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reactions of parents when they have a child with disability exist: psychodynamic approach, functionalist approach, psychosocial approach, and interactionist approach (Ferguson, 2002). The reactions of parents when they have the child with developmental disabilities are shock, denial, and grief. Following these first reactions, anger, bargaining and depression follow. Eventually, the parents should accept the facts, but some families never manage to reach this final point (Heward, 1996; Schulz, 1987).

Hallahan and Kaufman (1997) stated that many researchers who work on the parental adaptation process use the grief model. According to the grief model, the first stage consists of shock, denial and depression; the second stage consists of complexity, guilt, and anger; and the third stage consists of bargaining, acceptance, and adaptation (Gargiulo & Graves, 1991). The types of behavior shown by the parents differ depending on the characteristics of the parents. Despite the differences in the behaviors or the stages parents find themselves, most of the parents accept their child with developmental disabilities (Haveman & Berkum, 1997).

The first information given to the parents about their child’s disability plays a very important role in the parental adaptation process in the future. Where, when and by whom the information was given, the content of the information effects negatively or positively the stages which the parents will experience (Seligman, 1991).

There are several research studies that examined the problems and needs of parents who have children with disabilities (Lai & Ishiyama, 2004; Lehr Essex, 2002; Sucuoglu, 1995; Sucuoglu, Kucuker, & Kanik, 1993). In all these studies, health and behavior problems related with the disability of the child, lack of social relations, financial problems of the families providing educational and related services for the child were the problems mentioned. On the other hand, there is still need for examining the relationship between the parental reactions and cultural and ethnic characteristics of parents of children with disabilities (Ferguson, 2002).

The purpose of the present study was to describe the perspective of parents after they have a child with developmental disabilities. Under this general purpose the following questions were tried to be answered: (1) How did they learn that their child had developmental disability? (2) How did their reactions changed from the day that they learned their child had developmental disability until today? (3) Which differences occured in their family life from the day that they learned their child had developmental disability until today? (4) How did they learn that they could provide special education for their child? (5) Which differences occured in their family life after their child with disability started to get special education? (6) What were their expectations about their child’s future? (7) What were their expectations from the community, institutions, and government? and (8) What would they want to say to the community, other parents of children with disabilities, and special education teachers of their child?

MethodParticipantsThe participants of the study were 39 mothers of children enrolled in a university unit for children with developmental disabilities. These mothers were the volunteers out of 70 parents of the unit. The average age of mothers was 36 (range= 24-55). Slightly over half of the mothers finished primary school (54%), few of them finished elementary school (8%), some of them finished secondary school (26%), and some of them finished a college or university (12%). They had 1-3 children, but the majority had two. The average age of their children was 9 years. 41% of the children had mental retardation, 31% had autism, 23% had Down’s syndrome, and 5% had developmental disability plus another disability. The participants were mostly from a middle income level community.

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Data CollectorsSeven students collected the data. One was a graduate student in the department of sociology, two of them were undergraduate students in sociology and the remaining four were undergraduate students in the special education department.

Before data collection began, an information seminar about semi-structured interviews was given to the data collectors. A simulation interview was conducted with the data collectors by one of the authors during the seminar. After the seminar was completed, each data collector conducted a pilot interview with a mother other than the participants of the study: The interviews were observed and feedback was provided by the authors to the data collectors immediately after they conducted the interviews. After the training procedure the data collectors started to conduct the interviews with the participants of the present study.

SettingsBefore the interviews, each participant was asked where they would prefer to make the interviews, either athome or at the unit. All of the participants preferred to take the interviews at the unit while their child was having 1:1 or group education. The interviews were conducted in the seminar room of the unit. In the room there were 20 long seminar tables in a U position, and 50 chairs around them. There was also a computer, and a overhead projector in the room. During the interviews a tape recorder was used to record the dialogue between the mother and the data collector .

ProcedureThe questions were prepared before the data collection was started and three researchers in the field of special education verified the questions prepared for the interview. At the end of this task 15 open-ended questions were included in the interview (Table 1). Although the questions were prepared in a sequence, the data collectors were told that they were free to change the sequence.

At the beginning of each interview the data collectors told the purpose of the study to the participants. Participants of the study were also told that this was a volunteer procedure, they were free to withdraw from the study whenever they wished, and also that they had the chance to refuse to answer any of the questions during the interview, the data would be used only as the research results and pseudonyms would be used instead of their real names.

The interviews lasted from 45 mins. to 1 hour 15 mins (average 1 hour). Each interview was transcribed verbatim by the data collectors and the researchers, and checked for accuracy by the researchers by listening to the audio tape and reading the transcripts.

Table 1Interview Questions

1. Can you please tell us about your family?

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2. How did you understand that there was a problem with your child?3. (a) How were you told that your child had developmental disabilities? (b) when were you told that your child had developmental disabilities? and (c)where were you told that your child had developmental disabilities?4. What were your feelings when you learned that your child had developmental disabilities?

5. What are the changes in your feelings from the day that you learned that your child had developmental disabilities until today?

6. Who had effects on these changes?7. How did your family life changed after you had the child with developmental disabilities? 8. What kind of problems did you face after you had the child with developmental

disabilities?9. For solving these problems:

(a) what did you do?, (b) what did your husband do?, and (c) what are you still doing?

10. (a) When did you learn that your child could get special education? (b) Where did you learn that your child could get special education?, and (c) From who did you learn that your child could get special education?11. (a)Where did your child start to get special education?, and (b) When did your child start to get special education?12. What kind of changes occurred after your child started to get special education in

your family life?13. In the future, what are your expectations; (a) about your child’s health, (b) about

your chid’s education, and (c) from other people?14. What are your expectations from (a) the institutions providing special education,

and (b) the government?15. What would you like to say or what are your recommendations for

(a) the other parents who have a child with developmental disabilities, (b) the community, and (c) the special education teachers related with your child?

Data AnalysisTen randomly selected interviews were read by the first and the second authors independently. Each researcher identified categories related to the answers to each question. Then they compared the titles and made a list of titles corresponding to the answers of participants of the ten interviews. The titles then, were placed in a checklist format and given photocopies for each participant and each researcher. The researchers independently marked the related title for each question of each participant. Then the researchers together compared the answers they marked and calculated the reliability of their analysis with the formula of number of agreements divided by number of agreements plus number of disagreements multiplied by 100. The mean reliability between two researchers was 91% (range= 75-100%).

ResultsThe purpose of the present study was to describe the perspectives of parents after they learned that they had a child with developmental disabilities. The results of the study were grouped according to the research questions which were mentioned under the general purpose. According to the research questions, eight headings emerged from the data gathered. While giving the results, the ones with less than five frequency (11%) were not reported in this manuscript. Moreover, interesting words mothers used were reported with the frequency data below. During data analysis, each mother was given a code number. The numbers in parentheses below (e.g., m. 6) are the numbers given to the mothers as code numbers.

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Learning about the child’s disabilityLearning about the disability gave a real shock to the parents. Parents talked about various issues related to this event. First of all, parents told about the time they realized that there were some problems with their child. Many of the parents mentioned that they realized that there was a problem with their child when there was a delay in learning to walk (16%); a delay in speaking (15%); when the child was born (15%); when he/she became ill and was taken to the doctor (11%). For example, a mother mentioned the difficulty in her child’s learning to speak there were difficulties in her speaking when she was 3-4 years old. She used to have a tantrum when she couldn’t manage to tell whatever she wanted to (m. 7). Another mother pointed that they learned that there was a problem with the baby before the birth, I used to go for regular check ups to the doctor when I was pregnant, it was determined that there was a problem during the pregnancy (m. 9). In general, the participants of the study realized there was some problem when their children had difficulties or delays in reaching developmental milestones.

Mothers were asked how it was told that their child had mental retardation/ developmental disability. 25% of the mothers told that doctors told them that he/she had other illnesses apart from mental retardation; 22% of the mothers were told that the child would be developing slower than his/her peers, for example one of the mothers mentioned this with the following words: when we went to a different doctor when she was 11 months, he told us that she was acting like an eight months old baby (m. 37); also 22% of the mothers were told that he/she would need to get special education, for example one of the mothers expressed this with the following words: they told us that she would need to get special education when we were in the hospital for her regular check up (m. 37); and 22% of the mothers were given information about the disability and provided resources related to the disability. For example one of the mothers said that they were given information about the disability of the child with the following words: we were told that he would talk, walk and learn later than his peers, also that, we should be prepared for such a child (m. 10), and another mother mentioned that they were given detailed information about the characteristics of children with Down’s syndrome (m. 8). None of the mothers pointed that they were directly told that their child had mental retardation/developmental disability.

Mothers were also asked where and when they were told that their child had mental retardation/developmental disability. 76% of the mothers pointed that they were told in the hospital. Others were told in the rehabilitation center or school where their child got his/her educational services. Also 23% of the mothers were informed when their child was 2-4 years old; 19% of the mothers were informed when their child was 4-6 years old. On the other hand, 16% of the mothers were told that their child had mental retardation/developmental disability when he/she was born in the hospital.

Mother’s reactionsWhen the mothers were asked what their reactions were when they first heard the diagnosis of their child, they mentioned that they became very sad (34%), were shocked (26%), for example one of the mothers used the following words in order to tell her reaction: before telling the situation, the doctor gave me a book about the subject. I read it and learned about the disability however, when I heard it from the doctor I was demolished (m. 15); did not believe (17%), as one of the mothers described her reactions: we became very upset, we could not believe. I used to think that this kind of things would happen to other people but not to us (m. 38).

When the mothers were asked if there were any changes in their reactions over time, they told that they had depression and stress (22%); complication (16%); and acceptance and adaptation (14%) from the day they were told about the diagnosis. One of the mothers talked about her feelings: when we first learned we became very sad, we did not have even a day without being upset. But after we started to take him here for special education, we began to

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realize the development and changes in his behaviors, hence, our reactions started to change. We started to have hopes about his future. (m.37).

The Mothers mentioned that her parents (26%); husband (23%); parents of herself and her husband (14%); and educational institutions (14%) had effects on the changes of her reactions. They received moral support (21%); educational support (21%); and negative feedback (21%). One of the mothers stated: we worked together with my husband as mother and father together. We still work on his speech, we always talk with him. My husband is a very strong support for me. (m. 37).

Changes in family life after they learned that their child was disabledWithin this theme, mothers were asked about the changes they had in their family lives after they had the child with developmental disability. 30% of the mothers mentioned that they did not have any change in their family lives; but on the other hand 10% of the mothers pointed that they had limited the relationship with their friends and other social environment, and other 11% mentioned that the siblings were negatively effected by the child with developmental disability, : my other two children’s social lives have stopped. We can’t go out for a walk, for a picnic. Until the day he starts to understand where to sit where to stop, we can’t go anywhere with him. Therefore we can’t go anywhere together as a family. (m. 38).

Participants were also asked what kinds of problems they had after the birth of the child with developmental disability. Some of the mothers mentioned that they did not have a normal family life any more (20%), we are totally devoted to him. Whatever we do is only for him now. (m. 36); others pointed that they did not have any problems (20%); some of them mentioned that they had financial problems (16%); and some of them expressed that they had to go to hospital frequently (11%).

When the mothers were asked what they did for solving the problems emerged after the birth of the child with developmental disabilities, some of them mentioned that they looked for ways of medical treatment (33%), for example one of the mothers used the following words in order to tell her thoughts about the subject: we are totally interested in his health. We are always busy with the doctors and hospitals related with his health problems. (m. 8); looked for school and rehabilitation centers (30%); and tried to teach some things at home by themselves (25%).

Mothers were also asked what their husbands did for solving the problems mentioned before. More than half of the mothers mentioned that, their husband helped them with problem solving (51%); and some of them expressed that since the fathers did not accept the child’s disability he did not do anything at all (12%), my husband didn’t accept the child at all, therefore I am always between them. (m. 25).

Some of the mothers mentioned that they were trying to do whatever they can at home (28%); trying to meet the needs of their child related to school (27%); trying to take the child to parks and other social environments (16%); and trying to solve health problems (13%). We take him to the hospital when he is ill, we bring him here for getting special education, and also we take him to social environments to learn something from neighbourhood. (m. 31).

Providing special educationMothers were asked how and when they learned about providing special education to their child with developmental disability. Some mothers mentioned that they learned about special education when their child was 1-3 years old (40%); some of them expressed when the child started to attend preschool education (23%); and some others mentioned when the child started primary school education (17%). Most of the mothers learned about special education

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from the pediatrician (57%); some others learned from their friends and relatives (13%); and some others learned from teachers (13%).

Another question asked to the participants was where and when their child started to take special education. Most of the mothers mentioned that they started to take special education from the university unit (60%); and some others pointed a rehabilitation center (30%). Some of the mothers expressed that it has been one year that their child started to take special education (41%); some of them mentioned for two years (26%); and some others for four years (18%).

Changes in family life after special educationMothers were asked what kind of changes occured in their family life after their child started to take special education. Nearly half of the mothers (47%) mentioned that they become happy when they see the progress in their child; and some of them (19%) mentioned that they felt relieved after their child started to take education. The serious changes in our child made us very relieved. It is a great support, moral support and happiness for us. (m. 38).

Expectations about the child’s futureMothers were asked what their expectations were about their child’s future. The answers differed. Some of the mothers(29%) mentioned that they expected him/her to meet his/her own needs by him/herself; some of the mothers (22%) said that they expected him/her to progress by the education; and some of the mothers (13%) expected their child to go to a regular primary school in the future. I would want him to stand on his own feet, to eat and drink independently, sleep and go to toilet independently. (m. 38).

When mothers were asked what they expected from other people in the future about their child with disability. Some of the mothers (34%) expected nothing from other people; whereas the others (17%) expected siblings of the child with disabilities to be more responsible from his/her brother/sister. Some others (17%) expected other people be more conscious about people with disabilities and act as so. For example, one of the mothers told her feelings about this subject with the following words: I am not expecting anything from any one directly. I just want him to know what is harmful, what is harmless for him when we pass away and he is left alone. (m. 13).

Mothers were asked what were their expectations from the institutions providing service to children with disabilities. Their answers varied. 22% of the mothers expected individualized education for each child with disability; 22% expected effective teaching techniques to be used in the institutions with their children; 17% of them mentioned that they expected consultancy service from the institutions for the parents of children with disabilities; and 11% of the mothers expected continuity in education for children with disabilities.

Mothers were also asked what their expectations were from the government. Some of them (24%) mentioned that they expected increase in the financial help for education of their child and regular payment by the government; some of them (22%) pointed that they expected the government to protect and patronize the children with disabilities; some other (17%) expressed that they expected the school for children with disabilities to be widespread all around the country; and some of them (12%) expected the government to open new vocational centers for their children. We want the schools become widespread all around the country and the number of schools to be increased in our city. (m. 37), and another mother with the following words: we want work sites for them (m. 13).

