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International Journalof

Special EducationVOLUME 24 2009 NUMBER 3

A Descriptive Study Of Working Memory, Phonological Awareness And Literacy Performance Of People Who Use AAC

Jan Waterink (1890-1966), A Dynamic Dutch Pioneer Of Special Education

An Analysis Of Pre-School Teachers’ And Student Teachers’ Attitudes To Inclusion And Their Self-Efficacy

Factors Influencing Transition For Students With Disabilities:The American Indian Experience

A Predictor Of Quality Of Life Of The Mainstreamed Elementary Students: Cognitive Errors

Language Use By Bilingual Special Educators Of English Language Learners With Disabilities

Cardio Respiratory Adaptations With Long Term Personalized Exercise Program In A T12 Spinal Cord Injured Person

Culture And Special Education

Knowledge And Attitudes Towards Children With Special Needs By Physical Education Students

Instructionism And Constructivism:Reconciling Two Very Good Ideas Research-Based Instructions To Increase Communication Skills For Students

With Severe Disabilities Education Of Children With Disabilities In Russia:On The Way To Integration

And Inclusion The Direct And Indirect Effects Of Environmental Factors On Nurturing

Intellectual Giftedness Special Education Practices In China And The United States: What Is To Come

Next? Teaching Social And Emotional Competence In Early Childhood Narrative Voices Of Early Adolescents: Influences Of Learning Disability And

Cultural Background Improving Classroom Learning:The Effectiveness Of Time Delay Within The

Teacch Approach

www.internationaljournalofspecialeducation.com

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 24 No3 2008

International Journal of Special Education

REVISED EDITORIAL POLICY from 2009

The International Journal of Special Education publishes original articles concerning special education. Experimental as well as theoretical articles are sought. Potential contributors are encouraged to submit reviews of research, historical, and philosophical studies, case studies and content analyses in addition to experimental correlation studies, surveys and reports of the effectiveness of innovative programs.

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Children for publication in the monthly print index Current Index to Journals of Special Education (CIJE) and the quarterly index, Exceptional Child Education Resources (ECER).IJSE is also indexed at Education Index (EDI).

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The editor can be reached at [email protected]

VOLUME 24 2009 NUMBER 3I N D E X

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 24 No3 2008

A Descriptive Study Of Working Memory, Phonological Awareness And Literacy Performance Of People Who Use AAC...............................................................................1María Luisa Gómez Taibo, Pilar Vieiro Iglesias, María Sotillo Méndez and María del Salvador González Raposo

Jan Waterink (1890-1966), A Dynamic Dutch Pioneer Of Special Education………………………... 21Marjoke Rietveld-van Wingerden, Doret de Ruyter, Leendert Groenendijk

An Analysis Of Pre-School Teachers’ And Student Teachers’ Attitudes To Inclusion And Their Self-Efficacy…………………………………………………………………….. 29

Hakan Sarı, Nadir Çeliköz, Zarife Seçer

Factors Influencing Transition For Students With Disabilities:The American Indian Experience……………………………………………………………………….45

Karen L. Applequist, Rachel Mears, Roxanne Loyless

A Predictor Of Quality Of Life Of The Mainstreamed Elementary Students: Cognitive Errors ………...……………………………………….…………….. 57

Hatice Odacı, Melek Kalkan, Pınar KarasuLanguage Use By Bilingual Special Educators Of English Language Learners With Disabilities …...63

Oneyda M. Paneque, Diane Rodriguez

Cardio Respiratory Adaptations With Long Term Personalized Exercise Program In A T12 Spinal Cord Injured Person ………………………………………………………………….70

Angelo Vasiliadis, Kosmas Christoulas, Christina Evaggelinou, Ioannis Vrabas

Culture And Special Education ………………………………………………………………………..78Beverley Bailey, Paul Betts

Knowledge And Attitudes Towards Children With Special Needs By Physical Education Students ………………………………………………………………………..85

Maria Mousouli, Dimitrios Kokaridas, Nicoletta Angelopoulou-Sakadami, Maria Aristotelous,.

Instructionism And Constructivism:Reconciling Two Very Good Ideas………………………………90Genevieve Marie Johnson

Research-Based Instructions To Increase Communication Skills For Students With Severe Disabilities …………………………………………………………………99

Peg Pinto, Cynthia Simpson, Jeffrey P. Bakken

Education Of Children With Disabilities In Russia:On The Way To Integration And Inclusion …….110Maria Oreshkina

The Direct And Indirect Effects Of Environmental Factors On Nurturing Intellectual Giftedness …………………………………………………………………121

Ahmad Mohammad Al-Shabatat, Merza Abbas, Hairul Nizam Ismail

Special Education Practices In China And The United States: What Is To Come Next?…………….132Jamie L. Worrell, Mary Taber

Teaching Social And Emotional Competence In Early Childhood…………………………………...143Rita Coombs Richardson, Steve P. Myran, Steve Tonelson

Narrative Voices Of Early Adolescents: Influences Of Learning Disability And Cultural Background………………………………………………………………….150

Dorota K. Celinska

Improving Classroom Learning:The Effectiveness Of Time Delay Within The Teacch Approach……………………………………173

Onur Kurt, Chris Parsons

VOLUME 24 2009 NUMBER 3

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 24 No 3 2009

A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF WORKING MEMORY, PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS AND LITERACY PERFORMANCE OF PEOPLE WHO USE AAC

María Luisa Gómez Taibo Pilar Vieiro Iglesias

Universidade da Coruña María Sotillo Méndez

Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and

María del Salvador González Raposo Universidad de los Andes

Ten cerebral palsied adolescents and young adults with complex communicative needs who use augmentative and alternative communication were studied. They were classified according to their high versus low working memory capacity and according to their high versus low phonological skills into two groups of participants. These groups were compared on their performance in reading tests –an orthographic knowledge test, a word test and a pseudoword reading test- and in the spelling of words, pseudowords and pictures’ names. Statistical differences were found between high vs. low phonological skills groups, and between high and low working memory groups. High working memory capacity group scored significantly higher than low working memory group in the orthographic and word reading tests. The high phonological skills group outperformed the low phonological skills group in the word reading test and in the spelling of pseudowords and pictures’ names. From a descriptive point of view, phonological skills and working memory, factors known to be highly predictive of literacy skills in people without disabilities, also hold as important variables for the participants in our study. Implications of the results are discussed.

Literacy encompasses both, reading and writing (Koppenhaver and Yoder, 1993). It is a well known fact the enormous effort that people with complex communication needs face in developing basic reading and spelling skills (Berninger and Gans, 1986; Blischak, 1994; Dahlgren Sandberg, 2001; Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist, 1996a, b; 1997; Foley, 1993; Foley and Pollatsek, 1999; McNaughton, 1998; Vandervelden and Siegel, 1999).

The poor literacy skills exhibited by people who use AAC are usually attributed to intrinsic and extrinsic factors (Basil, 1998). Intrinsic factors can be broadly divided into four areas of impairment: physical, sensory/perceptual, language and cognitive (Smith and Blischak, 1997; Sturm, 1998). The most frequent quoted intrinsic factors are individual conditions, problems in memory capacity, deficits in speech and language abilities (e.g., reduced expressive vocabulary, limited verbal comprehension), perceptual difficulties (e.g., visual, auditory) and importance of self as a reader (Dahlgren Sandberg, 1998; Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist, 1996b, 1997; Smith, 1989, 1992a, 1992b). Home and school learning and literacy experiences are the most studied extrinsic factors. The results of research on home literacy experiences in disabled children show reduced opportunities to use printed materials (Light and Kelford Smith, 1993), restricted access to literacy events, less active participation in story reading process, passive roles in interactive patterns, limited use of language (Dahlgren Sandberg, 1998; Light, Binger and Kelford Smith, 1994; Pierce and McWilliam, 1993), and low priorities and expectancies for literacy development (Light and McNaughton, 1993). At school, children who use AAC have limited access to formal instruction and lack of exposure to the general curriculum, they receive less instructional time than peers without disabilities (Koppenhaver and Yoder, 1992), and they spend more

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time in non literacy activities than in any single literacy activity during their literacy instructional time (Koppenhaver, 1991).

A useful point of departure for the investigation of literacy development in people who use Augmentative and Alternative Communication -AAC (Smith and Blischak, 1997; Yoder, 2001) is the wealth of information on literacy development in the general population. Despite the fact that reading and writing need to be specifically learned, in learning to read and spell children must have certain phonological, linguistic and cognitive aspects well developed (Vieiro, 2003). Some of these prerequisite skills include phonological awareness, rime and alliteration, well developed lexical representations, both the phonological specificity of lexical representations and the store of sight words; a rich semantic memory, and a broad working memory capacity (Vieiro, 2007).

According to dual-route cognitive models of reading and writing (Coltheart, 1985; Patterson, Marshall and Coltheart, 1985; Seidenberg, 1985), there are two routes in lexical access. In sight word reading, readers form connections between the visual configuration of written words and their meanings in memory. These connections are learned by rote and require much practice (Baron, 1979; Coltheart, Davelaar, Johassen and Besner, 1977; Ehri, 1991; Frith, 1980; Morton, 1969, 1979a). In writing, the ortographic route involves meaning activation in the semantic system and direct access to the ortographic representation from the mental lexicon. This route allows writing familiar and well-known words with arbitrary spellings (Templeton and Bear, 1992).

Phonological awareness (PA) refers generically to the ability to abstract and manipulate segments of spoken language, that is, the children’s awareness of sounds (Morais, Alegría and Content, 1987; Wagner and Torgesen, 1987); the phonological recoding in reading involves transforming spellings of words into pronunciations via the application of grapheme to phoneme correspondence rules (G-P-C-R) and then, searching the lexicon of spoken words to find a meaningful word that matches the pronunciation just generated (Coltheart, 1978, 1980). In writing, this ability involves the application of P-G-C-R in order to obtain the orthographic form of the word. This route allows the spelling of pseudowords and unknown words with regular spellings (Brady and Shankweiler, 1991). PA and its correspondence to a graphemic representational system are pointed to be unequivocal predictors of reading and spelling ability (Bryant, Nunes and Bindman, 2000; Cain, Oakhill and Bryant, 2000; Ellis and Large, 1988; Goswami and Bryant, 1990; Hoien, Lundberg, Stanovich and Bjaalid, 1995; Lundberg, Frost, and Petersen, 1988; Lundberg y Hoien, 1991). Deficits in PA have been identified as the critical factor underlying the severe word decoding problems displayed by reading disabled individuals (Bruck, 1990, 1992; Galaburda, 1988; Hoien, Lundberg, Larsen and Tonnessen, 1989; Olson, Wise, Conners and Rack, 1990; Siegel and Ryan, 1988).

There are at least three ways of breaking up a word into its constituent sounds and thus, there are at least three possible forms of phonological awareness: syllables (break word up into its syllables), phonemes (a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a word; alphabetic letters can typically change the meaning of a word), and intrasyllabic units (onset and rime). The perhaps most obvious type of phonological awareness, at least in Spanish, consists of breaking a word up into its constituent syllables; however, we need to use smaller units than the syllable to read unknown words, being the phoneme the smallest unit of sound. The importance for a child to learn how to use the relationships between single letters and single phonemes, or grapheme-phoneme correspondences, as these relationships are often called, has been widely recognised. Words may also be divided into units larger than the single phoneme, units which themselves consist of two or more phonemes, but smaller than the syllable. Obviously, someone who can explicitly report the sounds in any word is phonologically aware. But, researchers have begun to extend the use of the term awareness by introducing the subject of rhyme. As Goswami and Bryant (1990) argue, a child who recognises that two words rhyme and therefore have a sound in common must posses a degree of phonological awareness, even if it is not certain that this child can say exactly what is the sound that these words share.

About the nature of reciprocal relationship by which early reading and spelling skills are acquired, Goswami and Bryant (1990) have found that there are three causal factors in learning to read: rhyme and alliteration or the phonological abilities that preschool children have; access to phonemes knowledge and its relation to graphemes as an instruction result; and the reciprocal influence between reading and spelling. Reading experience has an influence on spelling. In the same way, experience in spelling also influences reading. Qualitative changes are produced in this last relationship; these changes favour reading and spelling development in a child.

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Phonological awareness levels vary in terms of complexity and difficulty (Yopp, 1988), emerge at different stages in a child’s linguistic development (Goswami and Bryant, 1990) and may be assessed through many different tests (Denton, Hanbrouck, Weaver, and Riccio, 2000). Nevertheless, a major problem for testing people with complex communicative needs is that most existing tasks rely on the ability to speak. Changing these tests so that they do not require speech is difficult (Blischak, 1994; Vandervelden, 2003). As the different levels of PA demand different ways of information processing and place different demands on working memory capacity, this could in part explain the reading and spelling difficulties found among people with complex communicative needs that use CAA. In this sense, Dahlgren Sandberg (2001) stated that further research in this area is warranted.

The existence of phonological awareness in spite of the absence of productive speech has been an important question regarding the population with complex communicative needs. Research has provided evidence of such PA in the anarthric or severely dysarthric population, although not always intact (Baddeley and Wilson, 1985; Bishop, 1985; Bishop, Byers Brown and Robson, 1990; Bishop and Robson, 1989a, b; Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist, 1996a; Foley, 1993). Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist (1996a, b; 1997) and Dahlgren Sandberg (2001) studies have shown good phonological abilities in a group of preschoolers and school children that used CAA. However, non speaking children that used AAC had some difficulties with some of the indicators of PA, namely synthesis of phonemes and word length analysis, whereas recognition of rhyme was the easiest task (Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist, 1996b). Lower scores on all phoneme awareness measures (i.e., recognizing sounds in spoken words or manipulating sounds) were also found by Vandervelden and Siegel (1999, 2001) in a group that used AAC compared to a group of natural speakers. Another important finding was that in an within-group analysis among children using AAC, the reading children showed a better performance on all memory tests and on the sound identification and word length analysis tasks, than the non reading ones (Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist, 1997).

In spite of good phonological abilities, some studies have presented data on non vocal persons’ lack of success in using their demonstrated PA on reading and writing tests (Berninger and Gans, 1986; Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist, 1996a, 1997; Foley, 1993; Smith, 1989). The low levels on literacy indicators persisted after a period of 3 to 4 years of schooling in children that used CAA compared to naturally speaking children (Dahlgren Sandberg, 2001). However, evidence was found that people who used AAC who had better skill in phoneme awareness also had better skill in word reading (Vandervelden and Siegel, 1999, 2001). As these authors remarked, although these students may have less skill, phoneme awareness was important in their word reading development, and their learning was the same as that of children who use speech (Vandervelden, 2003). Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist (1997) also stated that there were indications that reading and spelling were related to phonological skills of the children that used AAC. According to these authors elucidation of these relationships is a challenge for future research.

Working memory (WM) span is one of the more outstanding cognitive influential factors to the acquisition of reading and spelling skills (Oakhill, 1982). As many researchers recognize (Dahlgren Sandberg, 2001; Ellis and Large, 1988; Hoien and Lundberg, 1992) memory processes at work during the very rapid processes of decoding and encoding are of critical importance. Reading and writing, as cognitive tasks, require the manipulation of information which demands temporary storage. Working memory is assumed to provide the storage and to be involved in the temporary processing and storage of information so it plays a central role in linguistic abilities (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974). Gathercole and Baddeley (1990, 1993) have stressed that during reading and spelling stable phonological representations must be constructed and stored in verbal short-term memory in order to be used as a working memory system. According to Baddeley’s working memory model, one of its components, the phonological loop is a specialized function for the storage of verbal material or the recoding of nonverbal information, representing the material in a phonological code that decays with time unless it is rehearsed in an articulatory process.

Deficits in phonological recoding might reflect impaired verbal short-term memory. In this sense, Ellis and Miles (1981) remarked that one of the most striking features of dyslexic children is their impaired digit span. Most studies have shown that individuals with poor reading ability exhibit shorter duration short-term memory spans for verbal material (Bowey, Cain, and Ryan, 1992; Hansen and Bowey, 1994; Newman, Fields and Wright, 1993; Siegel and Ryan, 1988; Snowling, 1991) than for nonverbal material. Snowling (1987) proposed that verbal memory deficits are linked to linguistic problems and especially to problems of segmentation of the sound structure of words. Another finding was the strong

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relationship observed between efficiency of phonological processes and capacity of verbal memory supporting the hypothesis that reducing phonological processing requirements in verbal short-term memory increases available resources for storage (Rapala and Brady, 1990). Because of brain damage, lower memory capacity could be expected in cerebral palsied people with complex communicative needs, which might affect their reading skills negatively.

As it may be seen, previous studies have compared the phonological skills’ performance of non speaking people with others with either speech or impaired speech. Unfortunately, there is little knowledge about people with complex communicative needs’ performance on reading and spelling related to phonological skills and working memory capacity, as a group in its own right. So, it deserves all our attention. Only the study of Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist (1997) has compared reading and spelling skills among non speaking children. They found that their reading and non-reading subgroups differed on their results in identification of sounds and in synthesis of sounds tasks; these groups also differed on verbal memory measured by a digit span task (Wechsler, 1977) and in the amount of Bliss vocabulary and verbal comprehension.

Aim of the study The purpose of this study is to conduct a descriptive research of the reading and spelling skills in a group of cerebral palsied people with complex communicative needs who use alternative and augmentative communication. The focus in this study is on early literacy and the acquisition of a reading and spelling vocabulary. More specifically, the aim of this study is to compare the effects of working memory (Experiment 1) and phonological skills (Experiment 2) on the differences in literacy performance of young adults with cerebral palsy. There are two hypotheses in this study. The first hypothesis holds that if working memory (WM) capacity is a variable in order to learn to read and spell in people without disabilities, then a significant higher performance in reading and spelling measures will be expected in a high WM capacity group than in a low WM capacity group of people with CCN who use AAC. According to the second hypothesis, it is expected to find statistical significant differences among high and low phonological skills (PS) groups; the higher PS group is expected to obtain higher results in their ability to recognize and read words and pseudowords and in their spelling abilities than the low PS group.

MethodParticipantsTwelve participants, 7 men and 5 women, who ranged in age from 16 to 34 years (mean age=24 years) (Experiment 1) and ten participants, 7 men and 3 women, who range in age from 18 to 34 years (mean age=25.8 years) (Experiment 2) were randomly selected from a pool of 24 persons with cerebral palsy and speech impairments. The inclusion criteria for participating in the study were: a) a cerebral palsy’s medical diagnostic; b) the presence of complex communication needs, and c) the use of augmentative and alternative strategies. A restrictive criterion was that participants also had to know both the letter names for the whole alphabet and its sounds, so they must had well established letter-sound correspondence rules.

Participants in this study were older than other participants quoted in the literature (Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist, 1996a, b, 1997, 2001). According to memory research, those who defend structural developmental changes in working memory argue that by the age of sixteen there are no more modifications in working memory span (Pascual-Leone, 1980; Kail, 1986; Siegel, 1994). So, participants in this study are assumed to have a stable working memory span. With aging, there are changes in functional storage capacity and tasks are performed more rapidly and strategically (Case, 1985); therefore, it is assumed participants have acquired memory strategies. Six participants in this study had a high working memory capacity and the remaining six had a low working memory capacity, according to their results in the Digit Span subtest of the WAIS (Wechsler, 1999).

Participants’ descriptive characteristics are the following: 7 participants had no speech and depended mainly on AAC techniques to communicate; the other 3 participants could produce some speech sounds and their dysarthria ranged in severity from moderate to severe. For the expression of yes and no responses nearly all of the participants used head gestures, 2 of them added sounds and vocalisations to their nodding, and only 1 person could clearly communicate yes and no through vocalisations.

The receptive language skills profiles, tested with the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dunn, Padilla, Lugo, and Dunn, 1986) were heterogeneous. 5 participants’ receptive vocabulary was moderately high,

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2 participants’ receptive vocabulary was moderately low, and it was restricted in 5 participants as tested by the Peabody test. Participants’ grammar receptive skills, assessed with the Test for Reception of Grammar (Bishop, 1989), were varied as well. All parents, teachers and familiar partners informed of good comprehension of language in predictable sequences of everyday activities and routines. Nevertheless, these skills were considered to be adequate only in 5 participants, but were poor and extremely poor in the remaining 7 participants as they failed to recognize most of the focused language structures in the Bishop’s grammar test.

Participants also exhibited different profiles regarding their expressive language skills. 6 participants showed good expressive language skills. Regarding language form, 3 out of these 6 participants used traditional orthography: the first one, communicated through auditory partner assisted scanning of the alphabet; the second one, communicated messages linking syllables on a syllabic board and used a Canon communicator without voice output to follow her studies; and the third one, used a syllabic board with unfamiliar partners, and finger-spelling in order to communicate quickly with his familiar partners; he reached a high level of proficiency in the finger-spellings. These three participants made a transition from PCS and Bliss symbols to the use of the alphabet as a communication mean. Two out of these six participants used low tech boards that combined PCS with the traditional orthography; one of these used Winspeak as well -communication software program with digitised speech, on a desktop computer and accessed it by means of a head switch. The last participant used Minspeak icons on DeltaTalker with speech output that he accessed with a switch activated by a movement of his knee. These 6 participants communicated with long and well structured sentences from a grammatical and syntactical point of view. Regarding the content of their language, they communicated a variety of topics. For example, they talked about the last book they read, the last film the saw, about their short and long run plans, about their families, and so. They all had experience with different language functions. They used language not only to report on past and present experiences but also to imagine, to predict, to elicit information, to solve problems, to social closeness, and so.

Expressive language skills were limited in the remaining 6 participants. Two of these participants used about 150 PCS, one with partner assisted scanning, the other one with direct selection with his index finger. Although they had that amount of symbols, they didn’t use all of them. Their utterances’ mean length was 1.5. They used the symbols in a responsive mode with few initiations. Another participant used Bliss symbols; although she had a board with 350 Bliss symbols, she only used about 30 symbols to answer questions and for the expression of wants and needs. Her utterances’ mean length was 1 symbol. Another two participants used traditional orthography; one used an alphabetic board with a head stick and the other one communicated messages linking syllables on a low tech communicator. They both used head and body movements to gain somebody’s attention, and then they were given their communication devices. They didn’t always have the communication devices available to them, so they were used to using eye-pointing for the expression of wants and needs. The mean length of their utterances was 1.5. They had no need to finish their sentences because as they began spelling, the partners predicted the rest of the word or sentence. Finally, one participant only used unaided strategies. He used his body movements to signal his desire of communicating wants and needs; then, his communication partner initiated auditory scanning of questions and he used head movements for yes or no. He also gazed to objects or persons as a communication mean. The restricted range of communication functions fulfilled was clearly influenced by the limited modes of communication available to him.

All participants but one were introduced AAC early in their lives. Six participants came from a collaborative home and school environment that provided a broad range of life experiences and broad opportunities to learn and to participate, and that supported communication in different contexts. In spite of teacher’s high expectations, motivation and support to communication, knowledge and attitude barriers were identified in the families of the 6 remaining participants. For example, low parental expectations and physical disease prevented one young woman participant from attending school regularly and therefore learning the use of alternative and augmentative strategies soon in her life. Another participant had to drop the use of an AlphaTalker due to his mother’s negative beliefs and attitudes about technology and her preference of unaided communication means. Four participants didn’t use their communications boards outside their occupational or educational environment due to lack of familiar support.

Three participants attended integrated settings, two of them following the regular curriculum with specific adaptive instruction and the support of an educational assistant; the third one had a significant

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curricular adaptation. One attended university. The remaining participants came from special settings for people with motor impairments or from occupational centres; one was preparing the university access, one had finished elementary school, one had finished secondary education, four had not finished their elementary studies and one participant gave up secondary education. All the participants were tested after years of formal school attendance so they all had enough years of literacy instruction.

Table 1 provides information relating to sex, age, kind of cerebral palsy, type of speech impairment, AAC techniques and educational characteristics for each participant; it also summarises information relating to fine motor abilities of participants.

Table 1Participants characteristics

Participant Sex Age Cerebral Palsy

SpeechImpairment

Fine motor Abilities

AAC techniques Educational level

1. E M 30 Spastic Anarthria Unaided pointing with index finger.

Syllabic board, fingerspelling, some gestures and head noddings.

University. Integrated settings.

2. J M 18 Spastic Anarthria No hand function. Alphabet auditory partner assisted scanning, head noddings.

High school finished. Occupational centre.

3. Ch F 33 Spastic Dysarthria Unaided pointing with thumb.

Syllabic board, canon communicator without speech output, head noddings, unintelligible sounds

Preparing university access.Special setting

4. P* F 16 Athetoid Anarthria Impaired hand fuction due to athetosis.

SPC board with partner assisted scanning, head noddings, eye blinks, head gestures and eye pointing.

Adaptive instruction.Integrated setting.

5. R M 23 Spastic Dysarthria No hand function. Alphabetic board, some unintelligible sounds, head noddings and eye pointing.

Unfinished high school.Occupational centre.

6. C M 33 Spastic Dysarthria Unaided pointing with index finger.

SPC board with direct selection, some intelligible words as “yes” “no”.

Unfinished elementary school.Special setting.

7. F M 19 Spastic Anarthria No hand function. SPC board with the alphabet and partner-assisted scanning, Winspeak communication program, head noddings, facial expression.

Elementary school.Occupational centre.

8. MJ F 25 Spastic Anarthria No hand function. Syllabic low technology communicator, eye pointing, head movements and eye blinks.

Unfinished elementary school.Special setting.

9. L* F 17 Spastic Anarthria No hand function. SPC board with alphanumeric encoding, eye pointing, head noddings and facial expression.

Adaptive instruction.Integrated setting.

10. P M 34 Spastic Anarthria No hand function. DeltaTalker, head noddings, smiles and facial expression.

Unfinished elementary school. Occupational centre.

11. V F 26 Spastic Anarthria Unaided pointing with index finger.

Bliss board, head noddings, facial expression.

Unfinished elementary school. Occupational centre.

12. O M 17 Spastic Anarthria No hand function. Unaided strategies as body movements, head noddings and “yes” and “no” gestures in response to auditory scanning.

Adaptive instruction, significant curricular adaptation. Integrated setting.

As in many other investigations (Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist, 1992, 1996b), the limited number of participants in this exploratory study was due to the small number of people that satisfied the initial criterion of use of augmentative and alternative communication due to a cerebral palsy condition. Another reason was the difficulty to gather enough number of participants, with the same characteristics, to fit in the different experimental situations (Bedrosian, 1999).

Materials

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The main criterion for the selection and preparation of test materials was that assessment materials had to be suitable to the motor abilities of participants.

When standardised tests were used, an effort was made to find instruments that demanded as few procedural adaptations as possible, thereby eliminating the risk of introducing entirely new task requirements (Blishack, 1994).

Phonological skill tasksSelected phonological skill tasks tapped into different levels of phonological processing skills -phoneme, syllable, and word levels- as they are widely acknowledged (Denton and cols., 2000; Hoien and cols., 1995). These tasks demanded different types and amounts of processing (Yopp, 1988) and also placed different loads on working memory. Though in Spanish there are no standardised phonological tests adapted to people who use AAC, our materials were based on standardised instruments by Calero, Pérez, Maldonado and Sebastián (1999). Pictures in phonological test items were taken from the Registro Fonológico Inducido by Monfort (1982). Table 2 shows phonological test items.

Memory capacityThe Digit Forward part of the Digit Span subtest of the WAIS (Wechsler, 1999), which tests short term auditory memory, was used as a measure of memory span. Participants were required to point to numbers in the same order as said by the examiner. Responses could be given in any augmented way. There were two trials of each sequence of numbers in case the participant did not succeed on the first trial.

Table 2Phonological Test Items And Reading Tests

Phonological tests:Oddity task. A set of 12 series of 3 pictures was introduced. Two of the pictures were a pair of rhyming names; the third picture’s name was odd (e.g., perro- botón- ratón). Participants’ task was to indicate the target picture with a no rhyming name in any augmented way (e.g., eye-pointing to the picture, unaided pointing with a finger). In order to avoid any biased responses, the position of pictures with an odd name within a series was changed through presentations.Syllable counting. 12 pictures depicting well known objects with easy names were presented. Number of syllables varied from 1 to 4 in every pictures’ names. Pictures were randomly distributed across the test. Participants’ task was to count the number of syllables in pictures’ names and give the number in any augmented answer (e.g., leg or hand strokes for each syllable, pointing numbers in a computer board). For example, the word ventana has 3 syllables; participants should give 3 strokes or point to number 3 in a keyboard.Phoneme counting. 12 easily recognizable and unambiguous pictures were presented. Number of phonemes in pictures’ names varied from 3 to 9. Pictures were randomly ordered across the test. Participants had to count the number of phonemes in pictures’ names and give this number in any augmented answer (e.g. leg or hand strokes or point to a number in a computer’s keyboard). For example, the word ojo has 3 phonemes; participants should point to number 3 in their communication devices or in a keyboard.Phoneme identification. 36 pictures depicting well known objects were presented. Pictures’ names comprised all Spanish sounds. Participants had to decide whether a particular phoneme pronounced by the examiner was present or not in a picture’s name. Participants’ yes or no responses were given in any augmented way (e.g., blinking once or twice, thumb up or down for yes or no respectively, head noddings). Target phonemes’ location was changed across the words (e.g., initial, middle or final position)Phoneme blending. 12 pictures depicting well known and recognizable objects were presented in two boards with 6 items each. The examiner pronounced its names, phoneme by phoneme, with an interval of ½ second between successive sounds. Participants’ task was to select the picture that matched the pronounced word. The length of the words varied from 3 to 8 phonemes.

Reading tests: Ortographic knowledge test. A set of 30 words was presented: 15 words with orthographic conventional spellings and 15 non words. Participants were asked to read them and to decide whether they were real words or not, through any yes or no augmented responses. Word reading test. 30 words were presented. Participants had to read one word at a time. Then they were shown a chart with 4 PCS. Participants’ task was to look for the matching picture from an array of four. Augmented responses were given by direct selection with a finger or eye pointing. Pseudoword reading test. Participants in this lexical decisions task had to read 40 words and 20 pseudowords, presented one at a time, and they had to decide, after their reading, whether they were real words or not. Yes and No were given by means of any augmented response.

Reading tasksThree tests from the Batería para la Evaluación de los Procesos Lectores PROLEC (Cuetos, Rodríguez and Ruano, 2000) were used to assess lexical access. An orthographic knowledge test was used. Cuetos

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et alt. (2000) have stressed that, by the age of 8 years old, Spanish children have the orthographic rules knowledge. A word reading test was used to assess word recognition and thereof, the use of lexical route in reading. Finally, a pseudoword reading test was used to evaluate the use of phonological route in reading. Table 2 (above) shows reading test items.

Spelling TasksThree spelling tasks were used; spelling of 6 single words (e.g., sol [sun], lavadora [washing machine]), spelling of 6 non-words (e.g., ols, valarado), and spelling of 6 pictures’ names (e.g. PCS of teléfono [telephone]). Participants were required to spell only 6 items in every spelling task in order to eliminate fatigue and to increase motivation. Words in the first two tasks were presented orally. Pseudoword spelling task was introduced to check whether participants managed spelling without the aid of an orthographic representation or not. The spelling of pictures’ names was introduced to determine how participants managed spelling when they had to produce phonological representations on their own.

Participants’ task was to write down the words or pseudowords they heard, or the names of the pictures pointing to the letters on the adaptive technology. The examiner wrote the letters down so that each person would be able to see the results of the spelling task.

Design EXPERIMENT 1One simple small-group design for independent groups was applied to working memory (WM) measures in order to test the first hypotheses. The statistic used was the difference between means and this was carried out using a standard non-parametric test, the t-Student test.

Working memory capacity independent variable had two levels, high and low, after the application of the median as statistical criterion to the Digit Span task’s scores (Md=3.50). A score above 3 in the Digit Span test was considered high working memory capacity. Scores under 3 were considered as low working memory span. Assignments to high (WM1) and low (WM2) working memory groups were made post testing according to the working memory capacity of the 12 participants. There were two groups of 6 participants each. The two following studies were considered in the assignation, the Elosúa, Gutiérrez, García, Luque and Gárate (1996) study, and the Desmette, Hupet, van der Linden and Schelstraete (1995) study, which propose an integrate model to categorize subjects according to their working memory span, less restrictive than Daneman and Carpenter (1980) one. See Table 3 for digit span test scores.

There were 3 reading dependent variables: the number of words correctly identified at the orthographic knowledge test; the number of words correctly read at the word reading test, and the number of pseudowords correctly identified at the pseudoword reading test. There were 12 spelling dependent measures: number of lexical elements correctly spelled (words, pseudowords and pictures’ names), total number of letters in words, pseudowords and pictures’ names; and first and last letters in words, pseudowords and pictures’ names.

EXPERIMENT 2Materials were the same as those used in Experiment 1, but only ten people participated in Experiment 2 (those marked with * in Table 1). One simple small-group design for independent groups was applied to phonological skills (PS) measures in order to test the second hypotheses. The statistic used was the difference between means and this was carried out using a standard non-parametric test, the t-Student test.

Phonological skills independent variable was a variable made up of all participant’s scores at all PS tasks; the sum of all scores showed a participant’s performance profile in phonological skills. After the application of the median as statistical criterion to these scores (Md=53), this variable had two levels. Scores above and under 53 were considered low and high phonological skills, respectively. Assignments to high (PS1) and low (PS2) phonological skills groups were made post testing according to the phonological skills level of the 12 participants. Subjects 4 and 9 were discarded due to the proximity of their scores (52 and 54 respectively) to the median. Thus, there were two groups of phonological skills with 5 participants each. See Table 3 for phonological skills tasks scores. In Experiment 2 the reading dependent variables were the same as the ones used in Experiment 1

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Table 3:Participants’ scores at memory and phonological skills tests

Procedure Procedure was the same for Experiment 1 and 2. Tasks were presented in as many sessions as needed over several days in order to minimize the influence of fatigue on performance. Great care was taken to ensure that all participants attended to the different tasks across all trials. There was no time restriction for any test.

Before proper testing, instruction was given. The examiner modelled task execution so that participants knew tasks’ expectations and how to carry out the tests. Two practice items were presented as well.

Tasks were presented in the same order for all participants. The test session began with phonological skill tasks, followed by the Digit Span test, the reading tests, and finally the spelling tests. In order to control any order effect, tasks presentation order was counterbalanced within phonological skills, reading and spelling tasks.

Phonological skills tasks’ stimuli were applied in a visual modality. The examiner, instead of pronouncing the name of the stimuli, presented well-known pictures depicting them. There was no validation of the test items to compare use of pictures and symbols instead of words, but this confounding variable was controlled through the use of familiar words selected from Calero et alt. (1999), and Cuetos et alt. (2000), and familiar pictures. These pictures and words were then contrasted with information provided by parents, teachers and caregivers and through the examiner’s own observation.

Accuracy data were collected for every task. Every response was codified as it follows. In the Digit Span test, one point was computed for every numerical series repeated in the right order. Maximum score was the highest number of numbers repeated in the same order as the examiner presented.

In the phonological skill tasks, one point was computed for every correct response at every task. In the oddity task, one point was given for every odd word identified; final score was total number of correct odd words identified. In the counting syllable task, one point was computed for every word whose syllables were correctly counted; final score was the number of words with correctly counted syllables. In the counting phoneme task, one point was given for every word whose phonemes were correctly counted. In the phoneme identification task, one point was computed for every sound correctly identified in a word; final score was the highest number of correctly identified sounds. Finally, in the phoneme blending task, one point was computed for every picture matched to the sequence of phonemes that the participant correctly blended. All participants’ scores at the phonological skill tasks were added in order to obtain a global phonological skill performance profile.

In the orthographic knowledge test every participant was given one point for every word and non word correctly sorted out in the lexical decision task; maximum score was 30. In the word reading test one point was computed for every word correctly read and then matched with its corresponding pictographic symbol; maximum score was 30. In the pseudoword reading test participants scored one

Participants WorkingMemory

PhonologicalAwareness

E 4 84J 5 79

Ch 4 74P* 4 52R 4 45C 4 39F 3 57

MªJ 3 57L* 3 54P 3 49V 3 39O 2 31

Median 3,5 53

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point for every pseudoword they read; maximum score was 20.

In the word spelling task, the number of correct spelled words, the number of total spelled letters and the number of first and final letters in words was calculated. Maximum score was 6 spelled words, 36 spelled letters, 6 first letters spelled and 6 final letters spelled. In the pseudoword and pictures’ names spelling tasks the number of correct spelled pseudowords and pictures’ names, the number of total spelled letters in pseudowords and in pictures’ names, and the number of first and final letters in pseudowords and in pictures’ names were also computed. Same scores were given in the pseudoword and pictures’ name spelling tasks as in the word spelling task.

Results Data have been processed with SPSS 11.0 (under permission of Siain, University of A Coruña).

Experiment 1Reading and spelling descriptive data for working memory groups are showed in Table 4. Statistical analyses were made from percentages’ scores.

Table 4:Reading and spelling descriptive data in working memory capacity groups

Working memory capacityLowWM1

HighWM2

N Mean Sd % Mean Sd %

Recognized patterns 6 14.67 7.94 48.9 24.00 7.51 80Read words 6 17.83 4.75 59.4 22.83 9.23 76.1Read p seudowords 6 9.00 8.39 45 16.17 3.92 80.8Nº of spelled words 6 1.50 1.87 25 3.83 2.63 63.8Nº of spelled pseudowords 6 1.33 1.21 22.1 3.33 2.80 55.5Nº of spelled pictures' names 6 .83 1.60 13.8 4.00 2.75 66.6Nº letters spelled in words 6 17.33 11.5 48.1 27.17 13.43 75.4Nº letters spelled in pseudowords 6 15.00 11.45 41.6 25.17 15.13 69.9Nº letters spelled in pictures’ names 6 16.50 10.50 45.8 26.50 15.12 73.6Nº first letters in words 6 3.00 2.53 50 4.83 1.94 80.5Nº first letters in pseudowords. 6 2.83 2.56 47.1 4.50 2.51 75Nº first letters in pictures’ names 6 2.67 2.16 44.5 4.50 2.07 75Nº last letters in words 6 2.83 2.13 47.1 4.33 2.58 72.1Nº last letters in pseudowords 6 2.83 2.48 47.1 4.17 2.56 69.5Nº last letters in pictures’ names 6 2.83 2.31 47.1 4.50 2.51 75

There were differences between high (WM2) and low (WM1) working memory capacity groups in descriptive reading and spelling data. WM2 performed better than WM1 in all the reading and spelling tasks (see Table 4 and Figures 1 and 2).