Recommendations of the mothersMothers were asked what their recommendations were for the other parents who have children with disabilities. Some of the mothers (31%) recommended parents to support their children’s education with all their resources; some of them (21%) suggested them to be

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patient, devoted and indulgent; some of them (19%) recommended them to accept their children as they are; and some others (17%) offered them to work hard for taking their children to the highest point possible. I recommend the other families to apply for the special education courses as early as possible, and to be patient, devoted, and indulgent. (m. 37).

Mothers were also asked what their recommendations were for the community about the individuals with disabilities. Some of the mothers (66%) recommended the community to accept individuals with disabilities as they are, not to compare them with normally developing peers; and some others (13%) suggested them to be more conscious of individuals with disabilities.

DiscussionThe purpose of the present study was to examine the perspectives of mothers of children with developmental disabilities. The results of the study showed that parents had different experiences with their children with disabilities.

Acording to the results of the present study, parents of children with developmental disabilities make changes in their family lives such as reducing their social lives. Research on this subject supports this finding, and mothers recommended that parents of children with developmental disabilities should be encouraged for taking a lifelong family role with providing sufficient support services (Essex, 2002).

In the present study one of the points mothers mentioned was that fathers did not accept their children with developmental disabilities, therefore they did not do anything for solving the problems faced by the mother. Essex (2002) also mentioned the lack of acceptance of the children with disabilities by their fathers and therefore being apart from the relationship between the mother and child. Also that fathers did not accept these children if they also had behavior problems. Hence, it can be recommended to the institutions providing special education to children with developmental disabilities that, they can provide information and an adaptive course for the fathers’ of their students about the disability their child have, the characteristics and needs of the children and also the importance of their emotional support for the mother and the child .

Examining the results, 22% of the mothers mentioned that they had depression and stress since the day they learned that their child was developmentally disabled. Various researchers also pointed out that parenting a child with disability can produce high levels of stress and a sense of imbalance in the family system (Boyd, 2002; Ferguson, 2002; Garguilo & Graves, 1991). Hence, it can again be recommended to the institutions providing special education to the children with special needs that they can provide psychological support to the parents of their students, at least at the begining of the education of their children. It can also be recommended to the city hospitals’ psychology services to make follow-up studies in order to find the parents of children with developmental disabilities and provide support to them as much as they need.

In the present study, 34% of the mothers mentioned that they did not expect anything from anybody in the future related with their children with developmental disabilities. Boyd (2002) supported this finding and added that lack of social support caused high level of stress in the parents of children with disabilities.

11% of the mothers mentioned that the siblings of children with developmental disabilities were negatively affected by their siblings. Boyd (2002) also supported this finding with saying that mothers of children with developmental disabilities reported more family problems (i.e., sibling problems, time demands) than parents with normally developing children.

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Mothers interviewed mentioned different expectations related with the future of the children with developmental disability. Dyson (1993) also pointed to the increased parental stress relating to the age of the child and parental pessimism about the child’s future. So, it can be said that this is a problem that parents should overcome with the help of the institutions providing special education to their children.

Conclusion and RecommendationsThe reactions of mothers’ when they learn that their child was having a disability seems to be similar. Since they feel shock and depression at the beginning, they start to accept and adapt their child with special needs. The acceptance level is usually seen after the child starts to take special education. During this period, mothers can be affected by various variables: size of the family, acceptance in the family, relationships between the family members, supports provided, cultural factors, and values of the family and community. The participant mothers of the present study had the following characteristics: (a) had families with two children, (b) usually finished primary or secondary school, (c) had middle level income, (d) still married, (e) usually housewives. When these characteristics were combined with the variables presented above, the results of the study were affected by this combination of factors.

As a result of this study, it can be recommended to future researchers that they can conduct a study with not only mothers but mothers and fathers together. Also it can be recommended to conduct a study with parents of children with different types of disability, not only developmental disabilities.

ReferencesBoyd, B.A. (2002). Examining the relationship between stress and lack of social support in mothers of children with autism. Focus on Autism & Other Developmental Disabilities, 17, 208-216.Dyson, L. (1993). Response to the presence of a child with disabilities: Parental stress and family functioning over time. American Journal on Mental Retadration, 98, 207-218.Essex, E. (2002). Mothers and fathers of adults with mental retardation: Feelings of intergenerational closeness. Family Relations, 51, 156-166.Ferguson, P.M. (2002). A place in the family: A historical interpretation of research on parental reactions to having child with a disability. Journal of Special Education, 36, 124-136.Garguilo, R.M. (1985). Working with parents of exceptional children. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.Garguilo, R.M. & Graves, S. (1991). Parental feelings. Childhood Education, Spring, 176-178.Haveman, M. & Berkum, G. (1997). Differences in service needs, time demands and caregiving burden among parents of persons with mental retardation across the life cycle. Family Relations, 46.Heward, W.L. (1996). Exceptional children. Englewood Cliffs: Merrill.Kroth, R.L. & Edge, D. (1997). Parent training groups: Strategies of communication with parents and families of exceptional children. New York: Love Publishing Co.Lai, Y. & Ishiyama, F.I. (2004). Involvement of immigrant Chinese Canadian mothers of children with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 71, 97-108.Schulz, J.B. (1987). Parents and professionals in special education. Boston: Allyn Bacon.Seligman, M. (1991). Counseling parents with children with disabilities: The family with a handicapped child. Boston: Allyn Bacon.Sucuoglu, B., Kucuker, S., & Kanik, N. (1993). Anne babalarin ozurlu cocuklarinin egitimine katilimlari (Parents’ participating in their handicapped child’s education). I. Egitim Bilimleri Kongresi Kitabı, 318-331. Sucuoglu, B. (1995). Ozurlu cocugu olan anne babalarin gereksinimlerinin belirlenmesi (Determining the needs of parents of children with disabilities). Cocuk ve Ruh Sagligi Dergisi, 2, 10-18.

This study was a part of the project granted by Anadolu University Project Support Office which was titled "The description of family characteristics with developmentally disabled children, and family adjustment process".

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SELF-EFFICACY PERCEPTIONS OF CHINESE PRIMARY-AGE STUDENTS WITH SPECIFIC LEARNING DIFFICULTIES:

A PERSPECTIVE FROM HONG KONG

Mantak YuenPeter Westwood

andGunter Wong

University of Hong Kong

In the field of specific learning difficulties research, interest has recently turned to affective and motivational issues as possible causal or exacerbating factors. In particular, studies have suggested that students with specific learning difficulties (SpLD) have diminished perceptions of their own capabilities as a result of persistent and frequent failure. Weakened beliefs in self-efficacy predispose the students to further poor outcomes through reduced confidence and effort. This study explores the perceptions of self-efficacy in both academic and non-academic domains revealed by Chinese primary-age students with learning difficulties. Data were collected by questionnaire (the Academic and Non-academic Self-efficacy Scale: ANASS) from 34 students identified with SpLD (individually interviewed; oral administration), and 167 students without learning problems (group administration; written form). Results indicate that the SpLD students had significantly weaker beliefs in their own efficacy in the academic learning domain, compared to the students making normal progress. The differences were most marked in their learning of both English and Chinese language skills. There was no difference between the two groups in self-efficacy related to the non-academic domain. An important finding in the study is that Chinese children with SpLD appear to have more positive beliefs in their self-efficacy than is implied for their counterparts in studies in other cultures. These findings are discussed in this paper, together with brief suggestions for practical implications and possible further research.

Within the general school population there are students who have significant problems in acquiring basic academic skills, even though they have normal intelligence and adequate opportunity. Over the past century these students have been given various classifications, including word-blind, learning disabled, developmentally dyslexic and learning disordered (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Bannatyne, 1971; Hinshelwood, 1895; Kirk, 1962; Orton, 1928). Most recently these students are simply described as having a specific learning difficulty (SpLD) (Prior, 1996; Salili, 1999). This term is intended to differentiate them from other students that underachieve due to lack of ability, poor motivation, lack of opportunity to learn, and social or linguistic disadvantage.

The prevalence rate for students with specific learning difficulties is not high — probably in the order of 2% to 4% in English-speaking countries (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; McCoy, 1995). In countries where a language other than English is used the prevalence rate varies; but it is clear that these specific problems in learning basic academic skills do exist in other written languages, including those not utilizing a phonic or alphabetic code (Ho, Chan, Tsang & Lee, 2002; Leong & Joshi, 1997; Woo & Hoosain, 1984).

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Students with Specific Learning DifficultiesStudents with specific learning difficulties (SpLD) are, by definition, of at least average intelligence and are free from any significant cognitive or sensory impairment. They exhibit no primary emotional disorders and they have not suffered any marked degree of cultural or linguistic disadvantage. Like all other students, students with SpLD have had normal opportunities to learn through exposure to conventional teaching methods—yet they exhibit extreme difficulty in acquiring adequate proficiency in reading, writing, spelling and computational skills (Lyon, 2002; Silver & Hagin, 2002). In addition, these students frequently exhibit other learning and adjustment problems in the domains of expressive and receptive language, problem solving, physical skills, self-management, motivation, and social adjustment (Fletcher, Lyon, Barnes, Stuebing, Francis, Olson, Shaywitz, S. & Shaywitz, B., 2002). Learning difficulties are frequently accompanied by secondary emotional problems (Westwood, 2004a).

For many years research in the field of specific learning difficulty (SpLD) tended to focus on academic, cognitive and perceptual factors associated with learning problems, rather than personal, affective and motivational dimensions. In recent years however, interest has developed in investigating these other correlates of SpLD and the literature in this field has expanded considerably (e.g. Baum & Owen, 1988; Bryan, 1998; Clever, Bear & Juvomen, 1992; Hampton & Mason, 2003; Klassen, 2002a; 2002b). One area of particular growing interest is the personal perception of self-efficacy held by students that have experienced repeated academic failure over a long period of time. These students may be expected to exhibit diminished beliefs about their own capabilities in learning situations, and such beliefs in turn are likely to reduce motivation and confidence.

Self-efficacyMaddux and Gesselin (2003, p.219) have defined self-efficacy in these terms, Self-efficacy beliefs are beliefs (accurate or not) about one’s competencies and one’s ability to exercise these competencies in certain domains and situations. These writers suggest that self-efficacy is an evaluation of how well one can mobilize one’s cognitive, physical and emotional resources to accomplish specific goals. The concept of self-efficacy therefore embraces all the beliefs that individuals have about their own capability to carry out particular tasks successfully and to execute specific courses of action necessary to produce desired outcomes (Bandura, 1997; 1999).

An individual’s self-efficacy beliefs tend to be domain-specific rather than general. For example, one may feel efficacious in relation to writing an essay but incompetent in solving mathematical problems. Or one may feel efficacious in relation to non-academic pursuits but much less capable in academic tasks. According to Klassen (2002a) personal estimates of self-efficacy are really a form of metacognition or self-awareness; and self-efficacy is closely bound up with an individual’s capacity to identify the causes of his or her successes and failure (attributional style) (Tabassam & Grainger, 2002).

Our perceived self-efficacy is a major factor in determining our willingness to take on challenges in life. Self-efficacy determines how much effort people will put in to a task, how long they will carry through a task if it is difficult, and ultimately the degree of success achieved (Klassen, 2002b; Rathus & Nevid, 1986). Positive self-efficacy beliefs can have a beneficial impact on academic performance (Lee, 1998). Bandura (1996, p.812) has remarked, The stronger the perceived self-efficacy, the higher the goal challenges people set for themselves and the firmer their commitment to them . High perceived self-efficacy in a particular domain such as school learning is important because it enhances a student’s motivation and is therefore a causal factor in future academic achievement (Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1998; Grasha & Kirschenbaum, 1986; Pressley & McCormick, 1995). In contrast, approaching a task with low self-efficacy feeds a self-perpetuating cycle of learned helplessness, usually resulting in poor outcomes (McCabe, 2003).

Schunk and Pajares (2002) have pointed out that, compared with students that doubt their learning capabilities, those who feel efficacious for learning participate more readily, work harder, persist longer when they encounter difficulties and achieve at a higher level. Academically underachieving students (such as those with SpLD) have their self-efficacy beliefs constantly weakened because they see other students with less ability being more successful.

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Self-efficacy in students with learning disability There is already evidence to suggest that students with specific learning difficulties commonly develop negative beliefs in their own capabilities. Studies have shown that students with SpLD tend to have lower scholastic self-efficacy than students without SpLD (Baum & Owen, 1988; Clever et al., 1992; Tabassam & Grainger, 2002). Furthermore, those SpLD students with the highest IQs appear to have the lowest perceptions of academic self-efficacy (Hampton & Mason, 2003), possibly because they are more keenly aware of their weaknesses.

Klassen (2002b) provided an elegant review of the research and theories relating to the self-efficacy of SpLD students. When students experience frequent failure their perceived self-efficacy as learners tends to be seriously undermined. As a result, they may be unwilling to take risks or to put in the amount of effort necessary for improvement (Cosden, Brown & Elliott, 2002). In extreme cases, they feel completely helpless to improve their situation and easily become passive learners (Craske, 1988; Hampton & Mason, 2003). Students with low perceived self-efficacy are reported to be much less strategic in their approach to learning and much more teacher dependent (Sewell & St George, 1999). Recently, Burden (2004) has commented that how students with learning disability feel about themselves as learners can impact significantly on how they perform.

It must be noted, however, that not all SpLD students have negative self-efficacy beliefs. A few students with SpLD appear instead to have unrealistically positive beliefs about their own capabilities — for example believing themselves able to complete particular tasks easily only to find later that the tasks are much too difficult (Klassen, 2002a). These inaccurate estimates of self-efficacy may develop from faulty analysis of task requirements or from lack of self-knowledge — two weaknesses known to be common among students with learning difficulties (Klassen, 2002b).

Improving self-efficacy in students with SpLDSewell and St George (1999), drawing heavily on the work of Bandura (1997), indicate that beliefs concerning one’s self-efficacy can be developed via four main influences (i) through direct experience of personal success (ii) by observation of others achieving successfully through their own efforts rather than innate ability (ii) constructive and positive feedback from others (iv) self-persuasion regarding one’s own capability. The writers suggest that deliberate feedback and persuasion from others (e.g. from teachers) is the least effective method of modifying learners’ beliefs about their own efficacy but it remains one of the most frequently used. The most effective method for improvement is likely to be closely related to teaching methods and curriculum activities. Good teaching should ensure that students experience frequent success rather than failure, and are thus motivated and willing to take on challenging tasks. For this reason, effective teaching is likely to play the key role in bringing about the development of positive self-efficacy in learners. Experience of success as a result of personal effort is the main influence responsible for building positive self-efficacy beliefs. In recent years interest has been shown also in other methods for strengthening self-efficacy in students with SpLD. These students are notoriously poor at developing and applying effective learning strategies or task-approach skills; and it has been found that strategy instruction (cognitive training) can enhance self-efficacy for learning (Cole & Chan, 1990; Firth, 2003; Sewell & St George, 2000). Schunk (1995), reviewing relevant literature on strategy training, concludes that self-efficacy correlates positively with the effective use of learning strategies, and therefore, self-efficacy may be increased by teaching students to use effective task-approach strategies — such as developing mental plans of action for writing stories, completing projects, or solving mathematical problems. In one specific example, McCabe (2003) recommends increasing students’ self-efficacy for test taking by directly teaching effective test-taking strategies. It is now believed that strategy training can help counteract some of the maladaptive passivity and helplessness common in SpLD students by enhancing their awareness of their own capabilities (Pressley & McCormick, 1995).

Focus of the present studyThe study reported here set out to examine the self-efficacy beliefs of a sample of Chinese students of primary school age with identified SpLD. Their perceptions were compared with those of a group of students of a similar age range making normal progress in school learning. It was hypothesized that compared with students that are learning normally these students would display evidence of lowered levels of perceived self-efficacy.

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MethodSubjectsThe two groups of students in this study comprised (i) a sample of 34 students identified with SpLD, and (ii) a random sample of 167 students of corresponding ages (Primary 3 to Primary 6 levels) without learning difficulties (NLD). The students in both samples were distributed across classes in fifteen primary schools (four schools for the NLD sample and 11 schools for the SLD sample) in Hong Kong. The schools were invited to participate in the study if they had any students on roll assessed and identified as having a specific learning difficulty by an educational psychologist. Table 1 (next page) summarises the demographic details relating to both samples.

It must be noted that English was the second language for all subjects; the children’s first language being either Cantonese or, in a few cases, Putonghua.

InstrumentA 16-item questionnaire, Academic and Non-academic Self-efficacy Scale (ANASS), was developed by the writers specifically for this study. The instrument was prepared first in English and then translated into Chinese. The items in the questionnaire cover key aspects of self-efficacy related to academic tasks appropriate for students of primary school age, and items related to non-academic pursuits and interests. The content of the questionnaire was influenced to a small degree by Bandura’s (1990) well-known Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Self-efficacy and also by a Chinese adaptation of the General Self –Efficacy Scale of Zhang & Schwarzer (1995); but the items were determined chiefly by the writers’ own perceptions of self-efficacy in children of primary school age, drawing on key domains of self-efficacy as summarised by Maddux & Gosselin (2003).

The questionnaire embodies a 6-point Likert-type rating scale for each item, with 1 indicating weak ability in an area identified in a given statement and 6 indicating strong ability. The actual items in the questionnaire are found in Table 2. The stem for each item asked, How good are you at…(a specified area of learning, performance or skill acquisition)?

Prior to the study, feedback on the content and suitability of the questionnaire was obtained from relevant professionals (educational psychologists, counsellors, and teachers). As a result, some modification was made to the wording of several items in the Chinese version.

Subsequent work with the ANASS indicated an overall internal consistency coefficient of 0.88 for the total scale, which is acceptably high reliability for this type of instrument. Correlations between the total score on ANASS and the Academic Subscale score and Non-Academic Subscale were 0.93 and .94 respectively. Later factor analysis (principal component method with varimax rotation) suggested a four-factor solution for ANASS, namely, 1. a main factor associated with the learning of oral and written Chinese language, accounting for 37.1% of the variance; 2. a factor associated with learning practical and technical skills, accounting for a further 10% of the variance; 3. a factor clearly associated with the learning of oral and written English language, adding a further 7.1% to the variance; 4. a weaker factor associated with personal application of practical skills together with the learning of mathematics. This final factor contributed only 6.3% to the variance. For further information on technical aspects of ANASS see Yuen, Westwood & Wong (2004).

ProcedureIn the participating schools the students with SpLD and the students without learning difficulties (NLD) all completed the Academic and Non-academic Self-efficacy Scale (ANASS). The students without learning difficulties completed a group-administered written form of the questionnaire. For the SpLD students the questionnaire was administered orally and individually to avoid any possibility that a student might not be able to read and understand the items. The oral administration was conducted by the students’ own teacher, a student counsellor in the school, or by the research assistant engaged for this project.

ResultsDemographicsTable 1 provides information on the sample of students with no learning difficulties (NLD) and the selected group of students with specific learning difficulty (SpLD) surveyed in this study. In the NLD group the 167 students were fairly evenly distributed across four levels (Primary 3 to Primary 6 inclusive). The sample contained slightly more boys than girls, but the imbalance was not significant.

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In the SpLD sample the 34 students were not so evenly spread across the year levels , with more students in Primary 3 than in any of the upper primary classes. Gender imbalance is very noticeable in the SpLD sample, with over seven boys to every girl student. This imbalance mirrors the reportedly much higher prevalence of males in the SpLD population as a whole (Prior, 1996).

Originally the SpLD sample (n = 39) contained 5 students from Primary 1 and Primary 2 classes, but these subjects were excluded from the data analysis reported here because they were younger than any students in the comparison NLD sample.

Table 1Demographics of the Students without Learning Difficulties (NLD) and Students with Specific

Learning Difficulties (SpLD)Students without learning difficulties (NLD)

Students with specific learning difficulties(SpLD)

(n= 167) (n= 34)Demographic n % n %GenderMale 86 51.5 30 88.2Female 77 46.1 4 11.8 No Response 4 2.4Grade*P.3 37 22.2 14 41.2 P.4 41 24.6 9 26.5P.5 43 25.7 6 17.6P.6 45 26.9 5 14.7

*One student without learning difficulties did not report his grade.

Self-efficacyTable 2 summarizes the mean ratings for the two groups NLD and SpLD based on responses to the sixteen items in the Academic and Non-academic Self-efficacy Scale (ANASS). The items were each rated using a 6-point scale where a high rating indicates high perceived self-efficacy in the given skill, task or performance. A mean rating of 4.5 or above can be taken to represent a reasonably strong personal belief concerning self-efficacy in the context of each given situation. A mean rating below 3.0 suggests weak perceptions of efficacy.

Inspection of Table 2 shows that both the NLD and the SpLD students rated their beliefs at above 3.7 in almost all items, with no ratings below 3.0. The NLD students obtained mean ratings well above 4 in 15 out of the 16 items (93.75%) while the SpLD students rated themselves above 4 in 10 items (62.50%). Separate analysis of the group mean scores representing the subtotals on the two subscales (‘Academic Self-Efficacy’, and ‘Non-Academic Self-Efficacy’) indicates that the SpLD students had significantly lower confidence in their own capabilities in academic domain when compared with the NLD group (F = 9.45, p< .01). In the non-academic self-efficacy domain the two samples performed virtually identically.

In terms of responses to separate items within the ANASS, the NLD and SpLD students differed significantly in only 2 out of the 16 items. The items in which the SpLD students expressed lower self-efficacy were: Item 5 “How good are you at learning Chinese reading skills?” (NLD group mean 4.51; SpLD mean 3.65. F = 14.09, p< .001); and Item 11 “How good are you at learning English conversation skills?” (NLD group mean 4.08; SpLD group mean 3.24. F = 9.23, p < .01).

Despite the differences mentioned above, it is important to note that in general the students in both groups responded to the questionnaire in a fairly positive manner. It can be concluded therefore that on the Academic and Non-academic Self-efficacy Scale both groups exhibit generally positive views of their own efficacy.

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Table 2Academic and Non-academic Self-Efficacy: Comparing Students without learning difficulties

(NLD) with those having Specific Learning Difficulties (SpLD)Students without learning difficulties NLD

Students with Specific Learning DifficultiesSpLD

(n= 167 , 83.1 %) (n= 34 , 16.9 %)Items & Subscales Mean SD Mean SD F-valueHow good are you at ….

1. Learning mathematics 4.33 1.35 3.97 1.55 1.912. Building models from

cardboard or plastic4.13 1.45 4.15 1.79 0.01

3. Learning science 4.72 1.11 4.53 1.38 0.734. Learning a new card game or

board game4.80 1.18 4.44 1.24 2.53

5. Learning Chinese reading skills

4.51 1.19 3.65 1.37 14.09 ***

6. Drawing pictures 4.46 1.53 4.56 1.56 0.117. Learning Chinese writing

skills4.20 1.40 3.77 1.63 2.53

8. Finding things that get lost 4.43 1.37 4.21 1.51 0.719. Learning computer skills 4.92 1.13 4.53 1.66 2.7910. Playing sport 4.78 1.30 5.03 1.11 1.1011.Learning English

conversation skills4.08 1.47 3.24 1.48 9.23 **

12. Repairing toys or models if they get broken

3.78 1.59 4.16 1.75 1.54

13. Learning English spelling skills

4.08 1.43 3.68 1.65 2.12

14. Singing a new song 4.27 1.41 4.09 1.73 0.4115. Learning Putonghua

conversation skills4.03 1.44 3.82 1.53 0.57

16. Chatting with a new classmate

4.81 1.24 4.50 1.71 1.56

Subscales Academic 35.11 6.57 31.18 7.50 9.45 ** Non-academic 35.43 7.07 35.47 7.00 0.00Total score of ANAS 69.60 13.11 66.19 13.45 1.89*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001

DiscussionIt is not surprising to find that the students with SpLD held relatively weaker beliefs than the students without learning problems in the items representing the Academic Self-Efficacy subscale. This finding accords with previous studies suggesting that beliefs about self-efficacy are less positive in students who have experienced much difficulty in school learning (Baum & Owen, 1988; Clever, Bear & Juvomen, 1992; Hampton & Mason, 2003; Schunk & Pajares, 2002; Tabassam & Grainger, 2002). The result is also entirely in keeping with the many studies that have found students with SpLD to have a lower academic self-concept (a concept in which academic self-efficacy is a major dimension) than students who are achieving normally (Zeleke, 2004). By contrast, it is reassuring to note that in this study the students with SpLD were very similar indeed to the NLD students in the way they perceived their own capabilities in non-academic domains.

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The mean scores of the SpLD group are slightly lower than the NLD group in 12 items from the 16 in the scale. However, in only two specific items, as indicated above, did the mean differences between SpLD and NLD students reach statistical significance. From these two items it is clear that students with SpLD in this study perceive themselves less efficacious than NLD students in certain areas of language and literacy in both Chinese and English. This finding accords completely with the very frequently reported weakness among students with learning disabilities across a broad range of language skills (e.g. Lyon, Fletcher, & Barnes, 2003; Silver & Hagin, 2002). The finding also supports the notion that literacy difficulties are evident in Chinese language as well as in English (Hanley & Huang, 1997).

What is surprising in the results from this study is that the SpLD students overall were not reporting very low-level beliefs about their own capabilities. The fact that their group mean scores across all items were above 3.0 on the 6-point scale suggests that the majority of SpLD students held fairly positive perceptions of self-efficacy in both academic and non-academic domains. However, a few of them were less positive in their responses to some items, as reflected in the standard deviations reported in Table 2. The general finding that the majority of the SpLD students have positive self-efficacy beliefs is not in keeping with much of the overseas research evidence that would tend to predict poor self-efficacy in such students.

So the question arises, do primary-school-age Chinese students with SpLD really have stronger self-efficacy beliefs than their counterparts in other cultures? Or did the students in this study simply respond to the questionnaire in a way that would present them in the most positive light in the interview situation? The answer to that question is impossible to determine from the data; but it is true that in Chinese society saving face and not being thought of by others as in any way inadequate is a strong motivating force. For example, a child when faced with the question, How good are you at playing sport? may state that he or she is very good at sport even though the reverse may actually be true. Self-worth theory suggests that most individuals will act in ways to protect their own self-image (Covington, 1992) and this may have influenced children’s responses in this study. A second possibility is that the students with SpLD are not fully aware of their own capabilities (or lack of) and their mainly positive self-evaluations here may actually represent a distorted perception of self, together with a poor judgment of the demands of the particular tasks, skills or performances described in the questionnaire (Klassen, 2002b). Further research involving direct observation of the children in a range of academic and non-academic tasks would be needed to determine if this is the case.

The practical implications from this study relate to improving the literacy skills of the SpLD children in their first language (Chinese) and to enhancing the development of oral performance in their second language (English). This study reveals that students with SpLD hold diminished beliefs concerning their own capabilities in these two key areas compared with the self-efficacy beliefs of students making normal progress. This is easily understandable since lack of success in a particular area of learning almost always undermines an individual’s confidence. Any remedial intervention must seek to increase the students’ self-efficacy by first helping them to experience success and empowerment in their performance in these language areas. This success will only be possible if high quality remedial teaching is available and is delivered with sufficient intensity, precision, and frequency to make a difference to the students’ progress.

In recent years much more attention has been given in the Hong Kong school system to the identification of students with SpLD and to the provision of intensive educational support for them (Education Department, 2002; Hong Kong Specific Learning Difficulties Research Team, 2001). Outside the school system, remedial tuition is also available for students with learning problems through organizations such as Pathways and from private tutors. It is important that all those involved in teaching students with SpLD are aware of the need to enhance students’ own perceptions of self-efficacy, along with improvements in academic attainment. As indicated in the introduction to this paper, strategy training is one of the promising ways of helping students gain greater control and confidence in their own learning — so high quality cognitive instruction for SpLD students should include relevant strategy training as a top priority (Pressley & McCormick, 1995). Another approach that may help to strengthen students’ beliefs concerning self-efficacy is attribution retraining (Cole & Chan, 1990). This method helps students to understand better the causes of their successes and failures in learning, and in particular helps them to appreciate the relationship between their own efforts and positive results they achieve (Westwood, 2004b).

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There are several acknowledged limitations in the present study. First, the sample of SpLD students is relatively small, although large enough to justify statistical analyses. Second, a different adult (teacher, counsellor or research assistant) administered the self-efficacy questionnaire individually to each SpLD student, resulting in possible variations in administration and interpretation. Detailed printed instructions were given to all personnel before implementation to try to standardize the procedure as much as possible, but variations may have occurred. Third, while the reliability of ANASS instrument in terms of internal consistency is very acceptable, the concurrent and predictive validity of the questionnaire are not yet fully established, although the items do appear to have adequate content and construct validity. Finally, and related to the previous point regarding validity, it is still not known if the primary school children in the study gave responses to the questionnaire that present themselves to the interviewer in the best light. This point was discussed in the paper and the need to investigate children’s efficacy and efficacy beliefs in a range of academic and non-academic tasks through direct observational techniques must be emphasized again here.

Further studies are also needed to investigate the results after students with SpLD receive effective remedial teaching, cognitive training and attribution retraining over a significant period of time — does this raise their level of self-efficacy? It will be of interest also to investigate self-efficacy in an older age group — does diminished self-efficacy become a greater problem when SpLD students reach secondary school and become increasingly aware of their failures?

There is also a need to carry out further research work with ANASS to establish concurrent validity by comparing it with other existing scales for measuring self-efficacy, and also to determine its temporal reliability.