Figure 1. Reading percentages in working memory and phonological skills groups

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Figure 2.Spelling of lexical elements’ percentages in working memory and phonological skills groups

t-Student analysis showed statistical differences between working memory capacity groups in the number of orthographic patterns recognized (t = 3.17; p<.001), in the number of sight words read (t = 6.43; p<.001), and in the number of pictures’ names spelled (t = 2.43; p<.05) (see Table 6).

Table 5:Reading and spelling descriptive statistical data in phonological skills groups

Experiment 2 Reading and spelling descriptive data for phonological skills groups are showed in Table 5. Statistical analyses were made from percentages’ scores.

As it is showed in Table 5 and Figures 1 and 2, high phonological skills group performed better than low phonological skills group. There were differences between PS2 and PS1 in all descriptive reading and spelling measures. However, t-Student analysis only showed statistical significant differences between groups in reading, specifically, in the number of sight words read (t = 3.43; p<.001). In spelling, there were statistical differences in the spelling of pseudowords (t = 2.83; p<.05), and in the spelling of pictures' names (t =-2.72; p<.05). (See Table 7) There were also significant differences in the total number of spelled letters in words (t = 2.49; p<.05). Differences between groups were also significant in the number of first letters spelled in pseudowords (t = 2.35; p<.05) and last letters spelled in pseudowords (t = 3.33; p<.05).

Phonological skillsLowPS1

HighPS2

N Mean Sd % Mean Sd %

Recognized patterns 4 15.88 6.02 55.1 21.87 10.3 72.3Read words 4 13.99 5.94 51.2 25.09 5.06 81.9Read p seudowords 4 8.09 6.01 48.1 15.02 7.22 76.5Nº of spelled words 4 .98 1.09 19.2 3.98 2.02 64.8Nº of spelled pseudowords 4 .80 1.03 13.4 3.09 2.01 62.9Nº of spelled pictures' names 4 1.09 2.09 19.1 3.07 2.08 60.9Nº letters spelled in words 4 13.22 11.99 38.1 30.01 7.16 84.8Nº letters spelled in pseudowords 4 10.09 11.87 28.8 29.03 6.96 81.3Nº letters spelled in pictures’ names 4 14.12 12.83 39.1 27.83 9.05 79Nº first letters in words 4 2.06 2.09 41.1 4.93 .91 87.8Nº first letters in pseudowords. 4 1.09 2.12 35.8 5.07 1.58 84.1Nº first letters in pictures’ names 4 2.09 2.07 35.5 4.33 1.06 83.1Nº last letters in words 4 1.01 2.01 32.3 5.09 1.11 85.8Nº last letters in pseudowords 4 1.62 1.98 26.8 5.11 1.09 87.8Nº last letters in pictures’ names 4 1.98 2.01 35.3 5.06 1.33 85.8

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Table 6:t-Student results for working memory groups

Working memoryt p

Recognized orthographic patterns 3.8991 .001789*Read words 4.8766 .001345*Read pseudowords 2.6755 .119877Spelled words 1.9887 .184553Spelled pseudowords 1.7655 .126890Spelled pictures’ names 2.1233 .03122*Letters spelled in words -.12344 .143455Letters spelled in pseudowords -1.0999 .18999Letters spelled in pictures’ names -1.2345 .14866First letters spelled in words .98763 .15922First letters spelled in pseudowords -1.2548 .11228First letters spelled in pictures’ names -.34558 .10611Last letters spelled in words -.67777 .31337Last letters spelled in pseudowords -.87542 .34331Last letters spelled in pictures’ names -1.6999 .25323

*p<.05; **p<.001

Table 7:t-Student results for phonological skills groups

*p<.05; **p<.001DiscussionParticipants in this study exhibited different ability and skill profiles. The Cerebral Palsied population is a heterogeneous group with different physical and sensory impairments, different profiles in language and cognitive abilities, and varied educational experiences. Higginbotham and Bedrosian (1995) have stated the possession of some sort of communication disability and use of a communication technology may be their only commonalities. Therefore, there are difficulties in the implementation of group designs given the low incidence of the AAC population and the variability within this population (Bedrosian, 1999; Light, 1999; Sevcik, Romski and Adamson, 1999). However, despite this variety of personal circumstances, an effort was made to gather a sample as similar and numerous as possible. Though, we are conscious of the small sample in this study. Therefore, any generalization of our findings across persons that use AAC systems and our conclusions should be taken with caution.

In this study we assumed that working memory capacity and phonological skills would have an effect on reading and spelling performance in a group of people with CCN. A finding of this study was that, although the high working memory group scored higher in all literacy tasks than low working memory group, differences were only significant for the knowledge of orthographic patterns, for the reading of words, and for the spelling of pictures’ names. The second finding of this study was that differences on phonological skills were related to differences in the spelling of pseudowords and pictures' names, to differences in the number of letters spelled in words, and to differences in the spelling of the first and last letter in pseudowords; nevertheless, differences on phonological skills had no effect on all reading measures but in the reading of words.

Phonological skills t p

Recognized orthographic patterns 1.12357 .35434Read words 3.43855 .002115**Read pseudowords 1.09931 .287611Spelled words 1.54603 .868761Spelled pseudowords 2.83226 .023476*Spelled pictures’ names -2.72210 .021118*Letters spelled in words 2.49341 .032111*Letters spelled in pseudowords 1.21184 .043214Letters spelled in pictures’ names 1.98235 .071134First letters spelled in words 2.08110 .070988First letters spelled in pseudowords 2.35228 .043444*First letters spelled in pictures’ names -2.13119 .066108Last letters spelled in words -1.21141 .222179Last letters spelled in pseudowords 3.33333 .014333*Last letters spelled in pictures’ names 2.172343 .060133

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As it is known, working memory is important for reading (Baddeley, 1982; Daneman and Carpenter, 1980). Memory is involved in learning the spelling conventions, too. In fact, for an expert reader, reading involves the recognition of words and their specific spellings. In Spanish, there is an important number of words that have specific spellings. In order to recognize these words and to read them for accessing their meanings, a person has to know the orthographic rules (i.e., words with same sounds [b-v, j-g, c-q-k, ll-y, h-no h] but conventional spellings). As our results show, it seems that, once orthographic knowledge is learned and a visual sight vocabulary is acquired, working memory has a role in reading performance. In our study, it was significantly easier for high working memory capacity participants to recognize written orthographic conventions and to read words than for low working memory capacity ones; in fact, the higher number of correctly recognized and read words for the former group, seems to suggest so. Obviously, their high cognitive capacity has allowed participants to significantly learn much more orthographic conventions and to succeed in recognizing a greater amount of orthographic patterns. In this sense, low working memory capacity participants have acquired a very restricted visual written vocabulary, and therefore they have stored in memory a fewer amount of visual representations of words; they have read significantly less visual words, and they have made a high number of mismatches between read words and pictures. These significant differences might be interpreted as an evident lack of success of low working memory participants in using the visual route in reading. Furthermore, though in this study we have not taken into account on-line reading measures, we have informally appreciated that it took longer for them to read the words. This fact could also be interpreted as an evidence of the use of the indirect route in reading, and as a failure in the application of the GPCR when using the phonological route in reading familiar words. Low working memory group read at a very basic level, they could not even read the fiftieth percent of the tested words; those words constitute a very basic visual vocabulary that was chosen from a reading test that typically applies to children from 6 to 9 years old in Spanish.

When looking at phonological skills groups' results in reading, significant differences were found in the reading of words but not in pseudoword reading. It was surprising because it was expected that high phonological skills group would outperform in this latter task. Participants were assigned to high phonological skills condition, precisely, because of their high capacity to solve phonological tasks. Phonological skills are basic in order to grasp the alphabetic principle (Gough, Ehri y Treiman 1992; Byrne and Fielding-Barnsley, 1990). Besides, in order to read pseudowords, for which there are not any representations in the lexicon, phonological skills are necessary as grapheme to phoneme correspondence rules must be applied (Morton, 1979b). Our results, though different to the expected ones, are similar to those reported in literature. Research has showed this same lack of ability of cerebral palsied preschool children in applying their demonstrated phonological skills in reading (Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist, 1996a, b). Expert readers characterize by their ability to indistinctly use the direct and the phonological routes in reading (Coltheart, 1978; Grainger and Ferrand, 1996). In this study, the high phonological skilled group behaved as a novice reading group, in that they could not rely on their phonological abilities in order to solve the pseudoword reading problem; nevertheless, they could solve the word reading problem significantly better than low PS group. This means their reliance on a well-known visual vocabulary but their difficulty to read new words using the indirect route. Looking for an explanation of the lack of significant differences between phonological skills groups, performance within groups was analyzed. It was noticed that some of the participants within the high phonological skills group did nearly perfect in the reading of pseudowords, meanwhile some other participants did not read half of the pseudowords. Maybe variability within groups has masked the real potential of phonological skills in reading. As a positive outcome, we should emphasize that all participants, regardless their high or low phonological skills condition, were able to decode pseudowords to a certain extent. However, when GPCR are incorrectly applied, there is no progress in reading and this might be the real situation for the low phonological skill group.

As it has been suggested, children may use, from the very first moment of systematic reading acquisition, the direct route in lexical access; supporting evidence comes from studies that show that frequent words are much better read than infrequent ones, and from studies were children read words more easily than pseudowords, showing the lexical category effect (Defior, Justicia and Martos, 1998; Domínguez and Cuetos, 1992). This is our participants’ situation. Words in Cuetos et al.’s reading test were very frequent Spanish words which may explain the significant better results in reading them with a whole-word strategy. This might be interpreted as Defior et al. (1998) suggested, as an indication of the advantage of using the visual or direct route as an aid in word reading. Moreover, the worse performance in both PA groups in pseudoword reading compared to word reading performance may be

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another indication of participants’ poor reading skills. This poor reading skills linked to the unsuccessful use of the phonological route turned participants into novice readers. It has also been remarked that previous automation in the use of grapheme to phoneme correspondences’ rules allows the development of orthographic representations (Defior, and al., 1998). Participants in this study, although were able to apply this rules to a certain extent as shown by correct percentages, have failed to automate this rules as they have not differed in orthographic patterns knowledge and in pseudoword reading. This is in line with literature’s reported findings about the difficulty of non speaking children to attain mastery of the grapheme-phoneme relationships necessary for successful word recognition and word identification (Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist, 1996b). Also, our results bring into line with Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist (1997) and Foley (1993). They stated that the normal model for development of literacy skills did not fit their results since the phonological skills of the participants in their study were not accompanied by the expected reading and writing level; so our participants were. However, Dahlgren Sandberg and Hjelmquist (1997) noticed that within the non speaking group, there was indication that reading and spelling were related to phonological skills. In our study this was evidenced by high PA group’s word reading significant results.

From a lexical processing point of view, it has been pointed out that a competent reader is that one who can efficiently use both, the visual and phonological routes to lexical access. It is accepted that both routes are potential and alternatively used, and that lexical and phonological processing interact (Coltheart, 1985). So, if a reader depends solely on one or the other route this could be interpreted as a symptom of difficulty or of poor reading skills (Rueda, 1995). In the case of our participants, the significant word reading differences found between phonological groups may be indicating a preferred visual word strategy, and conversely, absence of significant differences in pseudoword reading may indicate a failure in the application of correspondence’s rules. Goswami and Bryant (1990) have found that meanwhile phonemic awareness is of fundamental importance for spelling among young naturally speaking children, for early reading a whole-word strategy is at work, where the role of phonology is minimal. According to this statement, it could be said that high phonological skills participants used the visual reading strategy and as a group they could be labeled as early readers.

Regarding spelling results, it is important to note that, although there were no differences in the spelling of orally presented words and pseudowords between working memory capacity groups, both groups differed in the spelling of pictures’ names. It seems as if the verbal aid would have helped all participants to do the task. Words and pseudowords were spoken aloud by the examiner on an ongoing basis so that all participants could spell the items. Voiced presentations of words and pseudowords have played the role of an overt articulatory rehearsal of the phonological representations of the lexical items to the working memory. Taking into account both, the time that many participants spent selecting the letters and that this selection was made letter by letter, hearing aloud the words and pseudowords was an important clue. When low working memory capacity participants had to spell pictures’ names on their own, without any verbal assistance, they failed. Pictures’ names may be spelled either by generating a phonological representation, storing it, and then applying phonological skills or conversely, one may directly recuperate a visual orthographic pattern from the lexicon, which it is also a memory store. Significant high working memory results suggest that a bigger span or capacity allows a greater temporary store of such phonological information and more resources allocated to its processing. Another interpretation is that a higher memory capacity involves a greater amount of visual orthographic representations stored in it. Whatever route in spelling low working memory participants used, they failed to use it strategically. Taken together, the significant recognition of orthographic patterns in reading, the significant number of words read and this spelling result, we might speculate once again that high working memory group used the direct route in reading and spelling.

Lack of significance between working memory groups in the remaining spelling measures –total number of letters, first and last letters in all lexical items- is somewhat difficult to interpret. When individual performance profiles were examined it was found again a nearly perfect performance in some high working memory capacity participants, and very poor spelling results in some others. In fact, some high working memory capacity participants didn’t fail the spelling of any last letter neither in words, pseudowords or pictures’ names or they reached 100% correct in the spelling of total number of letters in words and in pictures’ name; on the contrary, some other high working memory participants couldn’t spell any last letter, and still there was one participant that couldn’t hardly spell 5% of the total amount of letters. Low working memory participants also had varied spelling performance profiles, from one participant that could spell all last letters and all first letters, and nearly all letters, to some other participants that were not able to spell either any first or last letter in any of the lexical elements.

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Thus, the high variability within memory groups might be involved in the lack of significance between working memory groups.

No significant differences were found between phonological skills groups in the spelling of words. As it is known, phonological skills may not be necessary in order to spell words, because words may be visually spelled or recuperated (Seidenberg, 1985; Taylor and Taylor, 1983). This fact might explain the absence of differences between high and low phonological skills groups. Phonological skills were not used for spelling the proposed words; participants needed not these skills for spelling because the lexical items were well known words, and they were spelled using the visual route –they were visual-graphemic recuperated according to Morton’s model (1979b). Therefore, neither high nor low participants used their phonological abilities for spelling, relying on the visual route for performing this task. On the contrary, phonological skills are absolutely necessary in order to spell pseudowords. In this sense, those persons with high phonological skills should succeed in this kind of spelling task; and this is another important finding in this study, namely, that phonological skill groups significantly differed in the spelling of pseudowords. This finding also indicates that phonological rules were not spontaneously but systematically applied; if low phonological skills participants had used them, differences would have been found in the spelling of pseudowords.

Phonological skill groups also differed in the spelling of pictures’ names. This significantly better result has to be jointly interpreted with words and pseudowords spelling results. High phonological skill group used the application of the PGCR for recuperating pictures’ names and spelling them; that is the reason why high phonological skill group outperform this task compared to low capacity group. When participants have a visual representation for the word, they may recuperate it as a whole; therefore, differences between phonological groups in the first task were not found, phonological skills were not needed for doing the task. When high phonological skill participants have not the visual representation either of the pseudoword or of the word depicted by the picture, they resort to the phoneme to grapheme correspondence rules in order to spell pseudowords and pictures’ names.

It has been argued that spelling depends on retrieval and reproduction of phoneme-grapheme relationships (Snowling and Stackhouse, 1983) and that phonemic awareness is of critical importance for spelling (Goswami and Bryant, 1990). The role of phonology was an important one in literacy performance in this study. High phonological group behaved as a skilled group in that they used a visual and also a phonological strategy for spelling, in contrast to reading. In this sense they were more expert in spelling compared to low phonological skill group. As Vandervelden (2003) has stressed phoneme awareness develops gradually as part of a developing skill in using the alphabetic principle in learning to read and write. The ability to use language sounds is a strongly associated ability to reading and spelling learning (Vandervelden and Siegel, 1995, 1996, 1997). Significant spelling results for high phonological skill group in the spelling of the first and last letters in pseudowords show an effect of phonological skills on spelling performance. As it was said before, for spelling pseudowords it is absolutely necessary to apply PGCR. Their higher level of phonemic awareness has allowed them to significantly spell a greater number of pseudowords. Lack of significance between phonological skill groups in the spelling of first and last letter in words and in picture’s names indicate that all subjects were able to use an early skill in spelling. These results coincide with Vandervelden and Siegel (1999, 2001) findings. Vandervelden and Siegel (1999, 2001) showed different amount of ability in the AAC students group in a spelling dictation task; their students exhibited a beginning level skill as they could spell the initial letter in a pseudoword; our participants showed a more advanced skill as they spelled the first and last letters in pseudowords, and finally, advanced skills were found as they could spell whole pseudowords. Our high PA group seems to show advanced skills compared to low phonological awareness ability group.

Concluding RemarksThis study, though descriptive, has thrown some light on the advantage that participants with high level of working memory capacity and participants with high level of phonological skills take on reading and spelling skills. Though significant, we wish to emphasize once again that our results should be taken with caution. First, we should say that this study was descriptive by nature and we can not make any inference about causal relationships among variables. Second, participants sample’s size was small and their learning histories, social environments, and language and abilities profiles were varied. What has been called the extrinsic variables in language and literacy learning (Smith and Blischak, (1997) might have had an influence in the results our participants reached. Another factor to be considered is that our

15


study has involved Spanish language and as it is known this is a transparent language as opposed to opaque English language.

As a major conclusion it could be said that participants with a high level of working memory, as a group, have read and spelled basically using the visual route. A second major conclusion is that high phonological skills participants behaved in reading as novices, they read using the visual route; but for spelling they behaved as experts, they strategically used the phonological route for spelling pseudowords. These lexical elements can only be read using the indirect route, and in this task they outperformed compared to low phonological skills participants.

Educational and clinical implications are straightforward. When attending people with complex and special communication needs, working memory span should be trained, and phonological skills should also be programmed in the intervention or educational programs. As it has been found, memory has been involved in the recognition of a much greater amount of orthographic patterns and in the reading of a greater amount of visual vocabulary. Besides, as it has been stressed, conventional orthography allows communication without any restriction. If we want people with CCN to communicate using AAC devices based on traditional orthography, we should plan the practice of phonological skills in order to teach spelling skills later. We base this conclusion on the finding that literacy skills in the high phonological skills group were very much alike to those of expert writers of typical development. In this sense, Foley and Pollatsek (1999) have pointed out that many studies have demonstrated that when children who are weak in phonological awareness receive appropriate instruction, they improve much more rapidly in reading and spelling than do control groups, especially when this instruction is linked with letter-sound and word learning, and these gains are maintained for at least 2 to 4 years (Blachman, 1991, 1994; Blachman, Ball, Black and Tangel, 1994; Bradley, 1988; Lundberd and allies, 1988). That is also the case for children with complex communicative needs (Dahlgren Sandberg, 2001).

Further research is needed to elucidate whether the descriptive relations shown in this study have a causal nature or not. It would be necessary to carry out an experimental design to answer this question.

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JAN WATERINK (1890-1966), A DYNAMIC DUTCH PIONEER OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

Marjoke Rietveld-van WingerdenDoret de Ruyter

Leendert GroenendijkVU-University Amsterdam

During the first half of the twentieth century the interest in special education was increasing in Western countries. This was a reaction to the inclusive practise of the nineteenth century school systems. Most handicapped children were kept home or sent to regular schools, which neglected their special needs. The introduction of compulsory education, in the Netherlands in 1900, stimulated the founding of special schools and the development of tests and further research on children with behavioural and learning problems. In the Netherlands Jan Waterink (1890-1966), professor at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam took a leading part in this field of research. This paper describes his career and contribution to the academic child studies and special education. His pioneering work in his Psychological Laboratory and Paedologisch Instituut in Amsterdam, aimed at integrating scientific research and caring concerning disabled and problem children. Many pedagogues and psychologists from abroad visited the institute and considered it to be a model for a clinic in their own country.

IntroductionJan Waterink belonged to the first generation of Dutch academic pedagogues. He lived in a period in which there was a growing interest in disabled children and their education both in the Netherlands and abroad. Contrary to current times in which the aim to include these children in mainstream schools is dominant, until the 1970s education of disabled children was characterised by exclusion (Safford & Safford, 1996; Winzer, 1993). By implication, the selection of children for special education and care was of significant value. The measurement of intelligence was important and numerous tests were introduced, to which Waterink contributed by his psychological laboratory (1927) and children’s clinic Paedologisch Instituut (1931). This clinic took the interest of foreign doctors, pedagogues, psychologists and psychiatrists who considered it as an example for their own countries. Our paper addresses Waterink’s contribution to child studies and special education by exploring the way in which he succeeded to integrate research aimed at the collection of scientific data and care for disabled and problem children. The description of his life and work is divided into three parts. First we concisely describe the prelude to the rise and success of Waterink’s work: the Child Study Movement, which lead to an increasing interest in special education, tests and diagnostics. Then we explain the emerging star of Waterink and his accomplishments in the Netherlands, most particularly his children’s clinic and psychological laboratory which were famous beyond Dutch boarders. The article ends with an evaluation of his contribution to special education.

The prelude: The child study movementSince the last decades of the nineteenth century the interest in school hygiene, children’s disabilities and special education was on the increase. Many countries introduced compulsory schooling, juvenile courts, child saving programs and school doctors. With her Barnets Arhundrade (The Century of the Child, 1900) the Swedish activist Ellen Key was not crying in the desert: her message found receptive ground. Children and their welfare became a major concern (Marland & Gijswijt-Hofstra, 2003; Fagan, 1992; Depaepe, 1993).The expanding interest in children’s care also meant an impulse for the study of children and their education. In the USA, G. Stanley Hall was the founding father of the so-called child study movement in the 1880s. With the scientific study of children, Stanley Hall pursued a practical aim: if teachers

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were better informed about the natural characteristics of children, education would improve (Fagan, 1992; Appley, 1986). A pupil of Stanley Hall, the German Oscar Chrisman, who emphasised the necessity of integrating the scattered insights of childhood, coined the term paedologie for the scientific study of the child in his dissertation Paidologie: Entwurf zu einer Wissenschaft des Kindes, which he defended at Jena University in Germany in 1896 (Depaepe, 1993). Terms like pedology and pedological soon became fashionable in the Netherlands, France, Germany and Belgium (Van Gorp, 2005; De Wit, 1982). The first Dutch pedological conference, held in 1913 in Amsterdam, was a testimony to the increasing interest in integrated child studies. The participants were doctors, school inspectors, psychiatrists, neurologists and teachers. They talked, among other things, about the measurement of intelligence, fatigue, experimental research on personality and the implementation of legislation concerning delinquent and psychopathic children (Verslag van het Eerste Nederlandsche Congres voor Kinderstudie, 1913). The conference stimulated the founding of a society for the study of pedology (Paedologisch Gezelschap, Amsterdam, 1915) and a journal devoted to child studies (Kinderstudie, 1916-1925). The main aim of pedology was improving the aid to children on the basis of solid information about development and problems of childhood based on observation, tests, experiments and questionnaires (De Wit, 1982; Dane, 2006).An extra stimulus for research was the increase in numbers of special schools and children’s homes for disabled children from four in 1900 to 146 in 1940 in the Netherlands (Graas, 1996). The main question was when and why a child would need special education or had to be placed in a children’s home. One of the academic researchers who set to work was Jan Waterink.

The rising star and successes of Waterink Like Stanley Hall, Waterink had studied theology. He started his career as a minister (1913-1926), initially in a village, then in a small town and finally in the Dutch capital, Amsterdam. As a young minister he was confronted with cases of misbehaviour of youngsters and adults. Waterink felt that his study at the Reformed Theological College in Kampen had not prepared him to deal with such practical issues. Therefore, he decided to enrol at Bonn University in 1917 to study ethnology and psychology. The church council granted him weekly a day off for study activities. In 1919 he entered the Calvinist VU University in Amsterdam in order to obtain a Master’s degree in theology and after passing his exams he started writing his dissertation. In this dissertation, Plaats en methoden der ambtelijke vakken (Pastoral theology: its place and method, 1923), he combined his theological and psychological interests; the dissertation was partly based on fieldwork with questionnaires to determine children’s reception of doctrinal texts. In 1926 Waterink was appointed associate professor in pedagogy at VU University, which had become a compulsory academic discipline in 1926 in the Netherlands. The new academic pedagogues were primarily interested in the professionalization of teachers, educational reform, learning problems and advising parents and teachers. Waterink was especially devoted to the research on problematic children. In his inaugural lecture Waterink defined pedagogy as a discipline in which theoretical reflection should go hand in hand with observation, statistics and experimental research (Waterink, 1926). In 1927 Waterink started his lectures in pedology, psycho-technology and pedagogy for students of theology, philosophy, law and medicine that wanted to specialise as a psychologist or pedagogue (Proceedings VU Directors, 19 March, 1927). Moreover, he also began to provide courses for teachers.That same year (1927) he got permission to use a section of the laboratory of the Valerius Clinic, which had been the first university clinic in the Netherlands for both care and research of adults with psychiatric and neurologic diseases (Van Strien, 1993), for experimental pedagogy and established a psychological laboratory. Waterink also drew up a plan for a children’s clinic. In 1931 his clinic for research and observation of abnormal children, the Paedologisch Instituut, was opened. By then he was full professor as well. Due to his extended scientific activities his associate professorship had been changed in 1929 into a full professorship not only in pedagogy, but also in pedology and applied psychology (psycho-technics), while his teaching commitment (pedagogy) was enlarged with pedology, psycho-technology and applied psychology (Mulder, 1989).

Paedologisch Instituut (PI)Waterink’s Paedologisch Instituut was the first children’s clinic with an academic status in the Netherlands. Although the daily routine was Christian and only Christian staff was appointed, the clinic practised an open admittance policy. In the starting period, the 1930s, the PI cooperated with ‘s Heeren Loo, an organisation that consisted of several homes for mentally disabled and problem children (Jak, 1993, 1999). ‘s Heeren Loo was responsible for the building and exploitation and the VU for the research program and salaries of the research assistants and director Waterink. This was a

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win-win situation for both institutions: The advantage for ‘s Heeren Loo was that it acquired direct access to a research department, which increased its reputation; VU University was interested because it enhanced its importance as a private Christian university that wanted to make science profitable for society. Since the VU was dependent on gifts and contributions, it was important to show its supporters that science could lead to useful results (Waterink, 1930; Van Deursen, 2005).

The PI was to provide boarding facilities, which was also defended from a pedagogical and research point of view: the results of tests were thought to be more valid when the child was familiar with the climate, the laboratory assistants and environment. While tested the child should feel at home and comfortable. This was especially important for the target group of seriously and multiple handicapped children, who needed continuous observation to be able to determine which clinic or school was appropriate after leaving the institute.The opening of the institute was in January 1931. Unfortunately, the desired building was not yet vacant, but utilization of a section of the Valerius Clinic was granted. Because of the limited space, only boys to a maximum of 22 could be admitted. They had to sleep in one big room, which was separated from the neighbouring room of the nurses by a door with a gauze window for the continuous observation of the children. According to the agreement with ‘s Heeren Loo, more than half of the pupils came from one of its homes, in particular from the department for children with behavioural problems. The rest consisted of pupils who had visited Waterink’s consulting hours with their parents. They stayed for two or three months while being observed and tested in order to give pedagogical advice to parents, teachers and caretakers and to determine which home or school was appropriate after leaving the clinic. The intended bigger building was opened in May 1933. Subsequently the capacity increased to eighty boys and girls, who stayed approximately for three to fourteen months. Their age varied from three to twenty years. From then on the clinic also admitted children from the court of justice (Rietveld-van Wingerden, 2006; Breimer, 1989).

Waterink regularly made tours to speak at conferences, to visit children’s homes and laboratories and to meet colleagues, not only in the Netherlands but also in countries like Hungary, Switzerland, Germany, South Africa and the USA. He also used these trips to make his laboratory and clinic more widely known. During the first two years some two thousand persons visited his clinic of whom 78 were foreign medical doctors, specialists and professors (Proceedings Paedologisch Instituut, 1933). They wrote their comments in a guest book. Prof. Heuyer from Paris noted: Je quitte l’Institute Pédologique avec un sentiment d’admiration et d’envie. The Norwegian delegate Miss Dr. N. Hoel declared: Es ist mir eine grosse Freude gewesen das Institut zu sehen. Wenn man herum reist bekommt man eine gute Gelegenheit zu vergleichen. Im Vergleich mit England und Deutschland is mir die Grundlichkeit und systematisierte Arbeit aufgefallen. Bis jetzt habe ich in Wirklichkeit in den vielen Ländern wo ich gewesen [bin] sowas nicht gesehen. Ich hoffe [dass] man in Norwegen wenn man ein ähnliches Institut begründen soll, sehr viel hier lernen konnte. Ich hoffe [dass] die Resultate der Arbeit hier […] überall bekannt [werden] (Proceedings Peadologisch Instituut, 1937, 4).

New testsWhen Waterink started his laboratory in 1927, academic research concerning children was rather underdeveloped in the Netherlands. Assistants tested the children who visited Waterink’s consulting hours. While he talked with the parents, he also observed their interactions with the child. Most parents left the building having received some pedagogical advice. After 1931, when the children’s clinic was opened, he sometimes advised to keep a child in the clinic for a longer period of observation. This did not only benefit the children themselves, they were also of service to Waterink: they were living examples to illustrate his lectures for students, they were used for the development of new tests, offered material for case studies, and finally, the observation of these abnormal children would improve our knowledge of normal development (Waterink, 1935a).

Together with his assistants, Waterink developed instruments for the measurement of intelligence, motor functioning and the ability to reproduce, memorize, reflect, think and react. He considered the Binet-Simon test (1905, translated into Dutch in 1919) too limited and not appropriate to assess the intelligence of children with speech impediments and the seriously handicapped. Moreover, he argued that intelligence was a complex issue, also determined by perception, experience of time and space, motor function, memory, reaction capacity and logical thinking. Therefore, the laboratory complemented the Binet-Simon with a lot of other tests like puzzles, games and electric measurement of reaction speed. Some of them were developed by the laboratory, like the cord board in which a child had to lead a cord along a white track on a black board marked with pins. Most of the tests were

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paper-and-pencil tests with pictures in which the child had to search for differences, similarities, order and faults (De Wit, 1992, Waterink 1935a). These tests were categorised in an internal document called Het Gulden Boek (The Golden Book).As most of the pupils before 1941 were seriously mentally handicapped, the laboratory time and again searched for better instruments to measure their intelligence. Waterink’s chief assistant doctor R. Vedder devoted his dissertation to this topic by focussing on the reproduction and handling of geometric figures. Two hundred normal and one hundred mentally disabled children were involved in his research. He discovered that the incapacity to handle these figures had nothing to do with motor functions but with perception. Vedder’s research was important for the assessment of the intelligence of seriously mentally disabled children (Vedder, 1939; Proceedings of the Paedologisch Instituut, 1939). Waterink believed that this new instrument was a good supplement to the Binet-Simon test. Gradually projection tests were introduced to assess personality, feeling of well-being, empathic capacities and relationships with parents, siblings and peers. First of all came the Rorschach (1921) test, in which the child had to tell what it saw in a inkblot, later on followed the Children’s Apperception Test (CAT), the tree-test and village-test. In, the CAT children were stimulated to tell a story in response to pictures of animals, in the tree-test they had to draw a tree and in the village-test the child played with miniature toys (farmstead, animals, children, adults, chairs) (Het Gulden Boek, ca 1952; Dane, 2006).

Innovative diagnostics and new treatmentInitially, diagnostics and treatment were strongly oriented towards medical routines. Far into the 1950s the assistants wore white clothes and the nurses’ white-and-blue uniforms. From the beginning doctors belonged to the team of the laboratory and clinic. They did a medical intake in order to determine whether hereditary factors were involved (Waterink, 1935b). The physicians also searched in the medical history of the child for illnesses like meningitis, encephalitis and small pox to investigate if these were the cause of the child’s mental condition. When examining the body they looked for failures in hearing, vision, motor function, blood, urine and lungs. Sometimes they found deafness or tuberculosis as an additional problem. This medical orientation was common in youth care until the early 1960s (De Beer, 2004; Trent, 1994; Safford & Safford, 1998; Marland & Gijswijk-Hofstra, 2003). The medical treatment was also necessary considering the target group, because part of the clients suffered from additional corporal handicaps and diseases. A surgeon treated children with deformities of the body, a clubfoot or tonsillitis (Proceedings Paedologisch Instituut, 1932-1940). The physicians were innovative in applying new inventions. One of them was the use of X-rays after 1932. Those from the hand bones served as a means to check if there was stagnation in growth. This was important to track metabolism diseases, which could be responsible for dysfunction of the brains as well. X-rays were also used for examining the brains and spinal cord by inserting air into the spinal cord. After 1945 the EEG was introduced for the research of cerebral functioning.

Every child that entered the clinic underwent an extensive screening, because the diagnosis with which the child entered the clinic was not rated very highly. Mostly it was too fragmentary and not based on solid investigation. The process of diagnosis was intended to elucidate the whole personality of the child (Waterink, 1933). Intelligence was important, but so were speech, perception, and experience of time, motor skills, accuracy and courtesy. Waterink argued that the assessment of the child should be directed at an understanding of the child as a personality with its own habits, ways of thinking and perception of the environment. He emphasised the need of a good relationship with the child: the child should feel at ease. He advised the laboratory assistants and later on the psychologists of the institute not to start investigating the child before both had laughed about something (Wijngaarden, 1961; Waterink 1935a; Het Gulden Boek, ca. 1952). To assess its personality the child was observed while being tested or at play. The sandbox, toys, clay and drawing were often used to instigate a play situation. Not only was the child observed, it was also imperceptibly invited to talk about itself (Rietveld-van Wingerden & Groenendijk, 2006).More than once this solid investigation resulted into a totally different diagnosis than the one with which the child had entered the clinic. Sometimes a child was labelled as mentally disabled at the intake, but turned out to have higher than average intelligence. They had failed at school because the teacher and the educational subject matter did not challenge their interest and abilities, and subsequently they had become uninterested, frustrated and lazy. The advice was to let them skip a class (Jak, 1999; Waterink, 1937a). Other children suffered from additional problems, which had influenced the outcome of the intelligence test, i.e. deafness or endocrine failures such as the malfunctioning of kidneys or the thyroid gland. A low score on Binet-Simon could also be the result of a neurosis. This interest in a clear diagnosis was more than a matter of searching for the causes of

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dysfunctions and trying to heal them. The main aim was to provide caretakers with adequate pedagogical advice when a child left the clinic. This advice sometimes betrays the dated perception on parents. For instance, Waterink believed that neurosis was hereditary, one of the parents or both had the same disease. Therefore, they were not suitable for their educational task and had worsened the problems of the child. In that case the child could not return home but was sent to a children’s home (Waterink, 1935b).

After the diagnosis was made, Waterink’s laboratory and clinic treated children with particular psychic problems according techniques derived from the rather new behavioural psychology and psychoanalysis. In 1935 Waterink and his chief assistant Vedder reported the successful application of behavioural therapy to three young pupils (three to five year olds) who had lost their speech as a result of a psychic trauma: the noise of an aeroplane (Jetty), a mask during carnival (Wim), and exercises of soldiers (Jan). They were not only mute, but also anxious and incontinent. The therapy consisted in exposing the child gradually to the things it was frightened of. In the case of Jetty this procedure successively consisted of telling stories about aeroplanes, showing pictures, playing games, and at last a visit to the airport. Wim was confronted with a very small mask that was gradually made bigger and more colourful. Thanks to the therapy all three pupils had found their tongue again, while their other problems also disappeared. The authors compared their findings with outcomes of research abroad. The article appeared in French as well (Waterink & Vedder, 1936).Although Waterink was critical with respect to Freudian psychoanalysis as an all-explaining sexual doctrine, he nevertheless emphasised the impact of early failures of parents and of insufficient attachment on the later development of the child (Waterink, 1931). His attitude towards Individual Psychology was fairly positive, especially with regard to the Adlerian conception of neurosis (Bakker, 1998; Groenendijk & Bakker, 2002). Waterink even borrowed Alfred Adler’s concept of Minderwärtigkeit (inferiority): Mentally retarded children may develop feelings of inferiority when school and parents are too demanding. Waterink advised educators to adjust schooling and future perspectives to the capabilities of the child and to stimulate its feelings of self-esteem. Particularly for these children Waterink pleaded to determine their future profession on the basis of the interests of the child (Rietveld-van Wingerden, 2006).

Waterink was strongly convinced of the need to give his children a clear perspective on a suitable vocation: if these children would have an idea about their future employment, they would work harder, because they would have more motivation to invest in their own development. He once told of a thirteen-year-old idiot boy who came to the clinic because of serious behavioural problems. He did not listen to his parents and was often angry. His prime activity was playing with little stones in front of the house. The laboratory discovered his interest in colours and forms. The assistant gave him coloured soft balls and when he returned the boy had made a colourful composition and was in an enthusiastic mood. For the first time a real contact was possible. He became susceptible to comments and positive stimulation and less angry and frustrated. He also learned to weave and even embroider (Waterink, 1933).Time and again Waterink stated that intelligence was not the most important feature of the child’s future success. He distinguished learning intelligence from life intelligence (Waterink, 1937b). A child with low learning intelligence may have other personal traits, which are of greater significance for its participating in society, while a child with a higher intelligence may be socially underdeveloped. Special cases were presented in year reports, lectures, books, and in medical, psychiatric and psychological journals. Often these cases were confronted with the outcomes of research from abroad such as Eugène Apert’s research on mental retardation. In 1936 a twelve-year-old girl was sent by one of ‘s Heeren Loo homes to be observed. The team discovered that this girl suffered from the rare syndrome acro cephalo syndactylie, first described by the Frenchman Eugène Apert in 1906. In searching for further literature, they discovered that Jacob De Bruin, professor in pediatrics, already extensively described this girl when she was seven weeks old. Therefore, her development could be described from early infancy. Physically the child was normally developed, except that she had webbed fingers. Mentally the child functioned on a very low level (Proceedings Paedologisch Instituut, 1937). Another case was a ten-year-old boy, about whom Vedder reported in the Dutch medical journal Nederlands Tijdschrift der Geneeskunde (July 18, 1936). He concluded that the boy suffered from autism and schizophrenia as described by the Swiss Manfred Bleuler. Among the special cases were also children with learning problems like dyslexia, a problem which became recognized in Dutch educational practice not in the least because of Waterink, who had been paying attention to this disorder by diagnosing and developing educational tools since 1935 (Waterink, 1937a). It was not before the end of World War II that the problem of dyslexia appeared in Dutch

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educational journals. Some children with dyslexia were admitted for observation and research between 1935 and 1937. Waterink discovered that these children usually made many mistakes in dictations, not because of a mental deficiency (their intelligence was normal or even above average), but because of a failure in perception of forms and sequences. Unfortunately, their teachers often assessed them wrongly. With the research the clinic, in cooperation with the PI school, aimed to develop the tools to help dyslectic children in their own schools and homes.