Enhancing students’ self-efficacy remains an exciting challenge for all teachers. It is now recognized that effective remedial intervention must address affective factors within the learner as well as attempting to build basic academic skills (Sewell & St George, 1999). What students think about their own capabilities influences their response to academic tasks.

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ARE SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHERS PREPARED TO TEACH THE INCREASING NUMBER OF STUDENTS DIAGNOSED WITH AUTISM?

Vito Loiacono

andBarton Allen

Long Island University

In America, the number of children diagnosed with autism has increased to 1 out of every 150. The current trend in special education appears to support integrated education. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is recognized by many as a very effective instructional methodology in teaching children with autism. Parents are increasingly requesting that special education teachers and general education teachers incorporate ABA into classroom instruction. It is reported that most teachers graduate from colleges with minimum training in evidence-based practices for children diagnosed with autism. Yet, as these children spend more time in integrated and inclusive settings there is a need for well trained and highly qualified teachers in keeping with the spirit of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. This study examines the increase of children diagnosed with autism in the Southeastern region of New York State (NYS) over a five year period (2002-2007); the number of ABA trained teachers in this region to meet the growing instructional demands of these children; and to what extent are randomly selected colleges and universities in NYS offering evidence-based training (ABA) to prospective special educators?

Autism is currently considered the fastest growing developmental disability and is now ranked the 6th

most commonly classified disability in the United States (National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, 2006). The prevalence of autism appears to be increasing as much as 10% to 17% annually and could reach 4 million Americans in the next decade (Autism Society of America, NDa). Recent studies which further support the increasing prevalence of autism were conducted by Newschaffer, Falb, and Gurney (2005), and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as reported in Newsday (p. A48, 2007). According to the Twenty-Second Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, The number of students with disabilities served under IDEA continues to grow at a greater rate than both the resident population and school enrollment (2000, p. xxxiii). Current data suggest that autism or other Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs), such as Asperger’s syndrome and pervasive developmental disorders not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), appear to affect 1 in every 294 births throughout this country (Strock, 2004). In 2006, the National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities reported that between 1 in 500 (2/1,000) to 1 in 166 children (6/1,000) have autism. In February, 2007, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention concluded that the prevalence of autism had risen to 1 out of every 150 American children, and almost 1 in 94 boys. (Autism Society of America, NDb).

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In New York State, as in all states, local educational agencies (LEAs, otherwise known as local school districts) are making genuine attempts to educate all students with disabilities within an integrated (as opposed to segregated) environment. While this initiative is intended to provide all students with disabilities the opportunity to succeed in the least restrictive environment, it is also meant to comply with federal and (New York) state regulations which require LEAs to increase the percent of students with disabilities who are educated in an integrated environment. In addition, the consensus throughout the field of special education appears to identify Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) as the evidenced based research methodology to be utilized in providing instruction to children with autism in integrated environments (Rosenwasser & Axelrod, 2002). In this article, the authors focus on the five year period (2002-2007) as they examine the increase of students with autism in inclusive and self-contained classrooms in integrated environments within the Southeastern region in NYS, and the degree of instructional preparation of special education teachers in the principles of ABA which include:

(a) Discreet Trial Teaching (DTT) (b) Treatment & Education of Autistic and Related Communication-handicapped Children

(TEACCH) (c) Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) (d) Verbal Behavior Intervention (VBI)(e) Picture Exchange Communication Systems (PECS) (f) Incidental Teaching (IT)(g) Social Stories

According to the Autism Society of America (NDc), many of these interventions’ underlying principles are based on ABA, a highly structured and specialized educational program. For purposes of this article, ABA is defined as the process of applying sometimes tentative principles of behavior to the improvement of specific behaviors and simultaneously evaluating whether or not any changes noted are indeed attributable to the process of application (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968, p. 91).The implementation of this process is characterized by discreet presentation of stimuli with responses followed by immediate feedback, an intense schedule of reinforcement, data collection, and systematic trials of instruction (p.125, Schoen, 2003). Three decades of strong empirical evidence have demonstrated the efficacy of ABA methods in the education of children with autism (National Institute of Mental Health, 1999; Heflin & Alaimo, 2007). Among the studies that support its efficacy are those conducted by Repp, Felce, & Barton, 1988; Matson, Sevin, Fridley, & Love, 1990; Adair & Schneider, 1993; Bay-Hinitz, Peterson, & Quilitch, 1994; Davis & Chittum, 1994; Fad, Ross, & Boston, 1995; Belfiore, Skinner, & Ferkis, 1995; Mason & Egel, 1995; Schloss, Alper, Watkins, & Petrechko, 1996; Smith, Groen, & Wynn, 2000; Eikeseth, Smith, Jahr, & Eldevik, 2002; and Sallows & Grauper, 2005. Despite all of this support, Schloss & Smith (1998) reported that ABA methodology is not consistently utilized by teachers. One reason may be due to a lack of training and preparation. According to Rosenwasser & Axelrod (2002), and the Verbal Behavior Institute (ND), the U.S. Surgeon General has reported that children with autism receive optimum classroom instruction when ABA is utilized and implemented. Jacobsen (2000), and Rosenwasser & Axelrod (2002) also note that in comparison to other methodologies ABA maintains the most significant amount of data supporting this claim. However, while ABA is recognized by many as a very effective methodology in teaching children with autism, it is important to understand that various forms of this technique may facilitate, as well as enhance, their successful instructional outcomes, thereby demonstrating that different forms of ABA may be more beneficial than others. The current trend in special education appears to support integrated education. Yet, parents of children with autism, whose children are placed by their respective Committees on Special Education in district based inclusive and self-contained classrooms, are asking (upon advisement from the National Institute of Mental Health) if special educators have received the necessary training and experience to successfully work with children and adolescents with autism? (Strock, 2004). In addition, these parents are increasingly requesting that special education teachers and general education teachers incorporate ABA into classroom instruction (Lerman, Vorndran, Addison, & Kuhn, 2004).

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The National Research Council (2001) has reported that most teachers graduate from colleges or universities receiving minimum to no training in evidence-based research practices for students diagnosed with autism. The National Research Council (2001) also noted that there is a paucity of specialized training in autism in higher education. Yet, the demand for teachers who have expertise in applied behavior analysis will continue to grow as more young children with autism receive the majority of their education in public schools (p. 510, Lerman et al, 2004). In NYS new legislation which took effect on July 1, 2006 now requires special education teachers and school administrators to have coursework or training in the area of autism (ABA or evidenced-based research methodologies are not specifically noted) to be eligible for their respective certifications after February 2, 2007 (New York State Education Department, 2006). Although new and experienced teachers are becoming more aware of diversity in classrooms, they appear to be instructionally challenged in meeting the needs of all students (Friend & Bursuck, 2002). Clearly, teacher training and preparation to work with students with autism would apply to both the special educator and the general educator (Arthaud, Aram, Breck, Doelling, & Bushrow, 2007). Furthermore, meeting the increased demand for services and well-trained practitioners created by heightened public recognition of ABA benefits requires more scalable training programs (p.5, Rosenwasser & Axelrod, 2002). Consequently, it is believed that special education teachers who are trained in ABA methodology will be able to effectively facilitate the instructional process for children with autism and document student outcomes as evidence of learning for parents and school personnel (Alberto & Troutman, 2003). One would therefore expect that special education teachers, in particular, would receive training in ABA as part of their undergraduate or graduate studies to meet the needs of a rapidly growing population of children with autism within our community schools. We believe this training would qualify them as highly qualified teachers and meet the spirit of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Needless to say, educating students with autism presents a challenge for parents and special educators as well as general educators. According to Lerman et al., (2004) efforts to transfer findings on autism into public schools would benefit from further evaluation of teacher preparation models. Therefore, undergraduate and graduate school teacher training programs have been scrutinized to determine if any offer a course in ABA to their prospective special education teachers to ensure that evidenced based training to work with students classified with autism is indeed occurring. This article first addresses the concern of increasing numbers of children diagnosed with autism by examining the New York State Pupil with Disabilities Data System (PD-1/4) over five school years (2002-2007), within eighteen school districts in the Southeastern region of New York State (NYS). The PD-1/4 data are submitted annually by public school districts to report the number of students with disabilities who are provided special education in regular school-based programs and in special settings. This information is submitted by the school districts to their respective BOCES (considered an extension of the local constituent districts) who in turn compile all the information and then send it to the State Education Department for review and analysis. Specifically, the data will support or refute the position that children diagnosed with autism are increasing in numbers within integrated school environments over the five year period. In addition, the same eighteen school districts within the Southeastern region in NYS were again selected to respond to the following two questions:

(a) How many special education teachers does your school district currently employ?(b) How many of these special educators took a course in ABA as either an undergraduate or

graduate student or received district in-service training in ABA? Finally, for purposes of this study, the authors randomly surveyed thirty (30) four-year undergraduate colleges and universities in urban, suburban, and rural communities, as well as graduate schools throughout NYS to determine which schools either required or offered prospective special education teachers the opportunity to take a course in ABA. For those colleges and universities that did not require or offer prospective special educators the opportunity to take an ABA course, the question was then asked if they had future plans to offer ABA to their prospective special education teachers.

Findings:The results of the PD1/4 data over the five year period (2002-2007), within the eighteen school districts in the Southeastern region of NYS, are noted in Table I. Clearly, the number of students classified with autism increased in this region from 218 in 2002 to 687 in 2007. This represents an increase of students

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with autism collectively by 212% over the five year period. As the authors examined the increase by district they noted that each of the eighteen districts increased in numbers and that the increase ranged from 33% to 560% during the five year period. These numbers appear to support the research cited earlier stating that the prevalence of autism appears to be increasing by 10% to 17% annually. Table I

Number of Autistic Children

LEAs 2002 2007LEA1 2 19LEA2 5 22LEA3 1 15LEA4 11 40LEA5 3 12LEA6 5 28LEA7 4 17LEA8 42 144LEA9 7 26LEA10 24 37LEA11 11 42LEA12 18 43LEA13 15 34LEA14 18 56LEA15 18 60LEA16 32 70LEA17 1 17LEA18 1 5

Totals 218 687 One reason for this increase may be due to the exemplary reputation of many of the eighteen districts relative to their educational offerings for students with disabilities. While a specific number is unavailable, one might ask how many families of children with autism relocated to this region, by district, because of the superlative educational programs for children diagnosed with autism. Although this factor alone would not explain the significant increase in numbers of children with autism over the five year period (2002-2007), it may be a part of the explanation for this dramatic increase in addition to hereditary and environmental factors. Nevertheless, given the significant increase of children with autism in this region, the question remains, Are Special Education Teachers Prepared To Teach The Increasing Number Of Students Diagnosed With Autism? Within the southeastern region of NYS sixteen of the eighteen districts responded to both questions in this survey. The two districts who did not respond offered no explanation for not participating. The results of this survey, which are noted in Table II, clearly indicate that 11.24% of the special education teachers have received ABA training and would be considered to be prepared to teach children with autism while 88.76% have not received ABA training, and therefore would be considered unprepared based upon the research to teach children with autism, although all are certified by New York State to provide instruction to this population. Seven of the sixteen districts who responded to the survey have more than 10% of their special education teachers trained in ABA while the remaining nine districts have less than 10% trained in ABA. Despite the efforts that the LEAs are putting forth relative to staff development it appears that colleges and universities, on both the undergraduate and graduate levels, are falling short of their responsibilities to adequately train prospective special education teachers to work with students with autism. Table II

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Percentage of ABA Teachers to SPD Teachers

LEA

Total Special Education Teachers

Special Education Teachers Trained in ABA Methodology

Overall % of SPD Teachers trained

in ABALEA1 50 15 30LEA2 - - -LEA3 - - -LEA4 80 5 6.25LEA5 37 0 0LEA6 70 8 11.4LEA7 18 8 44.4LEA8 112 6 5.36LEA9 45 15 33.3LEA10 52 5 9.62LEA11 40 2 0.05LEA12 85 10 11.8LEA13 65 6 9.23LEA14 72 16 22.2LEA15 105 6 5.71LEA16 100 4 4LEA17 55 6 10.9LEA18 28 2 7.14

TOTAL 1014 114 11.24

In addition, while many of the eighteen districts have been offering and continue to offer in-service workshops and staff development opportunities to special education teachers in ABA it is believed that very few general education teachers are participating in such training sessions. It would appear that the eighteen districts in the Southeastern region of NYS must continue their diligent efforts to train all of their special education teachers working with children diagnosed with autism, and begin to include general education teachers who are or will be working with these students in inclusive settings. Incentives such as in-service credit or accrual of additional personal time could motivate and/or encourage special education teachers as well as general education teachers to participate in future ABA workshops. Collective bargaining units, in conjunction with LEAs, could foster positive collaborative efforts on behalf of children with autism, especially those in inclusive settings, thus yielding meaningful and measurable instructional outcomes. Finally, in randomly calling and speaking to representatives from thirty NYS colleges and universities the responses in Table III clearly indicate that only six of the thirty schools of education offer an ABA course to their prospective special education teachers on the undergraduate or graduate level. Specifically, 25% of the colleges and universities in urban settings responded affirmatively to offering an ABA course to their prospective special education teachers while 22% of the suburban colleges and universities also responded affirmatively. No rural colleges or universities responded affirmatively in offering ABA to their prospective special education teachers. Therefore, 75% of the urban setting schools and 78% of the suburban setting schools reported that they do not offer their prospective special education teachers coursework or training in ABA methodology. While rural setting colleges and universities suggested they had no plans in the future to offer ABA coursework to their students, several urban and suburban setting schools did indicate that they were contemplating such an offering as early as next semester or in the future. Based on the results of the survey in Table III 80% of special education teachers who graduated from the randomly selected colleges and universities received no pedagogical training or instruction in ABA, and therefore would appear to be lacking in their professional preparation of evidence based research

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practices to teach students with autism. Given the significant increase in the prevalence of children with autism in the Southeastern region of NYS, as well as across the nation, more special education teachers need to receive training in ABA, or variations of this evidenced-based practice, at the collegiate and university levels to effectively teach students with autism both in self-contained and inclusive settings. Table III

Offer ABA Plan to Offer ABAYes No Yes No

Urban Colleges/Universities 4/16 12/16 7/16 9/16

Suburban Colleges/Universities 2/9 7/9 4/9 5/9

Rural Colleges/Universities 0/5 5/5 0/5 5/5

Final Thoughts:No Child Left Behind of 2001 requires evidence based research practices to be implemented within our instructional settings, yet higher education does not appear to be adequately preparing prospective special education teachers to meet the instructional challenges of working with the increasing number of children diagnosed with autism in either integrated or segregated settings. Therefore, a significant collaborative effort between and among colleges, universities, and LEAs should and ought to be convened, to begin necessary and urgent discussions, to brainstorm avenues on how to better prepare our special education teachers in their endeavors to provide pedagogical excellence, on a statewide level, to school aged children diagnosed with autism. General education teachers, who partner with special education teachers in inclusive settings, should also be included in the statewide teacher preparation discussions to further enhance their teaching skills and knowledge of special education strategies and ABA that would facilitate instruction in inclusive classrooms. Further research is suggested to determine if other LEAs in different regions in New York State or elsewhere have found an increase, comparable to the Southeastern region in NYS, in the number of school-age children diagnosed with autism. In addition, the authors also recommend that special education teachers and general education teachers who have received undergraduate or graduate training in ABA, as well as those who have participated in in-district ABA in-service training workshops in other NYS regions as well as in other states, be assessed and evaluated by their respective LEAs and reputably trained university personnel to determine what percent are in fact professionally prepared to teach children with autism. This information would prove to be important to colleges and universities as they embark on augmenting the preparatory programs for special education teachers who will one day provide pedagogical services to children diagnosed with autism. This study would also provide further evidence either supporting or not supporting the empirical evidence which suggests that children diagnosed with autism learn best when provided with the ABA methodology of instruction from well trained special education teachers. Finally, a more in-depth survey of colleges and universities should be undertaken to determine what efforts are being considered to improve the training of special education teachers, and perhaps the general education teacher, in ABA. In addition, it would be of interest to research why there are differences, in particular, between rural and urban or suburban NYS schools of higher learning relative to their preparation of prospective special education teachers.

ReferencesAdair, G., & Schneider, L. (1993). Banking on learning: An incentive system for adolescents in the resource room. Teaching Exceptional Children, 25, 30-34.Alberto, P., & Troutman, A. (2003). Applied behavior analysis for teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.Arthaud, T., Aram, R., Breck, S., Doelling, J., & Bushrow, K. (2007). Developing collaboration skills in pre-service teachers: A partnership between general and special education. Teacher Education and Special Education, 30, 1-2.Autism Society of America. (NDa). Retrieved October 20, 2006, from http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServerAutism Society of America. (NDb). Retrieved March 3, 2008, from http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_home

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Autism Society of America. (NDc). Retrieved September 22, 2006, from http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServer?pagename=LearningApproachesBaer, M., Wolf, M., & Risley, R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.Bay-Hinitz, K., Peterson, F., & Quilitch, R. (1994). Cooperative games: A way to modify aggressive and cooperative behaviors in young children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 435-446.Belfiore, J., Skinner, H., & Ferkis, A. (1995). Effects of response and trial repetition on sight-word training for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 347-348.Davis, K., & Chittum, R. (1994). A group oriented contingency to increase leisure activities of adults with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 553-554.Eikeseth, S., Smith, T., Jahr, E., & Eldevik, E. (2002). Intensive behavioral treatment at school for 4- to 7- year old children with autism: A 1 year comparison controlled study. Behavior Modification, 26, 49-68.Fad, S., Ross, M., & Boston, J. (1995). We’re better together: Using cooperative learning to teach social skills to young children. Teaching Exceptional Children, 27, 28-34.Friend, M., & Bursuck, W. (2002). Including students with special needs. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Heflin, L., & Alaimo, D. (2007). Students with autism spectrum disorders. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.Jacobson, J. (2000). Early intensive behavioral interventions: Emergence of a consumer-driven service model. The Behavior Analyst, 23, 141-171.Lerman, D., Vorndran, C., Addison, L., & Kuhn, C. (2004). Preparing teachers in evidence-based practices for young children with autism. School Psychology Review, 33, 510-526.Mason, A., & Egel, L. (1995). What does Amy like? Using a mini-reinforcer assessment to increase student participation in instructional activities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 28, 42-45.Matson, L., Sevin, A., Fridley, D., & Love, R. (1990). Increasing spontaneous language in three autistic children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 23, 227-233.National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities. (2006). How Common are autism spectrum disorders (ASD)? Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 22, 2006, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/asd_common.htmNational Research Council (2001). Educating Children with Autism. Committee on Educational Interventions for Children with Autism. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Newschaffer, C., Falb, M., & Gurney, J. (2005). National autism prevalence trends from United States special education data. Pediatrics, 115, 277-282.Newsday (2007, January 9). Gov’t: Autism prevalent. A48. New York State Education Department (2006, August 14). New legislation regarding coursework in autism. Memorandum of the New York State Education Department, Office of Quality Assurance, Albany, NY. No child left behind: A desktop reference. (2002). Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education. Repp, C., Felce, D., & Barton, E. (1988). Basing the treatment of stereotypic and self-injurious behaviors on hypotheses of their causes. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 21, 281-289. Rosenwasser, B., & Axelrod, S. (2002). More contributions of applied behavior analysis to the education of people with autism. Behavior Modification, 26, 3-8.Sallows, G., & Grauper, T. (2005). Intensive behavior treatment for children with autism: Four-year outcome and predictors. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 110, 417-438.Schloss, J., Alper, S., Watkins, C., & Petrechko, L. (1996). I can cook: A template for teaching meal-preparation skills. Teaching Exceptional Children, 28, 39-42.Schloss, P., & Smith, M. (1998). Applied behavior analysis in the classroom.Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Schoen, A. (2003). What potential does the applied behavior analysis approach have for the treatment of children and youth with autism? Journal of Instructional Psychology, 30, 125-130. Smith, T., Groen, A., & Wynn, J. (2000). Randomized trial of intensive early intervention for children with pervasive developmental disorder. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 105, 269-285.Strock, M. (2004). Autism spectrum disorders (pervasive developmental disorders)National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Publication No. 04-5511. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.Retrieved October 4, 2006, from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/autism.cfm

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U.S. Department of Education. (2000). Executive Summary--Twenty-Second Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Retrieved October 27, 2006, from http://www.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep/2000/preface.doc

Verbal Behavior Institute. (nd). Applied behavior analysis – Verbal Behavior Institute. Retrieved October 9, 2006, from http://www.verbalbehaviorinstitute.com/?

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TRAINING PATTERNS OF WHEELCHAIR BASKETBALL PLAYERS IN TURKEY

Yasar TatarMarmara University

The aim of this study was to analyze technical drills, warm-up and cool-down exercises used by wheelchair basketball players of the Turkish league in relation to training sessions. 33 male wheelchair basketball players participated in the study (mean age 26.6±5,95 years).All players reported that they used warm-up exercises before the training, but only 20% used cool-down exercises after the training session. 60,6% of the participants trained 3-5 hours in a week, while 87,9% trained at 2 days of a week.None of the players used special equipment for improvement of flexibility, strength and endurance. Some players and teams reported that they had technical-tactical drills in the training. Generally the training consisted of a short warm-up and technique drills followed by a match.In conclusion, training intensity, technical-tactic drills and conditioning exercises in the training session of the players in the Turkish wheelchair leagues did not met the relevant recommendations.

Wheelchair basketball is a sport which is gaining popularity among persons with disabilities all around the world, as well as in Turkey. This increase in the number of players has raised concern about training issues and related problems. An additional problem in Turkey is the insufficient number of qualified trainers of wheelchair basketball.

A total of 38 wheelchair basketball teams take part in the Turkish leagues, and seven of these teams are from Istanbul. In Turkey there are about 900 registered, and about 500 active athletes with a disability. The majority of them participate in wheelchair basketball. The aim of this study was to analyze technical drills, warm-up and cool-down exercises used by wheelchair basketball players of the first and second division of the Turkish league in relation to training sessions.

Regardless of age, gender, and medical history, most wheelchair users can derive benefits from appropriately designed exercise programs. Well-established principles of specificity and overload should be followed to obtain the desired results in an efficient manner (Glaser & Davis, 1989; DePauw & Gavron, 1995). The training program for persons with disabilities should comprise the five major motor abilities which are endurance, flexibility, coordination, strength, and speed (Kelley & Freiden, 1980; International Coordinating Comittee of World Sports Organisations for the Disabled, 1986; DePauw & Gawron, 1995; Knechtle & Köpfli, 2001).

In this context warm-up and cool down exercise should be included in the training program, both for their positive effects on physiological systems and for prevention of injuries (Kelley &Freiden 1980; Owen, 1982; Labanowich, 1998; Green, 1999).

Owen (1982) divides the training season for wheelchair basketball into two distinct periods which are training before and training during the competitive season Some researcher use a more elaborated training program which comprise of the preseason or preparatory phase; the season/competitive phase; and postseason (Sharley, 1990). The intensity and type of training should be determined separately for each training phase according the demands of wheelchair basketball.

Pre-season exercises focus on strength development of specific muscle groups, actions, and energy systems (Green, 1999). Providing that athletes do not forget fundamentals nor get into bad habits,

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running up and down the court playing fast break basketball, is regarded an excellent way to condition the player for the season to follow (Owen 1982). Strength, endurance, flexibility and speed performance can be enhanced by technical-tactical play drills. But wheelchair basketball trainers should also include special exercises beside these drills in their training program to enhance the condition of their players: weight training, speed training; endurance training; and exercises for special muscle groups. Developing offensive and defensive skills aids to conditioning (Kelley & Freiden, 1980; Owen, 1982; Green, 1999). Sprints, repeated often enough to improve your wheelchair handling and supervised weight training to help improve the strength of muscle groups used in wheelchair basketball should be dispersed in the training both before and during the competitive season (Kelley & Freiden, 1980; Owen, 1982; Green, 1999).

During the competitive season athletes will need to work more on sprints and drills that emphasize speed over short distance (from 50-100 feet). Frequent repetitions at different speed and endurance challenges are a fundamental of wheelchair basketball. Most in-season conditioning is gained from participation in vigorous drills at team practices (Owen, 1982).

Fundamental wheelchair basketball skills to be trained intensively include dribbling, bounce-stop, bounce spin, catching, shot and lay-up (ICC-WSOD, 1986; Gutmann (as cited in Yilla, 1997); Labonowich, 1998; Zwakhoven, Evaggelinou, Daly, & Vanlandewicjck, 2003; Davis & Sherrill 2004). Shooting performance, especially for free throws, is crucial in wheelchair basketball. The players individual performance depends to a great extent on his scoring performance by accurate shooting. Therefore it is of vital importance that shooting skills are improved by training from different positions using variable techniques. (Owen, 1982; Gutmann (as cited in Yilla, 1997); Malone, Nielsen, & Steadward, 2000; Goosey-Tolfrey, Morriss, & Butterworth, 2002; Malone, Gervais, & Steadward, 2002; Nunome, Doyo, Sakurai, Ikegmai, & Yabe, 2002; Zwakhoven et al. 2003; Davis & Sherrill 2004).

Method33 players of the Turkish wheelchair basketball leagues (age mean 26.6±5,95 year) participated in the study. They were asked 2 open-end, and 27 closed-end questions. In addition to the written questions, the participants were asked whether they used any other training methods or exercises.Educational level (table 1), wheelchair basketball classification score (table 2), and some demographic data (table 3) of the participators are listed below:,

Table 1Educational level of participants

Educational level Frequency PercentPrimary-secondary school 15 45,5

High School 15 45,5Faculty 2 6,1

Post-graduate 1 3,0Total 33 100,0

Table2Wheelchair basketball classification score of the participants

Classification score Frequency Percent 1,50 4 12,12,00 6 18,22,50 3 9,13,00 8 24,23,50 2 6,1

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4,00 8 24,24,50 2 6,1

Total 33 100,0

Table 3Some demographic data of participants

Demographic data Frequency Percent 1- Kind of Medical Problem Polio-survivors 20 60,6 Persons with spinal cord injury 8 24,2 Persons with amputation 5 15,2 2- Emergence of the medical problem Congenital 4 12,1 Acquired 28 87,9 3-Daily use of wheelchair other than for sports Yes 3 9,1 No 20 60,6 Sometimes 10 30,3 4- Participation in sports other than wheelchair basketball No 19 57,6 Track and field 7 21,2 Table tennis 4 12,1 Table tennis and swimming 1 3 Volleyball 1 3 Swimming 1 3

ResultsThe findings of the participants are listed below (table 4, table 5):

Table 4Quantitative Training parameters of the wheelchair basketball players

Training parameters Frequency Percent1- Duration of participation in wheelchair basketballLess than 1 year 2 6,11-3 years 9 27,33-5 years 6 18,2More than 5 years 16 48,52- Duration of participation in regularly wheelchair basketball trainingLess than 1 year 4 12,11-3 years 13 39,43-5 years 3 9,1More than 5 years 13 39,43- Training days per week2 days per week 29 87,93 days per week 4 12,14- Training hours per week1-3 hours per week 7 21,23-5 hours per week 20 60,65-7 hours per week 6 18,2

Table 5Training patterns of participants

Training patterns Frequency Percent 1- Do you warm-up before exercise Yes 33 100,02- Do you cool-down after exerciseYes 6 18,2

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No 27 81,83-Tour around the court with wheelchair every time 26 78,8 Sometimes 7 21,2 4- Basic stretching and flexibility exercises on the wheelchair every time 23 69,7 Sometimes 10 30,3 5-Basic stretching and flexibility exercises on the floor every time 3 9,1 Sometimes 2 6,1 Never 28 84,8 6- Speed competition with wheelchair on the court every time 15 45,5 Sometimes 16 48,5 Never 2 6,0 7- Drills on passing with both hands every time 26 78,8 Sometimes 6 18,2 Never 1 3,0 8- Drills on passing with one hand every time 15 45,5 Sometimes 18 54,5 9-Bouncing pass drills Every time 17 51,5 Sometimes 15 45,5 Never 1 3,0 10- Drills on picking the ball off the floor Every time 24 72,7 Sometimes 9 27,3 11- Bounce stop drills every time 13 39,4 Sometimes 20 60,6 12- Dribbling drills every time 14 42,4 Sometimes 18 54,5 Never 1 3,0 13- Drills on two handed basket shooting Every time 16 48,5 Sometimes 11 33,3 Never 6 18,2 14- Drills on one handed basket shooting Every time 22 66,7 Sometimes 10 30,3 Never 1 3,0 15- Free throw shooting drills Every time 16 48,5 Sometimes 11 33,3 Never 6 18,2 16- Hook shot drills Every time 5 15,2 Sometimes 22 66,7 Never 6 18,2 17- Long distance shooting drills Every time 11 33,3 Sometimes 16 48,5 Never 6 18,2

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DiscussionThe study group consisted of wheelchair basketball players of the Turkish first and second league. The participants had disabilities due to poliomyelitis, spinal cord injury and limb amputation. This constellation of the study group is in accordance with the literature. (Nyland, Robinson, Caborn, Knapp, & Brosky, 1997; Burnham, Tuchak, Laskin, & Steadward, 1998). Although persons with spina bifida are well suited for wheelchair sports (Sherrill, 2004), there were no such participants in this study group. This may be due to the fact that shunt operation of persons with spina bifida has been conducted in Turkey only in the recent past. Thus, the number of wheelchair athletes in Turkey is expected to rise in the future.