EvaluationAfter the Second World War the clinic gradually lost its academic character, although Waterink denied this change. In theory he was right (it remained a university clinic), but in practice the clinic no longer differed much from other children’s homes. The laboratory separated from the clinic and the scope changed to care and treatment. When we evaluate Waterink’s contribution to the development of special education and care we do have to keep in mind the concrete historical context. The expanding special education needed tools for selection and treatment of disabled children. With his children’s clinic and accompanying laboratory, Waterink was a pioneer and a leading man in the Netherlands. He propagated a multidisciplinary child-centered approach and contributed to the new academic disciplines of psychology and pedagogy by training psychologists and pedagogues, developing tests and writing case studies based on careful observation and guided by available scientific knowledge. His clinic has been the example for other university clinics and he has laid foundations, which future generations of academic researchers could and would build upon. The PI itself changed into a psychiatric children’s clinic after the 1980s and the cooperation with VU University departments of developmental psychology, clinical psychology, child psychiatry and special education increased. By now children with serious behavioral and social-emotional disorders are observed and treated by a multidisciplinary team with close connections to the academic world. Finally, current generations of psychologists, pedagogues and psychiatrists rarely look to the past; they tend to use relatively recent insights of empirical research to develop new methods of treatments.

This article has given an example of a figure that shows that history has more to offer than an interesting read. While many may believe that his methods are outdated and therefore not of interest to them, his views may still serve as an inspiration for reflection. For example, his conviction that children with behavioral and learning difficulties need a multidisciplinary approach in which all those involved in the treatment and education of the child collaborate still has a lot of currency. However, he is probably best seen as an exemplar to us for his professional character. Particularly his courage to take unbeaten tracks, his belief in and focus on the possibilities for children instead of their shortcomings, and his dedication may truly serve as an example to future generations.

References Appley, M.H. (1986). ‘G. Stanley Hall: Vow on Mount Owen’. In S.H. Hulse and B.F. Green (Eds.), One Hundred Years of Psychological Research in America (pp. 3-78). Baltimore/ London: Johns Hopkins University Press.Bakker, N. (1998). Child-rearing Literature and the Reception of Individual Psychology in the Netherlands, 1930-1950: the Case of a Calvinist Pedagogue. Paedagogica Historica, Supplementary Series, vol. III (pp. 583-602). Gent: C.S.H.P.Breimer, J.N.W. (1989). Pionieren toen en nu. De geschiedenis van het Paedologisch Instituut in Amsterdam, 1931-1989. Amsterdam: Paedologisch Instituut.Dane, J. (2006). Testen, meten en wegen. In M. Rietveld-van Wingerden (Ed.). Een buitengewone plek voor bijzondere kinderen (pp. 27-44). Zoetermeer: Meinema.De Beer, F. (2004). Van hoofdrolspeler tot figurant. De Nederlandse schoolarts en de selectie voor het zwakzinnigenonderwijs ca. 1900-1972. In M. Rietveld van Wingerden et al. (Eds.), Zorgenkinderen in beeld. Facetten van de orthopedagogische praktijk in Nederland en België in de negentiende en twintigste eeuw (pp. 86-107). Assen: Van Gorcum.M. Depaepe (1993). Zum Wohl des Kindes? Pädologie, pädagogische Psychologie und experimentelle Pädagogik in Europa und den USA, 1890-1940. Weinheim, Deutscher Studien Verlag/ Leuven: University Press.De Wit, J. (1982). Pedologie: een woord of een begrip? In F.J. Kaufman (Ed.). Pedologische instituten in Nederland. Centra van gespecialiseerde hulpverlening en kinderstudie. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff.

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De Wit, J. (1992). Waterink en de pedologie. In J. Sturm (ed.). Leven en werk van prof.dr. Jan Waterink, een Nederlandse pedagoog, psycholoog en theoloog (1890-1966) (pp. 53-66). Kampen: Kok.Fagan, T.K. (1992). Compulsory schooling, child study, clinic Psychology and special education: origins of school psychology. American Psychologist, 47, 236-243.Graas, D. (1996), Zorgenkinderen op school. Geschiedenis van het speciaal onderwijs in Nederland, 1900-1959. Leuven/ Apeldoorn: Garant.Groenendijk, L.F. & Bakker, N. (2002). Child rearing and the neurotization of parenting: the case of The Netherlands. History of Education, 23, 571-588.Het gulden boek (ca. 1952). Amsterdam: Paedologisch Instituut.Jak, T. (1993). Huizen van barmhartigheid. Zorg voor zwakzinnigen in Nederland in de tweede helft van de negentiende eeuw, met bijzondere aandacht voor ’s Heeren Loo. Ermelo: Vereniging ’s Heeren Loo.Jak, T. (1999). De nieuwe koers. Vernieuwing van de gereformeerde inrichtingszorg voor mensen met een verstandelijke handicap 1919-1939. Amersfoort: ’s Heeren Loo Zorggroep.Marland, H. & Gijswijk-Hofstra (2003). ‘Introduction’. In: H. M. Gijswijt-Hofstra & H. Marland, Cultures of child health in Britain and the Netherlands in de twentieth century (pp. 7-30). Amsterdam/ New York: Rodopi.Mulder, E. (1989). Beginsel en beroep. Pedagogiek aan de universiteit in Nederland 1900-1940. Amsterdam: Historisch Seminarie van de Universiteit van Amsterdam.Proceedings Paedologisch Instituut (1931-1960). Amsterdam: Paedologisch Instituut.Proceedings VU Directors (1926-1940). Amsterdam: VU-Amsterdam, The Historical Documentation Centre.Rietveld-van Wingerden, M. (2006). Ontstaan en eerste ontwikkelingen. In M. Rietveld-van Wingerden (Ed.). Een buitengewone plek voor bijzondere kinderen. Driekwart eeuw Paedologisch Instituut in Amsterdam (pp. 45-78). Zoetermeer: Meinema.Rietveld-van Wingerden, M. & Groenendijk, L.F. (2006). Jan Waterink (1890-1966). Pedoloog uit overtuiging. In J.D. van der Ploeg (ed.). Kopstukken van de orthopedagogiek (pp. 20-38). Rotterdam, Lemniscaat.Safford, P.L. & Safford, E.J. (1996). A History of Childhood and Disability. New York: Teachers College Press.Trent, J.W. (1994). Inventing the Feeble Mind. A History of Mental Retardation in the United States, Berkeley/ Los Angeles/ London: University of California Press.Van Deursen, A.Th. (2005). Een hoeksteen in het verzuild bestel. De Vrije Universiteit 1880-2000. Amsterdam: Bert Bakker.Van Gorp, A. (2005). From special to new education: the biological, psychological, and sociological foundations of Ovide Decroly’s educational work (1871-1932). History of Education, 34 (2), 135-149.Van Strien, P.J. (1993). Nederlandse psychologen en hun publiek. Een contextuele geschiedenis. Assen: Van Gorcum.Vedder, R. (1939). Over het copieeren van eenvoudige geometrische figuren door oligophrenen en jonge kinderen. Een pathopsychologische en ontwikkelingspsychologische studie. Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche Uitgeversmaatschappij.Verslag van het Eerste Nederlandsche Congres voor Kinderstudie (1913). Amsterdam: De Bussy.Waterink, J. (1926). Berekening of constructie. Wageningen: Zomer and Keuning.Waterink, J. (1930). Letter to the Board of ‘s Heerenloo, 16 January. Amsterdam: VU University, The Historical Documentation Centre.Waterink, J. (1933). Zwakzinnigenzorg en wetenschap. Lecture for the conference organised by the Board of the Antonia Wilhelmina Fund, September, 30.Waterink, J. (1935a). De opvoedbaarheid der kinderlijke intelligentie. Amsterdam: Laboratorium voor Paedologie en Psychotechniek der Vrije Universiteit.Waterink, J. (1935b). Hoe kan de school vroegtijdig afwijkingen herkennen en in hoeverre kan zij door behandeling afwijkingen corrigeren? Lecture for the Dutch Society for Mental Public Health, November, 30.Waterink, J. (1937a). De betekenis van de psychotechniek voor het afwijkende kind. Lecture for the Psycho-Technological Exposition Rotterdam, 25 November - 1 December.Waterink, J. (1937b). Leerverstand en levensverstand. In H.J. Jacobs (ed.). Het buitengewoon onderwijs in Nederland (pp. 209-213). Den Haag; Haga.Waterink, J. & Vedder, R. (1936). Quelques cas de mutisme thymogénique chez des enfants tres jeunes et leur traitement. Zeitschrift für Kinderpsychiatrie, 3, 101-112.

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Wijngaarden, H.R.(1961). Professor dr. J. Waterink, hoogleraar aan de Vrije Universiteit. In Ten afscheid van dr. J. Waterink (pp. 28-37). Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit.Winzer, M.A. (1993). The history of special education. From isolation to integration. Washington D.C.: Gallaudet University Press.

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AN ANALYSIS OF PRE-SCHOOL TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTTEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TO INCLUSION AND THEIR SELF-EFFICACY

Hakan Sarı,Nadir Çeliköz

andZarife Seçer

University of Selcuk, Konya

The aim of this study was to investigate what the self-efficacy and attitudes of pre-school teachers and student teachers towards inclusive education were and to elucidate the relationship between self-efficacy and the attitudes on inclusion. Therefore, the present study investigated the self-efficacy perceptions and attitudes of student teachers towards inclusive education, who received the special education course in the Department of Preschool Education at Faculty of Vocational Education in Selcuk University and pre-school education teachers who work in nursery classes and nursery schools affiliated to Konya Local Education Authority. Two scales were used in the study. These were: (1) the Opinions Relative to Inclusion Scale and (2) the Teacher Self-efficacy Perception Scale. Results indicated that: (a) attitudes of pre-school education teachers and the student teachers were undecided; (b) the two groups considered themselves efficient for being teachers in terms of the three dimensions of the self efficacy scale; (c) the attitudes’ scores of the student teachers towards inclusive education were higher than the teachers’ scores; (d) the scores of the teachers’ self efficacy were higher than the student teachers’ scores;(e) the attitudes of the teachers towards inclusive education were effected by their self efficacy perceptions in terms of teaching dimension; (f) the student teachers’ perceptions on self efficacy were not effected by their attitudes towards inclusive education; (g) the student teachers should receive more courses on education of children with special educational needs during their university education; and (h) teachers should receive more support services than they have for how to educate children with SEN from the support units in accordance with the child’s needs, type and severity of the child’s handicap conditions. Further research is needed due to the fact that there may be a difference between the student teachers’scores on their attitudes towards special education according to how many credits they have received the courses on special education and practice in schools what they have learned from the courses regarding special education.

According to the Turkish Ministry of National Education (2006), inclusive education concerns special educational applications based on the principle that individuals requiring special education continue their education together with their peers without handicaps in institutions of preschool, primary, secondary and non-formal education and where support services are offered (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı [MEB], 2006). In inclusive education, children with Special Educational Needs [SEN] are included within a programme for children demonstrating a normal progress from pre-school education onwards and efforts are made to get them to socialise and adapt to the society they live in.

Early intervention is an important factor in ensuring the children’s socialiation and adaptation to the society (Cole, Dale, & Mills, 1991). The earlier these children attend pre-school education, the higher their level of progress and skills becomes (Bailey & Wolery, 1992). Therefore, inclusive education should not be ignored in pre-school education. Kırcaali-iftar (1992) cites basic benefits of special education services offered in early childhood and pre-school periods as acceleration in children’s growth, prevention of their disability from turning into a handicap and a reduction in the family’s emotional and social problems. Avcı and Ersoy (1999), on the other hand, stated that inclusive

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education given in pre-school period effects both children with handicaps and children without handicaps positively, and that this effect is concentrated mainly on attitudes, interaction and learning.

Due to these favourable contributions made with inclusive education, many countries attempt to make legislation with the purpose of consolidating the place of inclusive education within the educational system and obtaining maximum individual and social benefits from the applications. Accordingly, the legal basis of inclusive education in Turkey was formed with 573 Special Education Legislation, which came into practice in 1997. According to this law (1997), it has been established as a framework that; (1) pre-school education programmes cover both normal children and children who need special education, (2) pre-school education is mandatory for children diagnosed with a need for special education, (3) education will be offered in special schools and institutions of pre-school education, and (4) durations of pre-school education for children with SEN can be extended by taking into consideration of their developmental and individual characteristics.

Though legal foundations have been laid with this Legislation, it is understood both from observations made by researchers and the studies (Artan & Balat, 2003) that practices of inclusive education have not become common yet in Turkey and that the required and expected levels of individual and social benefits have not been obtained. The reason for this may be that success of inclusive education depends on many factors. Some of these factors can be cited as; a) teachers’ and school personnel’s adoption of the inclusive education, b) preparation of the inclusive class, c) individualisation of the educational programme and d) use of effective classroom management techniques (Kırcaali-İftar, 1998; Hyde & Power, 2004). It can be argued that the most important one among these factors is the teacher factor, for harmonization of normal children and connected primarily with the teacher. Pre-school teachers’ knowledge, emotions and skills about inclusive education are of particular importance because of their special mission in inclusive education and because it is primarily the institutions of pre-school education where children needing special education can receive initial inclusive education (Artan & Balat, 2003). Therefore, teachers’ self-efficacy is seen as an important variable for inclusive education.

The concept of self-efficacy was derived from the theory of social learning proposed by Bandura (Bandura, 1977, 1986). The perception of self-efficacy is the individual’s faith in his ability to successfully demonstrate behaviours required to attain an expected result (Bahadır, 2002). Bandura’s (1986) self efficacy perception affects an individual’s: a) choice of activities, b) perseverance in the face of hardships, c) level of their efforts and d) performance. According to Bandura (1986), individuals with high self-efficacy perception concerning a specific situation make a great effort to accomplish a task, do not simply bactrack when they encounter a trouble and act with persistence and perseverence (Aşkar & Umay, 2001). In the literature (Soodak, Podell, & Lehman, 1998), the level of self-image and self-efficacy of the teachers effect their quality of work in their professional life. It has been found that teachers with high self-efficacy tend to get better accustomed to changes in their professional life than teachers with lower self-efficacy (Larrivee & Cook, 1979; Soodak & Podell, 1994; Soodak et al., 1998; Buell, Gamel-McCormick, & Hallam, 1999; Weisel & Dror, 2006). On the other hand, conflicting results have been obtained in studies predicting the relationship between the adaptation of effective teaching methods for children with handicaps and teachers’ self-efficacy in teaching (Bender, Vail, & Scott, 1995).

When viewed from this perspective, it can be said that one of the most important factors in the success of inclusive programmes is a teacher’s attitude. Teachers’ attitudes regarding inclusive education (Bacon & Schultz, 1991) are such important variables as handicapped child’s quality of life (Beckwith & Mathewss, 1994) and his receiving inclusive education (Stewart, 1990) effects relations with students with educational needs.

Class teachers have influences on the success of children with SEN and inclusive programmes; for a successful inclusion, on the other hand, the teacher should have positive attitude towards and sufficient knowledge and skills for inclusive education and be enthusiastic to the student (Chandler, 1994; Artan & Balat, 2003). These issues are important because individuals’ beliefs effect their behaviours in coping with the difficulties in life (Sharp, 2002). In addition, teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education are effected by variables such as: their ages, the type of child’s handicap, the level of the handicap, the level of the support the teacher and the students receive from the school and Local Education Authority administration, the support services, their knowledge about inclusion and in-service training courses they can receive (Sarı, 2007).

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Most of the studies (Vuran, 2005) in Turkey reflect that teachers have negative attitudes towards inclusive education and students with SEN who receive inclusive education do not have positive attitudes from their peers. More than half of the teachers who do not want a child with SEN in their classes (Sarı, 2007). Uysal (2003) state that teachers believe that inclusion is not useful and consists of various deficiencies because they experience many difficulties in practice, and it makes things harder for them. Metin & Çakmak (1998) emphasises that teachers feel that inclusion means extra burden for them.

Studies in this regard (Anderson & Antonak, 1992), teachers’ attitudes towards students with handicaps are described as multi-dimensional and complex. Some studies (Larrivee & Cook, 1979; Bacon & Schultz, 1991; D’Alonzo & Ledon, 1992) stated that teachers believed that special needs children could be educated in separate environments and they did not want those students in their classes that they adopted negative attitudes towards inclusion (Alghazo & Gaad, 2004), and that in some cases teachers prefer physically handicapped students to students with cognitive, emotional and behavioural problems (Jobe, Rust, & Brissie, 1996). There are also findings suggesting that teachers have a favourable opinion of inclusive education but that they have some concerns on this kind of education (Odom, 2000), such as teachers’ incompetency in their profession, physical circumstances, lack of enough support from the school administrators, and the parents with normal children who have lack of adequate knowledge. It is also reported that cases such as allocation of funds for inclusion of students with SEN in normal classes and developing policies encourage favourable attitudes whereas expectations of inappropriate behaviour and poor grades from handicapped students foster unfavourable attitudes (Altman, 1981). Moreover, according to the researchers (Beattie, Anderson, & Antonak, 1997) teachers who believe that they can be successful in teaching students with SEN may exhibit more positive attitudes towards inclusive education.

İzci (2005) and Nizamoğlu (2006) emphasised that class teachers and student class teachers do not possess adequate knowledge and skills regarding special education and inclusive education (Diken, 1998; Sarı, 2005). Therefore, it is believed that teacher training is essential prior to the start of the inclusive education (Sarı, 2007). According to Yıkmış (2006), school administrators approve of inclusive education but suggest that personnel who are in charge in the school where inclusion takes place should also be educated. Experts (Şahbaz, 1997; Yıkmış, Şahbaz, & Peker, 1998; Diken, 1998; Özyürek, 1988, 1989; Gözün & Yıkmış, 2003; Sarı, 2005) state that information given to teachers about inclusion has positively altered their attitudes.

In the light of these explanations it can be said that teachers’ attitudes in Turkey concerning inclusive education seemed to be negative. On the other hand, inclusive education starting from early years is beneficial for both students with and without SEN. However, the most important person in the success of inclusive education is the teacher who should have positive attitudes towards inclusion. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate what the self-efficacy and attitudes of pre-school teachers and student teachers were towards inclusive education and to elucidate the relationship between self-efficacy and the attitudes on inclusion.

MethodResearch MethodIn this research, the researchers used a survey method (Karasar, 1986; Robson, 1997). The researchers wanted to generate large amounts of data by reaching many student teachers who were selected with the help of cluster sampling system, and preschool education teachers selected using systematic random sampling technique. In addition, the researchers also used this method to obtain valid information from the respondents about what they are thinking, feeling or believing on inclusive education and their self-efficacy perceptions in Turkey (Hakim, 1987).

SamplePre-school education teachers, working in nursery schools and nursery classes in primary schools in Konya Local Education Authorities and senior class students, who are enrolled in pre-school education department in Vocational Education Faculty at Selcuk University, participated in the study. The sample of student teachers was selected in accordance with the cluster sampling system. On the other hand, the research sample consists of 198 student teachers who were in the class when the research instruments were administered to the student teachers. The research instruments were administered to 264 pre-school education teachers selected in accordance with the systematic random sampling technique from Konya LEA, to whom the instruments were sent by post and all of them were returned.

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The student teachers are final year students and enrolled in the department of preschool education in Selcuk University. The sample of this study includes 99% female teachers. Two third of the participants are below 35 age of years. The mean of the sample’s age is 33.4. Most of the teachers (91.1%) graduated from the University but approximately two third of the teachers participated in this study had experience less than ten years. All the students participated in this research are female students because in Turkey the females mostly prefer to become preschool teacher and they are given special education course with the three credits in the faculty.