70% of the study participants were polio survivors, which reflects the distribution in the Turkish leagues accurately. This high number is clearly a result of the fact that in Turkey many polio survivors exist in the age group 25-40 years. Polio survivors are different from persons with spinal cord injury, because they have no sensorial loss. Interestingly, this may produce an advantage in wheelchair basketball. (Agre & Rodriquez, 1991; Agre, Rodriquez, & Franke, 1997; Klein, Whyte, Keenan, Esquenazi, & Polansky, 2000; DiRocco, 1995; Sherrill, 2004). In the near future the number of Turkish persons with poliomyelitis is expected to decrease due to a nationwide vaccination program; and the number of persons with spinal cord injury and amputation is expected to increase due to traffic accidents. Such an evolution will inevitable be reflected in the participants of the Turkish Wheelchair Basketball Leagues. Some clubs have tried to gather players with identical etiology, but they were not successful.

Although most of the wheelchair basketball players participated in competitive play for longer than three years, the duration of their participation in regular training was less than three years. This finding is easily explained by the fact that due to the low number of the participants, some clubs were forced to integrate the players who may not have participate in regular training sessions.

The training load of wheelchair basketball players were clearly reduced due to inadequacy of sports and training facilities. Neither medical nor physical conditions were considered in the training programs. This led to the situation that most of the players could not train more than twice per week. For enhancing cardiopulmonary fitness in wheelchair sports, exercise sessions should occur 2-5 times per week (McArdle, Katch, & Katch, 1991; Davis & Ferrara, 1995; Stopka,1996-a; Horning, 2001) De Pauw & Gavron, (1995) suggested that for a successful training regime in elite athletes with disabilities a training frequency of 5-6 days per week is necessary. Labonowich (1998) recommended that for wheelchair basketball players each training session should last 2-3 hours with a total of at least 4-6 hours per week. Yilla (1997) has reported that the 1996 USA Men’s Paralympic Wheelchair Basketball Team trained 8.20±4,91 hours per week for skill and 8.66±4,79 hours per week for fitness. Most of the participants in the present study did not reach this required level of training load. This would imply that the Turkish wheelchair basketball players were insufficiently trained.

The well known principle that the training load must be varied according to the phase of the season (pre-season, season and post-season) was violated in this study group (Kelley, & Freiden, 1980; Owen, 1982; Sharley, 1990; Green, 1999) Only few players trained before the season; most of the players started training a short time prior to the start of the season (3-4 weeks). This situation had adverse effects on performance and increased the incidence of injuries (Owen, 1982; Stopka, 1996-b; Green, 1999).

All players used warm-up exercises before the training, but most of them did not use cool-down exercises after the training session. It is obvious that this habit will have a negative impact both on health and performance of the players. (Owen, 1982; Green, 1999)

Only 2/3 of the participants in this study reported that they used basic stretching and flexibility exercises on the wheelchair. The non-systematic nature of this training will inevitable lead to lower performance and increase of incidence of injuries (Kelley & Freiden, 1980; Owen, 1982; Stopka, 1996-b; Green, 1999). None of the players used weight room training for the improvement of flexibility, strength and endurance as it has been advised by many authors (Kelley & Freiden, 1980; Davis, Kofsky, Kelsey, & Shephard, 1981; Owen 1982; Davis & Shephard, 1990; McArdle, et al. 1991; Laskowski, 1994; O’Connell & Barnhart, 1995; Fallon 1995; Stopka, 1996-a; Stopka, 1996-b; Green, 1999; Horning, 2001; Billow, 2001; Rodgers, Keyser, Rasch, Gorman, & Russell, 2001; Horvat, Eichstaedt, Kalakain, & Croce, 2003; Keyser, Rasch, Finley, & Rodgers, 2003).

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Most of the participants were polio survivors. Some researchers suggested that due to the post-polio syndrome and the associated loss of strength, these athletes would have less benefit from exercise and training (Peach, 1990; Sherrill, 2004). Other authors rejected this view and advised strength training for all (Agre & Rodriquez, 1991; Agre et al. 1997; Klein et al., 2000) or only for not affected muscle groups (Di Rocco (1995). In wheelchair basketball, the players need especially upper extremity and trunk strength. Since in all of the polio survivors of this study only the lower extremities were affected, it can be suggested that they engage in wheelchair basketball related resistance exercises. This also holds also true for endurance training.

Speed competitions on the court have also been advised for endurance training (Kelley & Freiden, 1980; Owen 1982; Labonowich, 1998). In this study only half of the participants reported that they performed such activities every time. This finding indicates that the participants did not use these exercises adequately for enhancing endurance.

Passing is a fundamental skill and should be incorporated in the training program (Kelley & Freiden, 1980; Owen 1982; ICC-WSOD, 1986; Labonowich, 1998; Zwakhoven et al, 2003; Davis & Sherrill 2004). The participants in this study reported a high rate of training exercises for passing; these consisted of passing with one hand, with both hands and bouncing passes. We think that passing is adequately trained.

Shooting baskets, free throws and hook shots are regarded as fundamental skills (Kelley & Freiden, 1980; Owen, 1982; ICC-WSOD, 1986; Gutmann (as cited in Yilla, 1997); Labonowich, 1998; Green, 1999; Malone et al. 2000; Nunome et al. 2002; Malone et al. 2002; Zwakhoven et al. 2003; Schwark, Mackenzie & Sprigings, 2004; Davis & Sherrill, 2004), but these were trained at varying frequencies. As the training did not include these exercises every time, it can be concluded that this inadequacy could negatively influence scoring in the match.

In the first five weeks of the 2003-2004 season, the 38 teams of Turkish wheelchair basketball leagues had a mean score of 56,43 ± 26,2 per match. One very strong team of the first division (mean score 126,2) raised the mean score of the whole group. It can be concluded that both the low training frequency and technical-tactical training deficiencies resulted in the overall low scoring.

One other fundamental skill of wheelchair basketball is picking the ball off the floor (Brasile, 1986; Zwakhoven, et al. 2003; Davis & Sherrill, 2004; Sherrill, 2004), which is also an important item of classification Nevertheless, only half of the participant in this study reported that they used this exercise in the training, which is obviously not sufficient.

Although dribbling was not practiced every time as it has been recommended in the literature (Kelley & Freiden, 1980; Owen, 1982; ICC-WSOD, 1986; Green, 1999; Gutmann (as cited in Yilla, 1997); Labanowich, 1998; Zwakhoven, 2003; Davis & Sherrill, 2004), it was nevertheless very frequently integrated in the training which is felt to be sufficient. Touring on the court was practiced with high frequency, which has been recommended by many authors (Kelley & Freiden, 1980; Owen, 1982; Labonowich, 1998; Green, 1999).

The ability to fall and climb back on the wheelchair in an appropriate manner without help prevents injuries and is crucial for the progress of the game (Owen, 1982; ICC-WSOD, 1986). It was noticed that the players did not much knowledge or practice on this issue.

All of the players completed the training with a match as has been recommended by Labonowich (1998). Some teams also integrated technical drills and exercises, but generally after a short warm-up, a match completed the training.

Most of the players in this study ranged between 3 and 4 points according to the wheelchair basketball classification system. This is indicative of sufficient muscular strength to acquire match skills. Players with 4.5 points are able to play only when they possess extraordinary game skills. The upper limit of total 14 points facilitates the incorporation of players with low-moderate classification scores and sufficient skills into the team. Regarding Turkey it should be emphasized that the constitution of wheelchair basketball teams is based on clubs and societies for persons with disabilities. In this context

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persons with a potential for 4.5 points in wheelchair basketball tend to socialize more in the general population. The classification scores of the players will inevitable influence stability, fundamental and match skills like shooting performance. It is recommended that special exercises and skills should be integrated in the training to improve these skills in relation to the classification points. (Malone, 1999; Goosey et al 2002; Malone et al 2002; Vanlandewijck et al 2003). The participants in this study reported that they had no special training according to their classification scores. This result implies that players especially with low scores will experience difficulties in wheelchair and ball handling.

De Pauw & Gavron (1995) advised that trainers of wheelchair basketball need more formal education in workshops or certification routes. In Turkey the situation is worse, because there is indeed lack of qualified trainers with sports or training education in wheelchair basketball. Although there was some improvement on this issue, it continues to represent a major obstacle for the development of wheelchair basketball in Turkey. The players need more scientific based assistance for all training processes.

In conclusion the findings that training hours and days were not sufficient, endurance exercises were not emphasized, no special training programs existed in relation to classification scores or individual handicaps, cool-down was not performed after the training, no period specific training was instituted before, during and after the season, some technical drills and exercises were not practiced adequately, and most of the trainers had no adequate education were all factors that negatively influenced development, performance and health of Turkish wheelchair players..

References:Agre, J.C. & Rodriquez, A.A. (1991). Neuromuscular function in polio survivors at one-year follow-up. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 72, 7-10.Agre, J.C., Rodriquez, A.A. & Franke, T.M. (1997). Strength, endurance, and work capacity after muscle strengthening exercises in postpolio subjects. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 78(7), 681-686.Billow, M.F., Horstmann, H.T., Niess, M.F., Rocker, K. & Dickhuth, H.H. (1995). Muscular fatigue, maximum strength and stress reactions of the shoulder musculature in parapalegics. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 20(7), 487-493.Brasile, F.M. (1986). Wheelchair basketball skills proficiencies versus disability classification. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 3(1), 6-13.Burnham, R., Tuchak, C., Laskin, J. & Steadward, R. (1998). Heart rate, thermoregulation, and fluid balance among elite wheelchair basketball players. Palaestra, 14(2), 28-32Davis, G.M. & Shephard, R.J. (1990). Strength training for wheelchair users. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 24(1), 25-30.Davis, G.M., Kofsky P.R., Kelsey, J.C. & Shephard, R.J. (1981). Cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular strength of wheelchair users. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 125(12), 1317-1323.Davis, R.W. & Ferrara, M.S. (1995). Sports medicine and athletes with disabilities. In K.P. DePauw, & S.J. Gavron, (eds.), Disability and sport. (pp 133-149). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Davis, R.W.& Sherrill, C. (2004). Sports recreation and competition: Socialization instruction, and transition. In C. Sherrill (Ed.), Adapted Physical Activity, Recreation, and Sport (pp.413-440, sixth Ed.). New York: McGrawHill.DePauw, K. P. & Gavron, S. J. (1995). Disability and sport. Champaign, IL: Human KineticsDiRocco, P.J. (1995). Physical disabilities: general characteristics and exercise implications. In P.D. Miller (Ed.), Fitness Programming and Physical Disability (pp. 11-34). Champaign: Human Kinetics.Fallon, K.E. (1995). The Disabled Athlete. In J., Bloomfield, P.A. Friecker & K.D., Fitch (eds.), Science and Medicine in Sport (pp 550-575). Carlton Australia: Blackwell Science. Glaser, R.M. & Davis G.M. (1989). Wheelchair-dependent individuals. In B.A. Franklin, S. Gordon & G.C. Timmis (eds.), Exercise in modern medicine. (pp 237-267). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins Co. Goosey-Tolfrey, V.L., Morriss, C. & Butterworth, D. (2002). Free throw shooting technique of male wheelchair basketball players. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 19, 238-250Green, S. (1999). Specific Exercise Programs In D.A. Apple (ed.), Physical Fitness: A Guide for Individuals with Spinal Cord Injury. (pp 45-96). Department of Veterans Affairs- Veteran Health Administration. retrieved, from : http://www.vard.org/mono/sci/scigreen.htm Horning, A. (2001, summer). Weight training for wheelchair users. Accent on Living. 46(1), 30-34, Retrieved August 10, 2004, from Academic Search Premier database.

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TEACHING STUDENTS ABOUT THEIR DISABILITIES:INCREASING SELF-DETERMINATION SKILLS AND SELF-CONCEPT

Gloria D. Campbell-Whatley University of North Carolina at Charlotte

The purpose of this research is to report the results of a pilot study that examined changes in self-awareness and self-concept. Seven self-determination lessons were implemented with 13 elementary, middle and high schoolers with disabilities in learning (i.e., learning disabilities and mild mental impairments). The lessons focused on teaching students about their disability through self-awareness training, self-exploration, problem solving, self-concept and coping skills. Results revealed that students demonstrated significant changes in self-concept on the Piers Harris Self-Concept Scale using a pretest-postest design. Because pre-test-postest designs pose a threat to internal validity, teacher observation and recordings demonstrated that students exhibited increased selected skills in self-awareness.

Self-Determination is a combination of skills that facilitate self-regulated and goal directed behaviors. The skills interconnected to self-determination are multifaceted. To be determined is the ability to maneuver and process several interrelated dimensions of self: a) awareness (knowing), b) self -concept (perception), c) advocacy (support), d) realization (understanding), e) self-esteem (respect), f) acceptance (approval ), g) empowerment (authority), h) reflection (image), i) control (management), and j) regulation (adjustment). In other words, students who are aware, understand, have a good image, and approve of themselves are more likely to have positive perception of self, will be able to mange and adjust to their environment. The self-determined student is able to set goals and exhibit self-control by responding to events in an independent, empowered, and self-realized manner (Wehmeyer, Argan, & Hughes, 2000).

Students taught appropriate self-determination related strategies, learn to serve as their own support system, while having greater control over their choices, behavior and lives. Generally, students with higher self-determined behaviors achieve better in school, have more positive adult outcomes and have stronger goal setting and self-assessment behaviors (Martin, Mithaug, Cox, Peterson, Van Dycke, & Cash, 2003). When students find that they are able to examine and determine their life path by exploring their strengths and weakness, they feel empowered and generally show signs of an elevated self-esteem and self-concept (Abrams & Brown, 1989; Flitton & Buckroyd, 2005; Meunier, 1990). Accordingly, self-concept can be altered and a change in perspective affects the general attitude of a student (Hiemstra & Brockett, 1994). Interventions that have a positive effect on one’s self concept include activities that encourage positive self-reflection and active and concrete self-determined behaviors (Algozzine, Browder, Karvonen, Test, & Wood, 2001; Owens, Mortimer, & Finch, 1996; Pocock, Lambros, Karvonen, Test, Algozzine, & Wood, 2002).

Not everyone has the ability to engage in self-examination skills of this sort, on their own. Students with disabilities in learning have to work hard to develop competencies to self-examine and develop skills that strengthen self-concept (Cameron & Mills, 1995; Flitton & Buckroyd, 2005). Many times they want to master these skills, but are unable to do so without the guidance of teachers. Essential to students is an understanding of their strengths and limitations, while having an awareness of their inner capabilities (Cameron & Mills, 1995; Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, & Wehmeyer, 1998; Trainor, 2005; Whitney-Thomas & Moloney, 2001). Just as any other learner, students with disabilities in learning must act on their decisions and learn from the outcomes. How students respond to teaching and how they react to success and failure is determined by the attitudes and beliefs they have about themselves.