Research InstrumentsTwo types of data collection instruments were used in this study. These are: (1) Opinions Relative to Mainstreaming Scale and (2) Teacher Self-efficacy Perception Scale. The Opinions Relative to Mainstreaming Scale is a scale developed by Antonak and Larrivee (1995) to determine the teacher attitudes towards integrating handicapped children into normal classes. The Opinions Relative to Mainstreaming Scale was adapted to Turkish by Kırcaali-İftar (1997) and its validity and reliability was tested. In the adaptation of the scale to Turkish, the construct validity was investigated via factor analysis whereas internal consistency was tested via item analysis. In construct validity, 20 out of 25 items were brought together in five factors as a result of the Factor Analysis and Screen Test conducted through Varimax Rotation. Cronbach Alpha internal consistency, on the other hand, was calculated as being 0.80. The scale was used by Sari (2007) before this research was started.

The self-efficacy perceptions of pre-school teachers and student teachers concerning their ability in guidance, teaching and classroom management were obtained via a scale developed by Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk (2001) and adapted to Turkish teachers by Çapa, Çakıroğlu and Sarıkaya (2005). There are three sub factors entitled guidance, teaching and classroom management in the Likert type scale, which consists of 24 items. According to the validity and reliability of the study for the scale, the reliability values of sub dimensions of the scale were as follows; guidance,( .82), teaching, (.86 ) and classroom management, (.84). The Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient calculated for all items in the scale was found to be (.93).

Data AnalysisWhen the data were analysed in the study, the attitude and self-efficacy scores were calculated for all respondents included in the sample concerning inclusion. While the Opinions Relative to Inclusive Scale was scored, taking positive and negative sentences into consideration, response categories were scored from positive to negative in the form from five to one whereas they were scored in the form of one to five in negative sentences. The highest and the lowest scores that could be obtained from the scale were determined to be 100 and 20 respectively. If the scores close to 100 points describe highly positive attitudes and scores close to 20 describe highly negative attitudes.

The Teacher Self-efficacy Perception Scale, was scored from efficient to inefficient in the form of one to nine values were calculated for total and sub dimensions and used in the interpretation of the data. The offset values (8/9= 0.89) of the scale calculated for total scores are as follows:

Table 1Scoring System of The Teacher Self–Efficacy Perception Scale

Category Score Range

InefficientInefficientInefficient

Moderately efficientModerately efficientModerately efficient

EfficientEfficientEfficient

(1) 1.00 -1.89(2) 1.90 - 2.78(3) 2.79 - 3.67(4) 3.68 - 4.56(5) 4.57 - 5.45(6) 5.46 - 6.34(7) 6.35 - 7.23(8) 7.24 - 8.12(9) 8.13 - 9.00

Different statistical techniques for the data analysis were used in this study. For example, frequency, percentage, arithmetic mean and standard deviation statistics used in determining attitudes and self-efficacies of the participants. In addition, independent t-test statictics technique was used in comparing their attitudes and self-efficacies, and also regression analysis was used to determine to what extent

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self-efficacies affect their attitudes. As shown in Table 1, it indicates that the scoring system of the teacher self–efficacy perception scale is rated between efficient and inefficient and scoring number is between one and nine (see the Table 1 for detailed information).

ResultsIn this section, the findings of this study are presented. The interpretations are presented in accordance with the two research questions of 1) what the self-efficacy and attitudes of pre-school teachers and student teachers towards inclusive education were and 2) what the relationship between self-efficacy and the attitudes on inclusion were. Therefore, the study investigated firstly, the teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education; secondly, their self-efficacy levels, and the degree to which self-efficacies predict attitudes. In each research question, three tables are presented and interpreted in terms of teachers’ and student teachers’responses, and comparison of teachers and student teachers’ responses.

Attitudes of Teachers and Student Teachers towards Inclusive EducationThe first question What were the attitudes of teachers and student teachers towards inclusive education? was asked to the teachers and the student teachers. The teachers and the student teachers’ responses were presented in terms of twenty attitude statements and total attitude scores. Some statistical values are given about total attitudes of teachers and student teachers in Table 2 and 3.

Table 2Pre-School Teachers’ Attitudes towards Inclusive Education

Score Range N SS Min. Max. Total Score

Number of

Items

Positive attitude

f %

%

= 69-100I totally disagree (1) 20.00 - 36.00I do not agree (2) 36.01 - 52.00I am undecided (3) 52.01 - 68.00I agree (4) 68.01 - 84.00I totally agree (5) 84.01- 100.00

264 57.63 0.48 33 92 1521.00 20 15 5.3

When Table 2 is examined, total attitude scores of pre-school teachers towards inclusive education are 1521.00. The lowest and the highest are 33.00 (I totally disagree), and 92.00 (I totally agree) respectively. It is understood that among the teachers there are those who have totally positive attitudes as well as those who have totally negative attitudes. For example, the rate of teachers with a positive attitude was found to be merely 5.3 % among all teachers. When teachers’ scores are examined in terms of arithmetic means, the mean turns out to be ( =57.63). When these values are compared with the scores taken from the scale, they reflect the attitude of I am undecided (3) and indicate that pre-school teachers remained undecided towards inclusive education. It was found that the teachers exhibit a neutral attitude towards the additional burden which are increasing difficulty of classroom interaction, normal and special educational needs students’ being effected positively or negatively, social benefits of inclusion, the teacher’s need to get additional training about inclusion, benefits of inclusion, possible behavioural problems and confusion. This can be interpreted, which is not sufficiently to be aware of the importance of inclusive education. They cannot perform the practices required with inclusion and they are not sufficiently trained about inclusive education. In addition, they do not hold negative attitudes towards inclusive education.

As indicated in Table 3, total attitude scores of the student teachers trained for pre-school education are 11869.00. The lowest and the highest are 31.00 (I totally disagree), and 95.00 (I totally agree). Although some student teachers and the teachers have positive attitudes some of those both groups have negative attitudes. As indicated in Table 3, that overall attitude score of the student teachers is ( =59.94). When this value is interpreted in terms of the scores that can be obtained from the scale, it reflects the attitude of I am undecided (3) This further indicates that the student teachers are undecided towards inclusive education. In other words, student teachers exhibit a neutral attitude towards inclusion because they feel that when they have students with SEN in their classrooms they may have additional burden due to the fact that some have difficulties interacting with the students without

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SEN. The teachers also need to have additional training about effective inclusion, benefits of inclusion, possible behavioural problems reflected by the students in the classroom. This situation may reflect the

Table 3Student Teachers’ Attitudes towards Inclusive Education

Score Range N SD Min. Max. Total score

Number of items

Positive attitude f % = 69-100

I totally disagree (1) 20.00 36.00 I do not agree (2) 36.01 - 52.00 I am undecided (3) 52.01 - 68.00 I agree (4) 68.01 - 84.00 I totally agree (5) 84.01- 100.00

198 59.94 9.71 31 95 11869 20 24 11.6

student teachers who do not adequately appreciate the importance of inclusive education in terms of the behaviours they acquired during their education. It may equally be interpreted that they do not approach inclusive education negatively or that they are not impervious to it.

Table 4A Comparison of the Attitudes of Teachers and Student Teachers towards Inclusive

EducationGroup N SD t p

Teacher 264 57.63 7.74 2.766 0.006Student Teacher 198 59.94 9.71

As shown in Table 4, differences are obtained between the attitudes of pre-school teachers and student teachers towards inclusive education. Whereas teachers’ attitude mean score towards inclusion education was ( =57.63), student teachers’ mean score was ( =59.94). Despite the fact that the attitudes of both teachers and student teachers were indecision, student teachers’ attitudes were more favourable than the teachers’ attitudes (t=2.766, p<0.05). Although the teachers’ attitudes were undecided in comparison with the student teachers’ attitudes their scores reflect negative attitudes. The reason for this may be that student teachers’ emotions and ideas concerning inclusive education have been formed on the basis of theory even if they have some practical experiences. Therefore, it can be said that student teachers feel the importance of inclusive education more strongly and believe in its social relevance more than the teachers because they may be less aware of the difficulties of inclusive education in Turkish schools.

Self-Efficacy Perceptions of Teachers and Student Teachers In the second research question of this study, the question asked of What are the self-efficacy perceptions of teachers and student teachers? In seeking answers to this question, teachers and student teachers were asked a total of 24 questions on guidance, teaching and classroom management and their perceptions of self-efficacy were determined. Some statistical values regarding the self-efficacy perceptions of teachers (Table 5) and student teachers (Table 6) are given below while Table 6 presents t-test results for a comparison of their self-efficacy perceptions.

In terms of arithmetic means concerning pre-school teachers’ self-efficacy perceptions, as shown in Table 5, their self-efficacy perception means are; ( =7.37) for their efficacy in guiding students,( =7.49) for teaching, ( =7.54) for classroom management and their overall self-efficacy perception mean is ( =7.47). It can be said that not only do teachers have high self-efficacy in all sub dimensions but they also have high overall self-efficacy, which means that they consider themselves as being efficient. The number of teachers who do not consider themselves as being efficient does not reach 10% among all teachers. This can be intepreted that teachers’ self-confidence concerning their teaching is high. Teachers generally believe that they can answer students’ difficult questions in class, guiding students according to their individual differences, appropriate methods, techniques and strategies for effective education. These bring about desired behavioral changes, prevent undesirable situations that might arise in class, and set and enforce clasroom rules. The fact that teachers’ self-efficacy perceptions turned out to be high can be attributed to their pre-service education, their in-service

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training, their teaching experience and the length of service or it might be that they assess their self-efficacy according to the traditional view of education.

As indicated in Table 6, arithmetic means of student teachers’ self-efficacy perceptions are ( =7.09) for guiding students, ( =7.15) for teaching, ( =7.14) for classroom management and ( =7.13) for

Table 5Teachers’ Perceptions of their Self-Efficacy in Inclusive Education

Dimensions Score Range N SD Min. Max. Total Score

Numberof Items

Efficient

f % =

6.38

Guidance

Inefficent (1) 1.00 - 1.89Inefficent (2) 1.90 - 2.78Inefficent (3) 2.79 - 3.67Moderately efficient (4) 368 - 4.56Moderately efficient (5) 47 - 5.45Moderately efficient (6) 546 - 6.34Efficient (7) 635 - 7.23Efficient (8) 74 - 8.12Efficient (9) 8.13 - 9.00

264 7.37 0.70 5.50 9.00 1909.38 8 241 91.1


Numberof Items

Efficient

f % = 6.38

Teaching

Inefficent (1) 1.00 - 1.89Inefficent (2) 1.90 - 2.78Inefficent (3) 279 - 3.67Moderately efficient (4) 368 - 4.56Moderately efficient (5) 4.57 - 5.45Moderately efficient (6) 5.46 - 6.34Efficient (7) 6.35 - 7.23Efficient (8) 7.24 - 8.12Efficient (9) 8.13 - 9.00

264 7.49 0.78 4.50 9.00 1961.75 8 247 93.5


Numberof Items

Efficient

f % = 6.38

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ClassroomManagement

Inefficent (1) 1.00 - 1.89Inefficent (2) 1.90 - 2.78Inefficent (3) 2.79 - 3.67Moderately efficient(4) 3.68 - 4.56Moderately efficient (5) 4.57 - 5.45Moderately efficient (6) 5.46 - 6.34Efficient (7) 6.35 - 7.23Efficient (8) 7.24 - 8.12Efficient (9) 8.13 - 9.00

264 7.54 0.76 5.25 9.00 1961.13 8 247 93.5


Numberof Items

Efficient

f % = 6.42

OverallSelf-Efficacy

Perception

Inefficent (1) 1.00 - 1.89Inefficent (2) 1.90 - 2.78Inefficent (3) 2.79 - 3.67Moderately efficient (4) 3.68 - 4.56Moderately efficient (5) 4.57 - 5.45Moderately efficient (6) 5.46 - 6.34Efficient (7) 6.35 - 7.23Efficient (8) 7.24 - 8.12Efficient (9) 8.13 - 9.00

264 7.47 0.68 5.42 8.83 1920.71 24 243 92.0

Table 6Student Teachers’ Perceptions of their Self-Efficacy in Inclusive Education

Dimensions Score Range N SD Min. Max. TotalScore

Number of Items

Efficient

f % = 6.38

Guidance

Inefficent (1) 1.00 - 1.89 Inefficent (2) 1.90 - 2.78 Inefficent (3) 2.79 - 3.67 Moderately efficient(4) 3.68 - 4.56 Moderately efficient (5) 4.57 - 5.45 Moderately efficient (6) 5.46 - 6.34 Efficient (7) 6.23 Efficient (8) 7.24 - 8.12 Efficient (9) 8.13 - 9.00

264 7.090.91 4.25 9.00 1404.13 8 160 80.8

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Number of Items

Efficient

f % = 6.38

Teaching

Inefficent (1) 1.00 - 1.89 Inefficent (2) 1.90 - 2.78 Inefficent (3) 2.79 - 3.67 Moderately efficient (4) 368 - 4.56 Moderately efficient (5) 4.57 - 5.45 Moderately efficient (6) 5.46 - 6.34 Efficient (7) 6.35 - 7.23 Efficient (8) 7.24 - 8.12 Efficient (9) 8.13 - 9.00

264 7.15 1.04 4.00 9.00 1415.50 8 161 83.3


Number of Items

Efficient

f % = 6.38

ClassroomManagement

Inefficent (1) 1.00 - 1.89 Inefficent (2) 1.90 - 2.78 Inefficent (3) 2.79 - 3.67 Moderately efficient (4) 3.68 - 4.56 Moderately efficient (5) 4.57 - 5.45 Moderately efficient (6) 5.46 - 6.34 Efficient (7) 6.35 - 7.23 Efficient (8) 7.24 - 8.12 Efficient (9) 8.13 - 9.0

264 7.14 0.99 4.25 9.00 1413.63 8 156 79.8


Number of Items

Efficient

f % = 6.42

OverallSelf-Efficacy

Perception

Inefficent (1) 1.00 - 1.89 Inefficent (2) 1.90 - 2.78 Inefficent (3) 2.79 - 3.67 Moderately efficient (4) 368 - 4.56 Moderately efficient (5) 4.57 - 5.45 Moderately efficient (6) 5.46 - 6.34 Efficient (7) 6.35 - 7.23 Efficient

264 7.13 0.92 4.58 8.96 1411.08 24 160 80.8

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(8) 724 - 8.12 Efficient (9) 8.13 - 9.00

overall self-efficacy perception means. It is understood that the student teachers’ self-efficacy is high in all sub dimensions and so is their overall self-efficacy, which means that they perceive themselves tobe efficient. One-fifth of the student teachers do not consider themselves quite efficient. On the other hand, it should not be ignored that self-efficacy perception of student teachers is slightly above the medium level. However, it can still be suggested that pre-school student teachers have sufficient self-confidence concerning teaching. They believe that they can guide their students according to their individual differences using appropriate teaching methods, techniques and strategies for their effective education. In turn, they can make the desired behavioral changes and prevent undesirable situations that might arise in class. It may be said that student teachers’ pre-service education is highly influential with their high self-efficacy perceptions.

Table 7A Comparison of the Self-Efficacy Perceptions of Teachers and Student Teachers in

Inclusive EducationDimensions Group N SD t p

GuidanceTeacher 262 7.37 .70

3.592 0.0001Student 198 7.09 .91

TeachingTeacher 262 7.49 .78

3.836 0.0001Student 198 7.15 1.04

Classroom Management Teacher 262 7.54 .76 4.460 0.0001Student 198 7.14 .99

Overall Efficacy Teacher 262 7.47 .68 4.446 0.0001Student 198 7.13 .92

In Table 7, there are differences between self-efficacies of pre-school teachers and student teachers. The teachers’ self-efficacies seem to be higher than those of student teachers’ self-efficacies. According to the results of the t-test which indicates whether these differences were meaningful or not, the difference between teachers and student teachers was found to be significant at the level of 0.05 in terms of both general self-efficacy (t=4.446, p<0.05) and guidance (t=3.592, p<0.05), teaching (t=3.836, p<0.05) and classroom management (t=4.460, p<0.05) self-efficacies. It shows that self-efficacies of pre-school teachers are higher than the student teachers, which means that they consider themselves as being efficient. This is believed that this result comes from their teaching experiences and the practices.

The Degree to which Self-Efficacy Perceptions of Teachers and Student Teachers Predict Their Attitudes Towards Inclusive EducationIn the third sub question, the question was whether the self-efficacy perceptions of teachers and student teachers predict their attitudes towards inclusive education. To answer this question, first, attitudes of teachers and student teachers towards inclusive education were determined using the attitude scale. Second, their self-efficacy perceptions concerning guidance, teaching and classroom management were determined using the self-efficacy scale. Finally, their self-efficacy perceptions were investigated. Table 8 and Table 9 give the results of the regression analyses and to what extent self-efficacy perceptions of teachers and student teachers respectively predict their attitudes towards inclusive education.

Table 8Results of Multiple Regression Analysis Concerning the Extent to which Teachers’

Self-Efficacies Predict Their Attitudes towards Inclusive EducationVariable B SHB t P Dual r Partial r

Constant 58.820 5.338 11.020 .000

Guidance -1.185 1.168 -.107 -1.014 .312 -.030 -.064Teaching 2.855 1.068 .286 2.674 .008 .066 .166

Classroom Management -1.846 1.149 -.179 -1.607 .109 -.037 -.101

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R= 0.17 R2=0.029 F= 2.506 P=0.060

As indicated in Table 8, when dual and partial correlations between teachers’ self-efficacies (predictive variables) and their attitudes towards inclusion (predicted) are examined, a positive correlation (r= 0.07), though at a rather low level, was observed only between the self-efficacy concerning teaching and attitudes towards inclusion. When the other vairables are checked, the correlation between the variables increases (r=0.17) but that the correlation is again at a low level. Though at a low level, the fact that the correlation is low means that the increase in teachers’ self-efficacy positively effects and changes their attitudes towards inclusion. Teachers’ self-efficacy perceptions concerning their guidance, teaching and classroom management and their atttidues towards inclusion do not yield a significant relationship (R=0.17, R²=0.029, p>0.05). The three variables in question account for only 3% of the total variance regarding teachers’ attitudes. This indicates that other variables have effects on teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion.

According to regression analysis coefficients (), though a significant effect is not observed, the relative order of significance of predictive variables for attitude scores regarding inclusion is; (1) teaching, (2) classroom management and (3) guidance. When the t-test results concerning the significance of regression coefficients are examined, it appears that of the three predictive variables, only the teaching self-efficacy is a significant predictor of attitudes towards inclusion.

Table 9Results of Multiple Regression Analysis Concerning the Extent to which Student Teachers’ Self-Efficacies Predict Their Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education

Variable B SHB t P Dual r Partial r

Constant 59.794 5.517 10.838 .000Guidance .180 1.306 .017 .138 .890 -.002 .010Teaching 1.076 .883 .129 1.219 .224 .045 .087

Classroom Management -1.239 1.213 -.133 -1022 .308 -.027 -.073 R= 0.097 R2=0.009 F= 0.611 P=0.609

In Table 9, dual and partial correlations between self-efficacies of student teachers and their attitudes towards inclusion did not yield a significant relationship. From the point of the accuracy of regression model, student teachers’ self-efficacy perceptions concerning guidance, teaching and classroom management and their attitudes towards inclusion do not yield a significant relationship (R=0.097, R²=0.009, p>0.05). The three variables in question account for only 1% of the total variance regarding student teachers’ attitudes. This indicates that other variables such as appropriate settings for education of children with SEN have also effects on student teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion.

DiscussionWhen the results obtained from the study are examined, neither teachers nor student teachers have positive attitudes towards inclusion; in other words, their attitudes towards inclusive education are ambivalent. In another study conducted in Turkey by Tuğrul, Üstün, Akman, Erkan and Şendoğdu (2002), it was concluded that teachers working at pre-schools have favourable attitudes towards inclusive education. However, in other countries, the researchers (Eiserman, Shisler, & Healey, 1995; Dinnebeil, McInerney, Fox, & Juchartz-Pendry, 1998) reported that pre-school teachers believed that children with SEN had to be placed in the environments of inclusive education but some of them were anxious about educating children with SEN because of having lack of enough information about their education in inclusive settings.

According to the results of the studies (Diken, 1998; Avcı & Ersoy, 1999), it can be argued that preschool teachers both in Turkey and other countries such as America and England have positive attitudes towards inclusive education because of quality of inclusion. There are two factors determining the quality of inclusive education in preschools. These are the quality and nature of pre-school environments (Odom, 2000). According to Kırcaali-İftar (1998), students with special educational needs in pre-school period should be included in pre-school education programmes where theirs peers attend or they can attend separate special education schools/classes. Whichever of these programmes is concerned, the education programme of the students with SEN should be individualised. Short and long term goals should be determined for each of the areas of children’s development according to the level of their functions. Activities should be prepared and implemented to get the student with SEN to attain the planned goals. Other studies (Diken, 1998; Avcı & Ersoy, 1999), show that the implementation of inclusive education in pre-school period and the initial results of the study are taken into consideration,

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the reason for the negative attitudes of teachers and student teachers towards inclusive education may be from the policy of the Local Education Authorities with which financial support is not given to the schools to do this.

According to Cook, Tankersley, Cook and Landrum (2000), another important factor determining the quality of inclusive education is the teachers’ and student teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education. Additionally, Alghazo and Gaad (2004) said that teachers, who need to learn how important their attitudes towards inclusive education are, have desires to accomplish inclusive education. In the light of this explanation, the attitudes of the teachers and the student teachers who are involved in the study are different towards inclusive education due to many reasons. For example, classrooms are not properly equipped for inclusive education, as reflected in Sari (2007). Horne (1985) emphasized that if student teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education were positive starting with their education, their acceptance level for students with SEN could highly be increase. However, student teachers do not receive sufficient courses on inclusive education during their education in Turkey. Even with inservice training courses they do not benefit fully from in-service courses on inclusive education at the expected level, which indicates that teachers should have enough information about effective methods and techniques on effective inclusion.

Student teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion are more positive in comparison with teachers. The fact that student teachers have just taken a course on special education can be suggested as the reason for their more positive attitude towards inclusion than the teachers’ attitudes. As a matter of fact, Temel (2000) reported that teachers who took the course on Education of children with special needs consider themselves more efficient than those who did not regarding what should be done during the process of inclusion.

On the other hand, working conditions can be suggested as the reason for the negative attitudes of teachers towards incluson in comparison with student teachers. In particular, factors such as working hours, physical conditions of classrooms, class size, lack of experts in schools to cooperate with regarding inclusive education, not benefiting from in-service courses and lack of enough knowledge about inclusive education can be cited as reasons for the lukewarm attitudes of teachers employed in the nursery classes of primary schools. Varlıer and Vuran (2006) emphasisied that pre-school teachers thought that students with SEN should receive pre-school education and this education should be given in inclusive environments. However, they can experience some difficulties in inclusive education in current conditions; moreover, they consider themselves inefficient and unsupported regarding students with SEN and therefore, feel themselves uneasy about the existence of inclusive students in their classes. As a result, they are unwilling to take part in the inclusive education, as reflected in Şahin (2004). Artan and Balat (2003) reported that although Turkish pre-school teachers do not have enough information about inclusion, they are keen on receiving information. In crosscultural studies concerning inclusive education, it was found that German and American teachers have more positive attitudes than Ghanaian, Filippino and Israeli teachers. It was reported that especially German teachers fostered a positive attitude despite the fact that they did not receive an official special education regarding inclusive education (Leyser, Kapperman, & Keller, 1994). The suitability of the working conditions, environments and programmes of inclusive education where inclusive education will be conducted can be cited as the reasons for German teachers’ positive attitude towards this kind of education.

When the results of the study concerning self-efficacy levels are examined, it is observed that both teachers and student teachers consider themselves efficient regarding teaching and that teachers consider themselves more efficient than the student teachers in terms of self-efficacy. This is an expected result because the limited field experience of student teachers can be cited as the reason for the difference between themselves and the teachers regarding self-efficacy. According to Bandura (1997), the strongest source for a belief in self-efficacy is the experience which an individual lives directly. Individuals’ possessing a positive view of their performances as a result of these experiences increases their self-efficacy. Another result of the study indicated that a positive relationship is observed between pre-school teachers’ perception of teaching efficacy and their attitudes towards inclusion. In other words, as the pre-school teachers’ self-efficacy concerning teaching increases, their attitudes towards inclusive education positively change. On the other hand, no relationship was determined between self-efficacy perception of guidance and classroom management and their attitudes towards inclusion.

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Absence of a relationship between the perception of teaching efficacy and attitudes towards inclusive education can be attributed to the fact that teaching dimension is approached in a theoretical framework. In other words, when teachers do not believe that they can successfully apply the teaching methods and techniques in inclusive classes, they think that they may have hesitations about how they can implement guidance and classroom management issues in these classrooms. The reason underlying this thought might be that teachers do not have prior experience of inclusive education, nor do they have information and skills. In some studies related to this subject (Soodak et al., 1998; Buell et al., 1999; Weisel & Dror, 2006), a relationship was found between teachers’ self-efficacy perceptions and their attitudes towards inclusion. As teachers’ self-efficacy perceptions increase, so do their positive attitudes towards inclusive education. Teachers with low self-efficacy have negative attitudes towards inclusive education (Podell & Soodak, 1993; Soodak et al, 1998) and are not receptive to it. On the other hand, conflicting results were obtained in other studies (Bender et al., 1995). Researchers arrived at the conclusion that if teachers’ efficacy concerning inclusive education is enhanced, inclusive education will take place successfully (Mohd Ali, Mustapha, & Mohd Jelas, 2006). Therefore, authorities in the Ministry of Turkish National Education should support all pre-school teachers through in-service training courses. When the relevant literature is examined (Bender et al., 1995), it may be said that teachers, who can define pragmatic meanings of inclusion, can manage the inclusive classroom at the expected level. Accordingly, while legal regulations are being made concerning inclusive education in a detailed way, the views of teachers working in this field should be taken into account. Nevertheless, it was emphasised in studies (Bender et al., 1995) that although many teachers were aware of inclusive policies, possessed enough knowledge and skills in this regard and acknowledged the significance of inclusive education, they believed that it was hard to implement in terms of national education policies and the support systems for effective inclusion.

The last finding of the study is that there is no relationship between student teachers who consider themselves as being efficient in classroom management, guidance and teaching and their attitudes towards inclusive education. This can be attributed to the fact that student teachers do not have enough knowledge about inclusive education. Although they have course on inclusive education, they have very limited experince to practice their knowledge in inclusive classes. When programmes of department of nursery education are examined a number of special education courses, particularly courses on inclusive education, are very limited and that there are not opportunities for practice in inclusive education classes. In other words, it can be argued that student teachers may graduate without acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills and qualities regarding inclusive education.

ConclusionAttitudes of pre-school teachers and student teachers towards inclusive education are neutral. They exhibit neither a positive nor a negative attitude towards inclusive education. However, attitudes of the teachers towards inclusive education are in tendency to be negative more than the student teachers’ attitudes. Self-efficacy perceptions of pre-school teachers and student teachers are high because both groups regard themselves as being efficient in teaching. However, the teachers’ self-efficacy perceptions concerning guidance, teaching and classroom management are higher than the student teachers’ perceptions. Self-efficacies of pre-school teachers and student teachers are not major predictors of their attitudes towards inclusive education. The teachers’ self-efficacies related to teaching yield a slightly significant relationship with their attitudes towards inclusion and as the teachers’ self-efficacies concerning teaching increase their attitudes in a positive way. Therefore, these teachers can accept any student with SEN into the classroom to meet their needs adequately. However, some teachers in Turkey are reluctant to accept any student with SEN due to the fact that they have lack of self-efficacies leading to lack of adequate knowledge on effective education of a child with SEN.

RecommendationsThe recommendations raised from the conclusion of the study should be considered by the experts in developing countries like Turkey. The recommendations presented include the following listed below.

(1) Curricula of Nursery Education Departments of the Universities should be revised and courses entitled inclusive education and all the students should receive its implications for practice.

(2) All teachers should follow in-service education organised by the Ministry of National Education on inclusive education and their duration should be extended.

(3) While policies are being revised regarding inclusive education, the views of teachers working in inclusive schools should be taken into account.

(4) The school and classroom environments where inclusive education will take place should be re-arranged to meet the needs of children with SEN.

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(5) Experts who will provide assistance to the pre-school teachers should also work with the school staff and necessary supports should be offered to the teachers when they need.

These recommendations should be practiced in all educational institutions to be able to meet the needs of children with SEN in inclusive schools. Otherwise, teachers may have difficulties harmonizing the individual differencies in inclusive classrooms in developing countries. This may lead to not having effective inclusion in preschools without meeting needs of the children.

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Soodak, L. C., & Podell, D. M. (1994). Teacher efficacy and student problem as factors in special education referral. Journal of Special Education, 27(1), 66-81.Soodak, L. C., Podell, D. M., & Lehman, L. R. (1998). Teacher, student and school attributes as predictors of teachers' responses to inclusion. The Journal of Special Education, 31(4), 480-497.Stewart, C. (1990). Effect of practical types in preservice adapted physical education curriculum on attitudes toward disabled populations. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 10, 76-83. Şahbaz, Ü. (1997). Öğretmenlerin özürlü çocukların kaynaştırılması konusunda bilgilendirilmelerinin kaynaştırmaya ilişkin tutumlarının değişmesindeki etkililiği. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Bolu: Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi. Şahin, N. (2004). Hegel Felsefesinde Kötülük Problemi, Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, XLV, 1, 71-83.Temel, Z. F. (2000). Okul öncesi eğitimcilerinin engellilerin kaynaştırılmasına ilişkin görüşleri, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 18, 148 -155.Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17 (7), 783-805.Tuğrul, B., Üstün, E., Akman, B., Erkan, S., & Şendoğdu, M. C. (2002). Okul öncesi öğretmenlerinin özel eğitime gereksinim duyan çocukların normal yaşıtlarıyla kaynaştırılmasına ilişkin görüşlerinin incelenmesi. MEÜ Tıp Fak Dergisi, 3(4), 440-448.Uysal, A. (2003, Kasım). Kaynaştırma uygulaması yapan öğretmenlerin kaynaştırmaya ilişkin görüşleri: Özel eğitimden yansımalar, 13. Ulusal Özel Eğitim Kongresi Bildirileri, Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi. Varlıer G., & Vuran, S. (2006). Okul öncesi eğitim öğretmenlerinin kaynaştırmaya ilişkin görüşleri. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 6(2), 553-585.Vuran, S. (2005). İlköğretim düzeyindeki kaynaştırma sınıflarında eğitim alan özel gereksinimli öğrencilerin sosyometrik konumları. EJER Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 18.Yıkmış, A., Şahbaz, Ü., & Peker, S. (1998, Kasım). Özel eğitim danışmanlığı ve kaynaştırma dersinin öğretmen adaylarının kaynaştırmaya yönelik tutumlarına etkisi. 8. Ulusal Özel Eğitim Kongresi’nde sunulan bildiri, Edirne: Trakya Üniversitesi.Yıkmış, A. (2006). Zihin engelli çocuklara çarpma işlemleri’nin öğretiminde etkileşim ünitesi ile sunulan öğretimin etkililiği. 16. Özel Eğitim Kongresi’nde Sunulan Bildiri, Samsun: 19 Mayıs Üniversitesi. Weisel, A., & Dror, O. (2006). School climate, sense of efficacy and Israeli teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion of students with special needs. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, 1(2), 157-174.

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Factors Influencing Transition For Students With Disabilities:The American Indian Experience

Karen L. Applequist, Rachel Mears, Roxanne LoylessNorthern Arizona University

The purpose of this study was to explore those factors impacting successful transition of American Indian students with mild to moderate disabilities to postsecondary academic settings and other lifelong learning opportunities. Thirty-five individuals from three Southwestern tribes were interviewed about personal factors during transition, and secondary, and postsecondary experiences. A second interview was conducted with 14 participants approximately two years later to follow-up on the progress of the student following transition. Many of the participants did not see themselves as active participants in the IEP process and educational placements ranged from inclusive to more traditional resource classrooms and self-contained settings. Secondary teachers and mentors offered support and encouragement to participants. Fewer participants received accommodations in postsecondary settings, and in some instances instructors lacked an understanding about ADA and ways to modify instruction. Participants highlighted the importance of family and religion in their lives throughout the transition process. Those participating in both interviews showed statistically significant positive change in self-ratings of dimensions of self advocacy and self-determination. Implications of the findings will be discussed.

Secondary and postsecondary educational programs for young adults with disabilities that aim to promote resilience and minimize risk factors will result in the most favorable outcomes. This is particularly true for culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students whose educational experiences can be discordant with their cultural and linguistic heritage (Avoke & Simon-Burroughs, 2007; Greene & Nefsky, 1999). Longitudinal studies have shown that CLD youth with disabilities are not as successful as their non-CLD counterparts (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996)

American Indian youth who have a disability, like others who are CLD, may face added challenges during transition from high school. They are more likely to experience poverty, be less proficient in English, encounter difficulties with social relationships, and have less access to technology (Leake & Black, 2005). Moreover, their cultural values and beliefs may impact achievement of self advocacy and self determination.

Adolescence is recognized an important developmental period bridging early childhood and adulthood and is shaped by a wide range of factors for all individuals, including those with disabilities. Understanding the process whereby these factors exert influence individually and collectively on the adolescent will enable us to design and implement more effective educational practices. In a national longitudinal study that included 90,000 adolescents three factors were found to be associated with positive outcomes. These included the support and guidance of family, positive school experiences and personal characteristics of the student (Blum & Rinehart, 1997). The results from this and other studies present us with important insights regarding approaches for helping adolescents succeed.

As our country experiences major demographic changes we must examine more closely those factors impacting developmental and educational outcomes for adolescents who are CLD. Recent studies (Campbell, Pungello & Miller-Johnson, 2002; Trusty, Plata, & Salazar, 2003) focus on CLD youth and represent an important step in furthering our understanding of important socio-cultural variables.Fewer studies focus on American Indian youth, representing over five hundred tribes, each with its own unique geographical and cultural context. Bergstrom, Cleary and Peacock (2003) conducted in-depth interviews of 120 native youth to identify those factors that contributed to their success. The authors

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emphasized the importance of connections to parents, community, teachers and schools. They also noted that tribal, cultural, and personal characteristics and resources contribute to positive outcomes for youth.

Collectively these studies make important contributions to our understanding of those factors associated with positive outcomes for young adults. Yet, we know little about those factors that impact the transitional process for American Indian youth with disabilities. The purpose of this study is to explore those factors that contribute to successful transition to postsecondary education settings. The study will focus on three categories of factors including personal (personal, familial, cultural and socioeconomic), characteristics of secondary programs (resources, instruction, expectations, etc.) and characteristics of postsecondary programs (resources, supports, etc.).

MethodThis study is a part of a larger multi-site national study that was five years in duration. Data were collected at five sites for the purpose of identifying those factors influencing postsecondary outcomes for CLD students who were eligible for special education in high school. The design of the study allowed the research team to explore a wide range of variables through the different phases of data collection. During the first phase interviews with individuals who had made the transition were conducted. During the second phase a subset of those individuals perceived to be successful was convened in a focus group to further explore those factors that influenced their ability to successfully transition. In the third phase case studies of two individuals judged to be successful were compiled to illustrate their personal stories. Those factors that were identified in the first phases of the study were explored further in the final phase of the study through follow-up interviews and focus groups, giving a longitudinal perspective. Through this iterative process members of the research team were able to substantiate certain factors and explore the nature of their impact further.

All aspects of the investigation were informed by Participatory Action Research (PAR) teams at each site who met semi-annually for the duration of the project. The PAR teams offered critical insights in revisions of interview protocols, recruitment efforts, procedures, and interpretation of the findings. The focus of this paper will be the interviews conducted in the first and final stages of this project.

ParticipantsInitial Interview: Individuals who are American Indian who received services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and have transitioned from high school were recruited to participate in this study. A final sample that included both successful and unsuccessful individuals was desired. Recruitment involved a number of steps. First, we identified programs and or individuals who could assist in the recruitment process. Vocational Rehabilitation Services, disability support programs at community colleges and universities, and Native Americans for Community Action, a regional program providing a wide range of services to Native American people were all identified. Members of the research team met with representatives from these programs to discuss the study and explore recruitment strategies. Additionally, the team met with the PAR team who suggested specific strategies for recruitment and some members of the PAR team even assisted in contacting others to inform them about the study. Staff from university programs designed to support American Indian students also assisted in the recruitment process. Because of confidentiality, names of individuals could not be released to the research team necessitating an approach that relied on potential participants to contact the team. Flyers describing the key purpose of the study, what the participant would be asked to do and the monetary incentive ($25) were dispersed to programs and also posted on campuses, and key community locations.

The research team is situated in close proximity to the Navaho nation and tribal lands for several other American Indian tribes. Recruitment efforts targeted all tribes living within 200 miles in an effort to obtain a sample that had representation from more than one tribe.

There were 35 participants in the initial interview and 14 in the follow-up interview. Demographic information about participants is presented in Table 1. At the time of the initial interview the vast majority (83%) of the participants was enrolled in or had completed some form of post secondary education. Most of those participating in the follow-up interview (79%) indicated they were attending school or working, while some (21%) were unemployed.

Table 1

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– Demographic Information about Participants__________________________________________________________________________

Demographic Information Initial Interview Follow-up InterviewTribal Affiliation Navaho 27 11 Hopi or Hopi-Tewa 4 2 Apache 2 1 Navaho/Hopi 1Gender Male 18 6 Female 17 8Age 18-30 31 12 Over 30 4 2Disability Learning Disability 19 8 Visual Impairment or Blind 6 3 Orthopedic Impairment 3 Traumatic Brain Injury 2 1 Hearing Impairment or Deaf 3 1 Speech Difficulty 2Marital Status Single 30 12 Married 5 2Children 7 5Primary language in home during childhood English 15 5 Navaho 11 6 English and Native Language 8 1 Apache 1 1Current primary language English 26 10 English and Native Language 8 4 American Sign Language 1

MeasuresInitial Interview Protocol: An interview protocol was developed that included items drawn from other measures used in other postsecondary studies. Items from measures that were already piloted and validated in previous studies (California and Hawaii Post-school Follow-up Studies of Individuals with Disabilities and the National Survey of Educational Support Provision to Students with Disabilities in Postsecondary Education Settings) were included in the item pool. All members of the research and PAR teams at each site reviewed the initial protocols. The interview protocol was piloted at different field sites and revisions were made.