The question becomes, how can students with disabilities in learning be taught to exhibit goal-directed, self-regulated, confident behaviors while responding positively to the environment, if they have don’t have a clear idea of what they can accomplish. Teaching self-determination systematically to learners, support the premise that these skills be pursued as tenaciously as any other credible skill taught to students with disabilities (Argan, Snow, & Swaner, 1999; Browder, Wood, Test, Algozzine, & Karvonen, 2001; Field, 1996; Field & Hoffman, 1994; Gerber, Ginsberg & Raiff, 1992; German, Martin, Marshall, & Sale, 2000; Trainor, 2005; Wall & Dattilo, 1995; Wehmeyer, Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997; West, Barcus, Brooke, & Rayfield, 1995). It

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is critical that students learn to deal with tension and conflict in their daily lives. Through self-examination, self-awareness they develop pro-social behaviors and develop self-determined.

Using Lesson Plans. There are texts that help students understand their learning difficulties (Bowman-Kruhm & Wirths, 1999; Brown, 2000; Dunn & Dunn, 1993; Gehret, 1996; Fisher & Cummings, 1990; Paquette & Tuttle, 2003; Porterfield, 1999). Although these resources help students understand how they differ from others, they are not instructional text. Most students with learning difficulties need guidance, support, encouragement, and direct instruction to learn new concepts. The lessons used in the present article provide teachers an easy to use lesson plan format as a means of teaching self-determination methodologies to students with disabilities in learning. The series of lessons addresses the advocacy needs of students, by providing exercises in the specifics of their disability that assist them in coping with and understanding their characteristics. Once student’s get to know themselves, they will find it easier to come to terms with their strengths and weaknesses and will be better prepared to cope with the challenges at school, home, and other environments. A lesson plan format would better facilitate strategic instruction in the classroom and would convey new concepts, thus the reason for this study.

The material in this study is presented to students in an easy to understand lesson plan format by their teacher in the resource room setting. Will skills taught through this venue improve self-awareness skills? Will an improvement in self-awareness skills improve student self-concept? Overall can it be concluded that students had increased self-determination skills? The purpose of this study is to ascertain if the self-determination lessons described in the article increase student self-concept and self-awareness. Self-concept is measured by the Piers Harris Self-Concept Scale (1996). Additionally, to obtain a qualitative measure, the article will examine teacher reports of student statements about the lessons to determine changes in self-awareness. This study acts as a pilot.

MethodParticipantsTypically, the teachings of self-advocacy and self-determination in lessons have been limited to secondary-aged students and adult individuals with disabilities as they prepare to transition into the world of work. Yet, instruction for the foundation of these skills should begin in earlier years and continue through the multiple stages of development (Wehman & Kregel, 2004). However, it is the premise of this study, and it is supported by current literature, to determine if the skills should be taught in earlier years in elementary and middle school. There is support that the progression should unfold as the student matures. Wehman and Kregel (2004) describe the level of skill that should be taught at each stage: (a) awareness skills in the elementary years, (b) exploration in the middle school years, (c) preparation in the high school years, and (d) finally, placement in the post school years. The lessons in this article are geared toward students in the upper elementary, middle or high school grades, specifically grades 5 through 9. Therefore, the lessons were piloted on 13 students at varied age levels and grades. Students were in 4 classes for the mildly disabled in the elementary and middle school setting (n=13) in the Midwest. Two elementary cross-categorical teachers instructed 6 (4 males and 2 females) (n=6) students in a 5th grade inclusionary settings. Both elementary teachers taught 3 students each. One middle school cross-categorical teacher taught 4 (3 males and 1 female) (n=4) sixth-graders. One secondary cross-categorical teacher instructed 3 (2 females and 1 male) (n=3) students in the 9th grade. Nine students were labeled learning disabled and 4 mild mentally impaired as determined by state guidelines and were being serviced by licensed special education teachers. All students in each teacher’s class were asked to participate and parental permission was sent to the child’s residence. Students whose parents returned permission slips participated in the study.

MaterialsSelf-Concept Scale. The Piers Harris Self Concept Scale (1996) was used to measure self-concept before and after the self-determination lessons. The scale has an 80 item self-repot questionnaire designed to assess how children and adolescents feel about themselves. The test has a test-retest reliability range of .42 to .96. The median test-retest reliability was .73. The rational coefficients range from .88 to .92. The Piers Harris has been normed on African-American, Hispanic and children from other Ethnic Groups. Additionally, the norming process has been used with mental retardation, learning disabilities, behavior disorders and with children from 2nd to 12th grades.

The Lesson Format and Structure. Each lesson was scripted to include specific elements. The lessons were designed using the TARGETTARGET acronym as a basic framework: T-T-Target the Goals and Objectives of the LessonAA-Assess Students’ Knowledge and Implement Objectives

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R-R-Role Play SituationsG-G-Generalize to Other School SituationsE-E-Evaluate Student AttainmentT-T-Test Transfer of Skills to Other Environments Target the Goals and Objectives of the Lesson. The goals and objectives of each lesson are defined and objectives are written in observable and measurable terms. Assess Students’ Knowledge and Implement Objectives. Students’ background knowledge of the lesson concepts are determined using discussion and questioning techniques. Role Play Situations. Each lesson suggests several role-play scenarios. Student generated situations are encouraged as they are more applicable to real life occurrences. Role-plays are enacted in student pairs or groups and can involve teacher-to-student or student-to-student interactions. Role-plays include inappropriate (negative) and appropriate (positive) reactions to problem situations. Analysis and feedback are provided for each role-play. Generalize to Other Situations. The student’s ability to analyze and apply the skill across school situations such as the playground, in gym class, or math class, is assessed. Evaluate Student Attainment. Eighty percent skill level assessment is recommended but varies according to student’s ability. Test Transfer of Knowledge. Skill practice is suggested in various environments away from school such as the home, community or work setting.

The Lesson Design. Often times, students will need to contend with individuals in their environment who do not understand what it means to have a disability in learning. Teachers, parents, students, employers and others, may be able to understand physical related disabilities, but may not be able to understand the needs of persons with a learning disability, attention deficit or mild mental impairments. The lessons were designed to address a number of disability related self-determination skills. Lesson activities: a) compared a disability in learning to a physical disability, b) explained eligibility procedures for special education, c) explored student strengths and limitations, d) addressed techniques related to advocacy, problem solving, anger control and social skills, and e) presented various academic and job related strategies. Various portions of the lesson are outlined and explained (Campbell-Whatley, 2004).Lesson One: What Does it Mean to Have a Disability in Learning? Often times, students will need to contend with individuals in their environment who do not understand what it means to have a disability in learning. Teachers, parents, students, employers and others, may be able to understand physical related disabilities, but may not be able to understand the needs of persons with a learning disability, attention deficit or mild mental impairments. Students with a disability in learning usually have limited awareness of the type of special education class they attend and tend to believe their academic failure is related to lack of motivation rather than a disability in learning. Many times general education teachers and parents view the student as unmotivated and attribute academic deficits to idle behavior rather than a disability in learning (Campbell-Whatley, 1998; Campbell-Whatley, 2004; Lavoie, 1989). Lack of self-knowledge and the misinterpretation of teachers and parents create a vacuum, that stunts the ability of the student to problem solve, make choices, and increase self-esteem. Because students with disabilities focus on day-to-day challenges that are often compounded by a disability, the lessons will teach them to advocate for themselves and explain their needs in a non-threatening manner in various settings. Many students with disabilities do not understand that they truly have a disability. Sometimes they believe that they may not be trying hard enough or that they are just lazy. At the completion of the lesson, students identified their exceptionality category and provided examples of non-physical related disabilities. Students were asked several key questions; Do disabilities exist that may not be physically visible? Can you expect a person who has one leg to walk just as everyone else does? The role play exercise asked students to read a passage after being blindfolded. After the student realized the absurdity of the request, the group discussed the modifications, strategies, and methodologies to compensate for a disability. Disability as an indicator for additional assistance rather than proof of failure was emphasized. Lesson Two: Successful People with Disabilities in Learning. The class session began with an open discussion of the career life goals and successes of several famous personalities with disabilities; including Stephen Hawkings, (physicist), Stevie Wonder (singer), Jim Abbott (ball player), Tom Cruise (actor), Nelson Rockefeller (past Vice President of the United States), Thomas Edison (American inventor), and Bruce Jenner (Olympic Gold Medal Winner). Students learned the definition of compensate and were asked various methods to counteract their disability. A school day in the life of one of the famous personalities was the imagined role play situation.

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Lesson Three: Characteristics Related to a Disability in Learning. Categories of disabilities, their definitions, and characteristics were presented to students. With teacher assistance, students identified the particular characteristics related to their disability such as listening, paying attention, talking, working math problems, or reading. During role play activities, students determined how their disability could affect them differently according to the school, home, community or work environment.Lesson Four: Getting Into a Special Education Program. Students were taught the steps in eligibility procedures in simple terms. Vocabulary words such as achievement, intelligence quotient, and psychometrist were discussed. Role playing situations included a mock Individualized Education Plan (IEP) conference. Lesson Five: Knowing My Strengths and Weaknesses. Students discussed their strengths and weaknesses related to academics and behavior in various environments. Demonstrations and discussions accentuated areas of strength in one environment that could be an area of weakness in another environment. For example, having a large surplus of energy might cause a student to be distracted at school, but could assist with doing a boundless number of chores at home. A role play scenario involved a student who needed to use manipulatives to compensate for weaknesses in math, but the general education teacher refused the student the use of the modification. Lesson Six: Problem Scenarios and Self-Advocacy. Students learned appropriate advocacy and problem solving techniques by exploring choices/helplessness regarding their disability. Latter discussions focused on strategies to produce positive outcomes to problems. Role plays concerned student situations using assertive rather than aggressive behaviors to solve problems. Lesson Seven: Strategies for Handling Anger. When confronted with negative situations related to their disability, students learned basic techniques for handling anger. For example, students were asked to relate some recent situations where they responded in anger. Subsequently, they were asked to identify various physical signals as soon as the feeling of anger occurred (i.e., seeing red, sweating, turning red). Strategies to diminish anger were identified and listed. Role play activities involved specific situations related to having a disability. For example, one situation involved a student with a disability that raised his hand to ask a question. Another student whispered in his ear, Shut up dumb boy, everyone knows the answer to that.

Design and ProceduresThe pretest-posttest design was used for the Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale on scores given before and after the intervention. While this design has limitations, it is considered appropriate for use with pilot projects and has been successfully used for some time to evaluate a variety of school-based improvement efforts (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996). The approach however, has a number of threats to internal validity if there is no control group used in the study (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). Also, it is difficult to determine if the participants changed enough to demonstrate an effect in everyday life or if change was due to maturation (Singh, Greer, & Hammond, 1977). More valid interpretations can be made if additional information were available (Posavac & Carey, 2003). Designs that use a variety of variables and do not achieve the specific control of true experiments for many biases can thus yield highly interpretable results, but if carefully planned and applied in appropriate setting, they are quite useful (Campbell & Stanley, 1963).

Coordinating Qualitative and Quantitative Methods. Qualitative and quantitative methods can be used in a way to complement each other (Campbell, 1978; Silverman, Ricci, and Gunter, 1990). Light and Pillemer (1984) said, “The pursuit of good science should transcend personal preferences for numbers or narrative” (p.143). The study uses a pre-experimental design with a mixed methodology, using quantitative and qualitative design to support change. A multi-site, multi-subject approach was employed using several sites and subjects rather than two or three. The procedure insures that a variety of types of subjects are included. The phenomena of examining increases in self-determination as students are exposed to the lessons are held up to the pre-post data collected on self-concept.

The Piers Harris Self-Concept Scale (1996) was orally administered by the special education teacher who instructed the students before and after the 7-week instructional period. The instrument, intended for use with students 7 to 18, required them to circle how they felt about themselves in a yes/no format (e.g., I am well behaved in school, I am smart, I have good ideas). To strengthen the results of the pre-post test design, the teachers recorded student comments during the lesson and used specific interview questions about each lesson to obtain qualitative information (Posovac & Carey, 2003). Students were encouraged to answer several informal questions addressed in the small group setting in which they were taught. Each lesson had role-plays, and various informal questions within the lesson to determine student’s knowledge of the information and to encourage participation, self-examination, reasoning

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skills, and healthy communication. The teachers assured that the students understood the nature of the interview. They used open-ended probing questions that assured and encouraged more than a yes/no response (i.e., Can you tell me more?). After the lesson students were asked these specific questions: a) What did you like most about the lesson? b) What did you learn in this lesson? c) What did you like least about the lesson? Although using a tape recording is the preferred method as this method provides complete information, Lincoln and Guba (1985) recommend hand-written notes as they are less threatening and keeps the interviewer involved. Teachers were encouraged to jot the responses and comments to informal questions during the lesson, as well as student answers to targeted questions. That same day, the teacher interpreted, summarized, and re-recorded student responses in an easy to read format. The teachers clarified the responses with students the next day.

Each lesson had a written component. Sometimes students may want to communicate a personal response that they may not want to share with the group. Therefore, they were asked to address the same questions on paper that they had discussed orally with the group. The teachers were asked to review the written component of the lesson and grade it by indicating the percentage of written responses to questions. In a separate setting, the four teachers administered the lessons to students 3 times a week, in 30 minute sessions, for 7 weeks, depending on the age and ability level of the students. Only one lesson was the focus of a given week.

Several student activity pages accompanied each lesson. Teachers asked specified lessons contained in the lesson during each session. Then, teachers asked the assigned questions after the lesson. The teacher wrote the responses to the questions during and after the lesson in the margin of the lesson plan. Additionally, students were required to list their answers on the student activity sheet. That same day, the teacher rewrote student comments and questions during and after the lesson. She noted if the comments were negative (students indicated that they did not learn very much from the lesson- i.e., I didn’t like this lesson; This is stupid) or positive (students indicated that they learned (i.e., I like the lesson; I learned that (students says what they learned)). Also, the teacher indicated the percentage of written responses on each activity sheet that students submitted. Teacher expectations, application, and other delivery information were flexible.

ResultsResults indicated that there was a significant difference in student self-concept before and after curriculum implementation. Improvement was evident as students had a significantly higher self-concept level. The curriculum positively affected students, as it increased their self-esteem. Means and standard deviations for the total score of the Piers Harris Self-Concept Scale (1984) pretest and posttest scores are presented in Table 1.

The teachers reported that the students written responses were in the range of 70% to 100% on the activities within the lesson. Students wrote oral responses closely resembled their written responses.

Table 1Comparison of the Piers Harris Self Concept Scale Before and After the Implementation of

lessons (n=13)

Self Concept Total Score

Before Implementation After Implementation *t

Mean SD Mean SD

*p< .0544 15.83 51.07 17.76 3.407

During Lesson One: What Does it Mean to Have a Disability in Learning, students expressed doubt that their parents or teachers would ever understand that they had a disability, but found it of value to learn more about themselves. One high school student said during the lesson that, My mother would never believe that I really have a real problem. She just thinks I am lazy and that is that, but I am glad to know that my problem is real and I can start to help and believe more in myself.

Teachers reported that students thought the process to enter a special education class in Lesson Four: Getting Into a Special Education Program to be a lengthy process, but thought it helpful to understand the progression. When asked the question What did you like least about the lesson? One middle school student stated, It’s too long and takes too many people, but I am glad that I know what was happening to me.

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Students were surprised that what they could do something well other than academics was of any value in school. One high school student expressed during Lesson Five: Knowing My Strengths and Weaknesses,

I thought things I did good at home didn’t matter if I couldn’t get the lesson in class.

Teachers reported that students expressed the most excitement during Lesson Two: Successful People with Disabilities in Learning. They made notable sounds (i.e., wow; I didn’t know that; That is soooo cool). One elementary student said during the lesson,

Do we have to stop talking about this? I can talk about this everyday.

Students were able to identify their problem areas in Lesson Three: Characteristics Related to a Disability in Learning, but were not aware that it was the basis of their disability. One middle school student questioned during the lesson,

Just because I can’t remember things, that means I have a disability? During the lesson, another said,

I never knew so many different, famous people had the same problems I did.

Students practiced techniques to explain their disability to teachers, parents, employers, etc. in Lesson Six: Problem Scenarios and Self-Advocacy. Many students demonstrated pride (i.e., head lifted high, speaking in a commanding voice) in explaining accomplishments, while they shared the characteristics of their disability and learned to ask for help (i.e., I have problems with this, can you or another student assist me?). One high school student said in response to the question What do you like best about the lesson?,

I always wanted to know what to say to a teacher who thought I was being lazy. If I could just tell her what I needed to do to get help. Well I was able to tell her and she did not call me lazy.

Students thought the problem scenarios to be of value in Lesson Seven: Strategies for Handling Anger. One middle school student stated,

You always need to be ready to fight when somebody calls you a name, but I am glad to know that I have another way I can handle problems if I want to.

Discussion and SummarySeveral studies demonstrate the effectiveness of teaching self-determination skills (Argan, et al, 1999; German, et al., 2000; Martin, et al., 2003; Wall & Dattilo, 1995; Wehmeyer, Abery, Mithang, and Stancliffe, 2003; West, et al, 1995). Students exhibiting high levels of self-determination had higher school achievement, better adult outcomes, and were more goal-oriented (Gerber, et al, 1992; Trainor, 2005; Wehmeyer, et al., 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997). The lessons in the present study, presented self-determination skills in a teacher-led format that provided exercises in self-knowledge and self-exploration that assisted students in coping with their disability. The 7-weeks of lessons were administered to 13 elementary, middle, and high school students in 4 separate resource room settings. There was a significant difference in pretest and posttest scores on the Piers Harris Self Concept Scale (1984), before and after implementation of the curriculum. Scores of 46 to 60 are considered average for the scale. Mean self-concept scores were below average (44) before curriculum implementation. After curriculum implementation, mean self-concept scores were in the average range (51).

Although this study reflects the realities of conducting school-based research, the absence of a control group in this quantitative design and the relatively small number of students in the study presents concerns about generalizations. Therefore, it cannot be concluded that a particular student receiving the same treatments used in this study would experience similar results. Drawing conclusions about the observed improvements in the absence of a control group must be done cautiously. Nevertheless, a quantitative design like that used in this study is appropriate when the project represents a pilot study. An experimental or additional study however, using a more rigorous design, is recommended (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982)The qualitative information in the study lends support to the quantitative information. Students demonstrated a high average attainment skill level and comments were positive. Students continually stated that they learned more about their disability. My mother would never believe that I really have a real problem. She just thinks I am lazy and that is that, but I am glad to know that my problem is real and I can start to help and believe more in myself. Extended sessions and varied combinations of groups or pairs can provide reinforcement and increase skill attainment with lesson delivery. After formal sessions, it is best practice for teachers to reinforce the material by reminding students to apply acquired skills in various situations. The teacher can gage

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the student response to the situation and support and encourage appropriate responses and give suggestions for inappropriate ones. Teachers should have realistic expectations and remember that the rate of application and skill attainment is based on individual skill levels.

Despite reasonable limitations, the results of this pilot effort lend support to the continuing development of self-determination curricula in the elementary and middle school settings. A pretest/posttest control group comparison study should also be undertaken to extend the generalizability of these findings.

The lessons can be expanded to address additional strategies. Lessons that explore the feelings and frustrations that students with disabilities encounter while offering strategies for coping with those emotions would be helpful. To further address and maintain positive self-esteem and productivity, another lesson might focus on reprogramming techniques to change negative inner self-talk to positive self-talk. Many students with mild disabilities have difficulty with relationships; therefore methodologies that assist with the development and maintenance of friendships are suggested.

ReferencesAlgozzine, B., Browder, D., Karvonen, M. R., Test, D. W., & Wood, W. M. (2001). Effects of self-determination interventions on individuals with disabilities. Review of Educational Research, 71, 219-278.Abrams, D., & Brown, R. (1989). Self-consciousness and social identity: Self-regulation as a group member. Social Psychology Quarterly, 52, 311-318.Argan, M., Snow, K., & Swaner, J. (1999). Teacher perceptions of self-determination: Benefits, characteristics, strategies. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 34 (3), 293-301.Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. (1982). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Bowman-Kruhm, M., & Wirths, C. G. (1999). Everything you need to know about learning disabilities. New York: Rosen Pub. Group.Browder, D., Wood, W. M., Test, D. W., Algozzine, B., & Karvonen, M. R. (2001). A map for teachers to follows in reviewing resources on self-determination. Remedial and Special Education, 22, 233-244.Brown, D. S. (2000). Learning a living: A guide to planning your career and finding a job for people with learning disabilities, attention deficit disorder, and dyslexia. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.Cameron, P. A., & Mills, C. J. (1995). The social context and developmental patterns of crystallizing experiences among academically talented youth. Roeper Review, 17, 197-200.Campbell, D. (1978). Qualitative knowing in action research. In M. Brenner, P. Marsh, & M. Brenner (Eds.), The social contexts of method. New York: Sr. Martins.Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research on teaching. Chicago: Rand-McNally.Campbell-Whatley, G.D. (1998). The disability knowledge checklist. Unpublished checklist.Campbell-Whatley, G.D. (2004). Who I can be is up to me: Lessons in self-exploration and self-determination for students with disabilities in learning . Research Press: Champaign, Illinois.Dunn, K.B., & Dunn, A.B. (1993). Trouble with school: A family story about learning disabilities. Columbus, OH: Woodbine House.Field, S. (1996). Self-Determination instructional strategies for youth with disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, (1), 40-52.Field, S., & Hoffman, A. (1994). Steps to self-determination. Austin, TX: Pro-ed.Field, S., Martin, J., Miller, R., Ward, M., & Wehmeyer, M. (1998). A practical guide for teaching self-determination. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.Fisher. G.L., & Cummings, R.W. (1990). The survival guide for the kids with LD (learning differences). Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing.Flitton, B., & Buckroyd, J. (2005). Counselling children and young people who attend a school for children with complex needs: A case study. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 5, 131-137.Gerber, P. J., Ginsberg, R., & Reiff, H.B. (1992). Identifying alterable patterns in the employment highly successful adults with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 475-487.German, S.L., Martin, J.E., Marshall, L.H., & Sale, R. P. (2000). Promoting self-determination: Using "Take Action" to teach goal attainment. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 23, 27-38.Gehret, J. (1996). The don't give up kid. Fairport, NY: Verbal Images Press.Hiemstra, R., & Brockett, R. G. (1994). Resistance to self-direction in learning can be overcome. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 64, 89-92.

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Lavoie, R. (1989). How difficult can this be? The fat city workshop. PBS Video. Washington DC Public: Broadcasting Service.Light, R. J., & Pillemer, D. B. (1984). Summing up: The science of reviewing research. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Martin, J. E., Mithaug, D. E., Cox, P., Peterson, L. Y., Wan Dycke, J. L., & Cash, M. E. (2003). Increasing self-determination: Teaching students to plan, work, evaluate, and adjust. Exceptional Children, 69, 431-446.Meunier, G. F. (1990). The importance of getting along with yourself. Individual Psychology, 46, 311-316.Owens, T. J., Mortimer, J. T., & Finch, M. D. (1996). Self-determination as a source of self-esteem in adolescence. Social Forces, 74, 1377-1404.Paquette, P. H., & Tuttle, C. G. (2003). Learning disabilities: The ultimate teen guide. Lanhan, MD: Scarecrow Press.Piers, E. (1996). Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. Western Psychological Services: CA: Los Angeles.Pocock, A., Lambros, S., Karvonen, M., Test, D. W., Algozzine, B., & Wood, W. M. (2002). Successful strategies for promoting self-advocacy among students with learning disabilities: The LEAD group. Intervention in school and clinic, 37, 209-216.Porterfield, K. M. (1999). Straight talk about learning disabilities. New York: Facts on File. Posavac, E. J., & Carey, R. G. (2003). Program evaluation methods and case studies (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Silverman, M., Ricci, E. M., & Gunter, M. J. (1990). Strategies for increasing the rigor of qualitative methods in evaluation of health care programs. Evaluation Review, 14, 57-74.Singh, B., Greer, P. R., & Hammond, R. (1977). An evaluation of the use of the Law in a Free Society materials on “responsibility.” Evaluation Quarterly, 1, 621-628.Test, D.W., Karvoren, M., Wood, W.M., Browder, D., & Algozzine, B. (2000). Choosing a self-determination curriculum. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33 (21), 48-56.Trainor, A. A. (2005). Self-determination perceptions and behaviors of diverse students with LD during the transition planning process. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 233-249.Wall, M.E., & Dattilo, J. (1995). Creating option rich learning environments: Facilitating self-determination. The Journal of Special Education, 29, 276-294.Wehman, P., & Kregel, J. (2004). Functional curriculum for elementary, middle, and secondary age students with special needs. Austin TX: ProEd.Wehmeyer, M. L., Abery, B. H., Mithang, D. E., & Stancliffe, R.. (2003). Theory in Self Determination: Foundations for educational practice. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.Wehmeyer, M.L. Agran, M., Hughes, C. (2000). A national survey of teacher's promotion of self-determination and student-directed learning. The Journal of Special Education, 34 (2), 58-68.Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., Agran, M., Mithaug, D. E., & Martin, J. (2000). Promoting causal agency: The self-determined learning model of instruction. Exceptional Children, 66, 439-453.Wehmeyer, M. L., & Schwartz, M. (1997). Self-determination and positive adult outcomes: a follow-up study of youth with mental retardation and learning disabilities. Exceptional Children (63) 2, 245-256.West, M.D., Barcus, M., Brooke, V., & Rayfield, R.G. (1995). An exploration analysis of self-determination of persons with disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 5, 357-364.Whitney-Thomas, J., & Moloney, M. (2001). “Who I am and what I want”: Adolescents’ self-determination and struggles. Exceptional Children, 67, 375-389.Wood, W. M., Karvonen, M., Test, D. W., Browder, D., & Algozzine, B. (2004). Promoting student self-determination skills in IEP planning. Teaching Exceptional Children, 36, 8-16.Zhang, D. (2001). The effect of nest S.T.E.P. instruction on self-determination skills of high school students with learning disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 24, 121-132.

BOOK REVIEWSby

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Sally RogowUniversity of British Columbia

Transition Planning for Students with Disabilities: What Educators and Service Providers Can Do by Jeffrey P. Bakken and Festus E. Obiakor. U.S. Charles C. Thomas.publisher, 2008

This is a very useful text for teachers working with students with disabilities. Preparing students to think about their futures and make plans to achieve success is vital. In order for students to make career choices and live independently, requires thought and preparation and is vital to success of independent living. This text focuses on all aspects of transition planning and makes sensible suggestions on how this can be achieved. Preparation for life, transition models and experiences, cultural norms, collaboration with families, job and career preparation, employment training and community resources are carefully described and discussed. Students are involved in many transitions as they go from elementary, middle and high schools. Preparation is shaped by individual needs, there is no one model for everyone. Various models are carefully described by the authors. The main competencies students require are groups into three mqin areas, daily living skills, personal-social skills and occupational guidance and preparation. Awareness of differences among culturally and linguistically diverse learners is sensitively addressed. One chapter is devoted to the use of different types of assistive technologies available together with information on how devices are to be chosen.

The authors give careful attention to developing self-advocacy. Making choices about work, education and independent living are examples of self-determination. Collaboration with families is another important aspect of the transition process. One of the most difficult aspects that students with disabilities face is the assessment of their own work skills. Students need to be able to assess and choose jobs that are appropriate for them. Job search methods, expected conduct during interviews are fully addressed.

In addition the book goes into detail about employment training and the type of supports that are needed. Finding a suitable job can be difficult for anyone. The skills needed must be carefully defined. One chapter provides detailed descriptions of various models of skill training and how they can be taught. Students often need to learn socially appropriate ways of getting teacher attention. Education for how to travel and leisure and recreation programs is also thoroughly addressed.

Types of residential opportunities that foster independent living, group homes and intermediate care are well addressed. In 2006, the Disability Rights Commission cautioned that there are several factors to be taken into consideration such as accessibility for those who use wheelchairs or are blind. Access to postgraduate educational opportunities and financial support are also addressed.

This book is a valuable resource for families as well as teachers and advisors.

Self –Instruction Pedagogy: How To Teach Self-Determined Learning,by Dennis E.Mithaug, Deirdre K. Mithaug, Martin Agran, James E. Martin and Michael L. Wehmeyer, U.S.A. Charles C. Thomas, Ltd. 2006 This is a very useful and thought provoking book. Self motivation is a powerful component of effective learning and students with disabilities. Students who have experienced failure too often lack motivation. The authors describe how learning to regulate one’s own learning gives children confidence as well as motivation. Students who are good self-regulators do well in school. The authors describe in great detail how teachers can foster self-determination.

In discovery learning, teachers arrange the learning environment so that their students can explore the environment to discover for themselves the facts, concepts, principles, and skills that make up the school curriculum (p.3). Students learn to construct their knowledge by building on prior knowledge they bring to the learning task (p.3). Self-instruction builds confidence as well as motivation. Teachers can check students’ understanding with questioning, consistent review of homework and review of the previous day’s lessons before moving on to new areas. Techniques of developing self –control include identification of students’ needs, interests, and abilities. Teaching goals are based on students’ needs and abilities. Research studies which support self determined learning are also carefully reviewed.

This book is an excellent resource for teachers.

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