The final protocol contained 62 questions divided into eight sections (general information, educational experience, post-secondary services and supports, employment, family history, peers/socialization, locus of control, and success). Fifteen questions were short-answer allowing the individual to offer further explanation of ratings or to expand upon their responses.

The General Information section included demographic questions. Questions in the Educational Experience section focused on the individual’s goals while in high school, his or her involvement in and satisfaction with the IEP process, the location and types of special educational services and supports received, and satisfaction with high school and post-secondary supports. The individual’s need for and access to services and supports in the postsecondary setting as well as the coordination of services were examined in the Post Secondary Services and Supports section. The individual’s employment history and plans for employment were the focus of questions in the Employment section. The educational and employment status of the individual’s parents and the family’s support were explored in the Family History section. The Peers and Socialization section focused on the language of the participant and his or her religious practices as well as characteristics of peers and the high school

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activities. The individual was asked to self-rate on three questions pertaining to Locus of Control in the next section and reflect on his or her definition and attainment of success in the section on Success.

Follow-Up Interview Protocol: The follow-up interview protocol was shorter as it was unnecessary to include many questions for which the responses would be unchanged. Questions included in the protocol allowed the respondent to reflect on changes in experiences and perspectives from the initial survey. Questions for the protocol sought to expand upon the findings of the first interviews and focus groups. The protocol was reviewed by all members of the research team and revised accordingly.

The final form of the interview protocol contained 40 questions clustered in seven sections (general information, post-secondary educational experiences, other agencies, employment, other life domains, locus of control and success). A larger number of the questions were short answer, allowing the individual to elaborate on ratings or provide further description or explanation.

Each individual updated information about current activities and living arrangements in the first section. Those individuals participating in postsecondary programs were asked questions about their progress, the types of services and supports used and what barriers he or she may have faced in the Post-Secondary Educational Experiences section. The questions included in the Other Agencies section asked the individual to identify the scope of services he or she may have received and to rate the quality of the service(s). In the Employment section the individual updated his or her progress toward employment and rated various dimensions of the work environment. The individual was asked a few questions pertaining to relationships with other people, leisure activities and the role of religion in his or her life in the Other Life Domains section. Questions in the Locus of Control and Success sections were identical to those in the initial interview protocol.

ProcedureBefore this project could be undertaken IRB approval was obtained. During the first stage of the project the team focused on developing and refining the interview protocol, recruitment of participants and convening the PAR team, which would be comprised of five to seven CLD individuals with disabilities. The first order of business at the initial meeting of the PAR team was to review the interview protocol. Their comments and recommendations were forwarded to the principle investigator of the larger study who collected feedback from all five sites. Revisions of the instrument were made the protocol was finalized. As noted previously a number of steps were taken to recruit and select individuals to interview. Members of the research team were trained to conduct the interviews in a manner that was culturally sensitive and uniform across participants. Accommodations were made when necessary (e.g., using an interpreter). Arrangements for childcare were also made available to those individuals who requested them so that they could participate in the interview.

Procedures for data collection were modified from those that were originally proposed for the larger study. The plan was to interview participants by phone; however, it was suggested by the PAR team that all interviews be conducted in person. Members of the PAR team felt very strongly that American Indian youth would not be responsive in a phone interview. This change in procedure necessitated an approach whereby members of the research team traveled to different locations to interview individuals. In almost all cases the initial interviews were ultimately conducted in person.

The sequence of research activities for the larger project began with initial interviews in the first year and a half of the project. In the second and third years focus groups and case studies were conducted. Participants from the original survey and focus groups were contacted in the fourth and fifth year of the project to participate in the follow-up survey. Using contact information obtained at the time of the original survey, attempts were made to contact all individuals. Many attempts were made to locate individuals whose contact information was not current. While the majority of interviews were conducted in person, out of necessity some of the interviews had to be conducted over the phone as participants were no longer living in close proximity to the research team.

Data AnalysisResponses to closed-ended questions were entered into the database and responses to open-ended questions were saved into text files. All entries into the database and text files were verified to assure accuracy. The initial analysis included all participants while a secondary analysis was made by

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category of disability. Transcripts of responses to open-ended questions were organized by question. Two members of the research team reviewed responses to familiarize themselves with the responses and to develop a preliminary coding system for themes. After discussing the preliminary findings team members conducted a second reading and identified themes. They met and identified themes and a system for coding the responses; discrepancies were discussed and consensus was reached.

All transcripts of the open-ended questions were analyzed and coded by both researchers. This process was done in this manner for both interviews. Cohen’s Kappa was computed for all coding of the transcripts. The Cohen’s Kappa for the first interview transcripts ranged from 72% to 91% with a mean of 84%. Cohen’s Kappa for the second interview transcripts ranged from 73% to 100% with a mean of 90.3%.

Descriptive statistics were computed for data collected from both interviews. T-tests were conducted on self-rating items that were included in both the initial and follow-up interviews.

ResultsThe findings from both interviews will be organized according to sections of the interview protocol. Descriptive statistics from the initial interview will be presented first followed by those of the follow-up interview. Statistical comparisons of items included in both interviews will be described.

Initial InterviewEducational Experiences: The majority (85%) indicated that they had an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) and or a 504 plan while in high school while others (8%) could not remember and some (9%) indicated they did not receive any special education services. Many participants spent all or most of their time in the general education setting while others were in self-contained classrooms or programs (See Figure 1). Students with learning disabilities were educated in general education classrooms full time (53%) or the majority of the time with some pull-out services (26%). Some students with learning disabilities indicated they were educated in a self-contained setting with some inclusive activities (21%). As a group, those students eligible under other categories reported receiving services in both inclusive and self-contained settings. Participants were asked about their IEP, supports, and services received while in high school (See Table 2). When asked to identify those issues of personal importance during the planning process, many (46%) were concerned about their performance in and completion of high school while others (37%) were more concerned about postsecondary goals, and life and work-related skills. Rating of satisfaction with the IEP can be found in Table 3.

51%

29%

19%

1%

General Education

Resource

Self-Contained

Special School

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Figure 1 Primary High School Placements

Table 2 Access to services and support in high school

Question Yes Responses (n) (%)

No Responses(n) (%)

Don’t know/not sure Responses (n) (%)

Did teachers support you in reaching your goals?

30 (86 %) 4 (11 %) 1 (3%)

Did special education help you achieve your goals for after high school?

21 (68%) 7 (23%) 3 (9%)

While in high school, did you know you had a right to attend and participate in IEP meetings?

22 (71%) 7 (23%) 2 (6%)

Were you invited to attend IEP meetings? 25 (81%) 4 (13%) 2 (6%)Were you encouraged to participate in IEP meetings?

22 (63%) 7 (20%) 6 (17%)

Did you use assistive technology in school? 15 (43%) 16 (46%) 4 (11%)Were there any AT devices you needed, but didn’t get?

5 (14%) 25 (71%) 5 (14%)

Did you have a quiet place to study at home? 24 (69%) 10 (29%) 1 (2%)

Table 3– Mean Scores for Rating Questions*

Focus of Rating Mean Rating Standard DeviationInitial Interview (N = 35)Enjoyment of High School 4.29 .83Satisfaction with IEP/504 Plan 3.79 1.06Importance of religion during high school 3.69 1.42Comfort level with asking others for help 3.03 1.22Control over your life 3.60 1.44Comfort level with trying out new ideas 4.00 1.08Follow-up Interview (N = 14)Importance of living independently 4.04 1.01Satisfaction with living/housing 3.75 1.05Degree of acceptance from other students in postsecondary setting 3.70 .823Degree of acceptance from faculty or staff 4.10 .568Satisfaction with services provided by non-education agencies 4.09 .944Degree of acceptance by co-workers 4.41 .86Degree of acceptance and support from supervisors or managers 4.27 .905Satisfaction with work skills 4.45 .57Satisfaction with personal relationships 4.64 .53Satisfaction with leisure time and activities 4.32 1.07Importance of religion 4.21 1.12Comfort level with asking others for help 4.07 .997Control over your life 4.11 1.18Comfort with trying out new ideas 4.21 .80Perception of success since leaving high school 4.39 .56

*Likert Scale ratings used (1-5 with 5 the highest rating)

Those who use assistive technology (AT) were asked to identify the principle devices and accommodations they received from a list. In all cases the AT appeared to be appropriate given the individual’s disability. A small minority of individuals (15%) felt they needed AT that they did not receive. Of those individuals who used AT fewer than half (48%) received specialized training in how to use the device(s).

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Four survey questions focused on the individual’s goals after leaving high school. Most of the participants (86%) wanted to attend postsecondary school while some (23%) wanted to work (percentages do not add up to 100 as individuals could select more than one response). When asked what their family’s goals were for them, the principle goals identified were postsecondary school (74%) and work (17%). A similar question asked what the teacher’s goals for the individual were and the majority (69%) thought the teachers wanted them to go to postsecondary school, while some (14%) thought the teachers wanted them to work and others (17%) indicated they did not know. Many (86%) indicated that their teachers did provide them support and direction to help them reach their goals while in high school. When asked to identify the ways in which teachers supported them the following were identified: encouragement and moral support (47%), guidance and assistance during high school (18%), focusing on specific skills needed for postsecondary settings (15%), information about higher education (12%), and information about supports, services, and programs for students with disabilities in postsecondary settings (6%).

Many (63%) noted that they had a mentor while in high school. In most instances that mentor was someone associated with the school (e.g., teacher, instructional assistant, counselor, coach, or principal). Mentors were described as supporting the students by offering encouragement (47%), instructional support (29%) and advisement and informational support (18%).

Postsecondary services and supports: The majority of the participants (55%) indicated they received services or supports while attending college while others (45%) did not. Individuals with learning disabilities were less likely to have received services or supports (43%). Close to one third of the participants felt that services or supports had been unavailable or denied to them. When asked what they were doing to make up for needed services or supports there were a variety of answers. Many turned to others such as the teacher, classmates, and family members while others depended upon themselves to get what they needed or make do without them. Participants were asked who were coordinating or managing their services identified different persons including vocational rehabilitation counselor (72%), college disability support personnel (40%), family or friends (28%) and self (40%). Half of the participants indicated that more than one person was managing services for them.

Employment: Most worked during and after high school, often in positions in the service industry. Seventy percent of those not working at the time of the interview indicated that it was because they were going to school. Others indicated they were currently looking for work (19%), felt they would lose benefits (7%), encountered difficulty getting to work because of transportation problems (7%) and had given up after being unsuccessful (3%). The types of jobs participants wanted included professional (34%), skilled labor (31%), and clerical (12%).

Family History: Forty-six percent of the participants indicated that both parents were responsible for them while in high school, while 23% identified extended family and 29% identified their mothers. A significant portion of the mothers (73%) and fathers (84%) reportedly completed high school and some attended college. Occupations of parents of the participants were most often described as skilled labor (65%), professional (12%) and craftsmen (12%). Seven percent of the parents were unemployed. Most participants (85%) felt their family supported them while in high school to reach their goals. When asked how their families supported them the majority (72%) described support as encouragement and advice. Some participants recognized the help they received with their homework (12%) and financial support (9%).

Several questions pertaining to the cultural and religious beliefs of the participant were asked. According to the participants most of the parents identify themselves using tribal affiliations (e.g., Navaho) while others (43%) prefer to identify themselves as American Indian. The majority of participants (59%) indicated that they were active in a religion while in high school. Those who did were affiliated with the Native religion (71%) or a Christian church (33%). Ratings of importance of religion while in high school are shown in Table 3.

Peers and Socialization: Most or all of the friends of the majority of participants (66%) graduated from high school. Seventeen percent of the participants specified that most or all of their friends went on to postsecondary education. While in high school the majority of the participants described the activities they most often engaged in with their friends as hanging out (54%). Other activities included organized activities such as sports and church (20%), and studying (13%). Participants were asked to rate how often they participated in specific activities with friends and family (See Table 4 – next page).

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Table 4Mean Frequency Ratings of Participation in Selected Activities during High School

(N = 35)*

Activity Mean ScoreWatching television/videos/ games 3.0Hobbies 2.7Sports 2.9Hanging out with friends 3.2Going to parties 1.4Dating 1.3Shopping 2.3Reading 2.7

*Ratings were 1=rarely or never, 2=1-2 times a week, 3=3-4 times a week and 4=daily

Locus of Control: Each participant was asked three questions regarding locus of control in which they rated themselves on a scale of 1 to 5 with 5 being the highest. On all three questions the mean rating for the group was very close to the middle anchor rating of 3 (See Table 3 for mean rating scores).

Success: The majority of the participants (86%) felt they were successful or somewhat successful in high school. Most of the participants (39%) define success as reaching one’s goals and a few (17%) define it in broader terms of happiness and satisfaction. Others identified specific achievements such as employment, education, becoming independent, having material possessions, improving one’s self and making a difference. Those who felt they were successful in high school attributed their success to performance and completion of school, social relationships, being motivated and having a positive outlook and sense of competence. Those who felt they were somewhat successful in high school noted a wide variety of issues affecting their success including the academic challenges and failure, lack of motivation, distractibility, feelings of isolation and lack of teacher support. Those who felt unsuccessful in high school attributed it to academic challenges, learned helplessness and lack of motivation or interest in the curriculum. Participants were asked to describe their personal strengths. Personal strengths ranged from having an easy going or friendly manner (21%), positive attitude (18%), to having a good work ethic and work skills (27%). Others noted that they are motivated or have talents or skills.

Follow-up InterviewParticipants in the initial interview were contacted by telephone or letter to arrange a follow-up interview. The research team made every effort to contact all participants, but in many cases the contact information was no longer correct. Fourteen individuals were interviewed a second time and demographic characteristics of those individual are presented in Table 1. The average length of time between the two surveys was 28.9 months (range: 17 to 35 months).

General Information: Participants were asked questions pertaining to their living and school/work situation. The majority (79%) indicated they were attending school or working, while 29% were unemployed. When asked how they got around in the community most specified walking (50%) or driving a car (43%). Fifty-seven percent of the participants indicated that they used more than one means of transportation.

Forty-three percent of the participants were living with their parents and 21% lived in the dorm. Participants were asked to rate their feelings about independent living and how satisfied they are with their current living situation (See Table 3). In general most were satisfied with their living arrangement and many noted that they liked to live independently. Those who were living with their parents were more likely to be less satisfied with their living arrangements.

Postsecondary Education Experiences: Thirty-six percent of the participants had been attending a postsecondary educational program at the time of the initial interview. Forty percent of those

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participating I the follow-up survey had completed their education and the remaining 60% were still in school. Students attributed poor progress to personal reasons (e.g., needed to be home with their family) or to the educational program. Several individuals attributed their difficulties to instructors who did not understand their needs and two identified transportation issues.Other Agencies: Fifty percent of the participants receive services from Vocational Rehabilitation Services Administration or the Social Security Administration (43%). They indicated that they were somewhat satisfied with these services (See Table 3), often identifying the types of services received, such as financial support (43%).

Employment: Most of those who had jobs (64%) revealed that they obtained employment themselves without assistance from others. General satisfaction was expressed about their work skills, relationships with co-workers and supervisors (See Table 4). Reasons for relatively high ratings were attributed to attitudes of others and expectations and support from supervisors.

Other Life Domains: When asked who they were closest to most participants identified a member of the immediate or extended family (85%) with mother most often named (31%). Participants were quite satisfied with their relationships with others (see Table 3) and attributed that satisfaction to their own ability to get along as well as the benefits from the relationships (e.g., support and affection). When asked about their religious beliefs, most felt religion was important or very important (see Table 3). Thirty-six percent described religion as being integrated into their daily lives, while 29% described themselves as attending church services.

Locus of Control: The same three questions were asked of the participants that were asked in the first interview. The mean rating for each question is shown in Table 3. Participants had a group mean that was higher for all three questions on the follow-up interview when compared to the initial interview. Participant’s ratings of their willingness to ask others for help changed for those that participated in the follow-up interview from a mean of 2.71 to 4.07. T-tests were conducted for the three questions and the ratings on all three were found to be statistically significant.

Success: Most of the participants felt they had been successful since leaving high school (see Table 3). When asked why they felt they were successful the 67% indicated they had a strong sense of self worth or were working toward or achieving their personal goals. Future indicators of success that were most frequently identified were finishing school or getting a job.

DiscussionThis study examined those factors impacting transition of American Indian students with disabilities through initial and follow-up interviews. The participants in this study were from three different Southwestern tribes and represented a range of disability categories under IDEA, with the majority being Learning Disabled. Many of the participants learned a native language or a combination of their native language and English when they were growing up. Religion, both native beliefs and Christianity, is integral to the lives of many of the participants.

IDEA has historically promoted least restrictive environments for eligible students, and in recent years promotes maximum participation in the general education classroom whenever possible. High expectations should be set for students with disabilities (Nolet & McLaughlin, 2000) and a large percentage of students with learning disabilities should be educated in the general education classroom. However, many of the participants in this study were still receiving pullout services and some were primarily educated in a self-contained classroom. Participants with other disabilities experienced a range of different placements, including specialized school. While inclusion has been promoted for a number of years, it appears that some schools may be slower to embrace the concept of inclusion or implement strategies that facilitate inclusive practices.

A framework for transition proposed by Kohler and Field (2003) includes five areas of practice incorporating student-focused planning, student development, interagency and interdisciplinary collaboration, family involvement and program structure and attributes (p. 176). The majority of participants in this study were familiar with the IEP, but did not see themselves as active participants in the meetings. This would suggest that person-centered planning and self-determination are not fully realized for all American Indian students with disabilities even though they are generally associated with improved outcomes (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997; Zhang & Benz, 2006). This may be attributed to a lack of understanding of self-determination and strategies that promote it as teachers revealed in a

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study conducted by Grigal, Neubert, Moon & Graham (2003). Alternately, this may be occurring as a result of a commonly held perception that self-determination is not compatible with native beliefs. Frankland, Turnbull, Wehmeyer, and Blackmountain (2004) concluded that the construct of self-determination is relevant to the Dine’ (Navaho) culture, but expressed somewhat differently. They suggest that individuals who are Navaho emphasize the importance of interdependence rather than independence as a goal of self- determination. Trainor (2008) emphasizes the importance of using cultural and social capital to improve transitional outcomes for CLD students (p. 149).

Participants in this study felt their family and high school teachers supported them in reaching their goals, and appeared to place more value on their teachers than the special education enterprise itself. Teachers can and do play an important role in mentoring students and participants in this study identify many ways their teachers contributed to their success. They indicated that teachers usually supported them by offering encouragement and moral support. The participants in this study valued teachers who were supportive and have many of the characteristics identified by other researchers (Bergstrom et al., 2003; Jackson, Smith & Hill, 2003). Beyond showing interest in the student and being supportive, special educators can and should provide needed guidance and specific information to students so they can be successful in high school and ready themselves for postsecondary educational or work settings.

Accessing services and supports in postsecondary settings appears to be an issue for a number of the participants in this study, particularly those with learning disabilities. Graduating students entering postsecondary educational settings should be knowledgeable about the steps needed to obtain assistance with accommodations in their academic programs (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2007). Nonetheless, many of those who did not receive formalized services and supports took initiative in getting the help they needed.

Poor progress in their college careers was often attributed to personal reasons, but in some cases students identified the educational program itself as being a barrier for them. More training may be needed for instructors who are not aware of the ADA requirements for students with disabilities (Dona & Edmister, 2001) or who have low expectations for students with disabilities (Rao, 2004).

Students participating in the follow-up survey highlighted the importance of family and religion in their lives. Families were supportive and helped the students work toward their goals and should be more fully engaged in the transition process (Geenen, Powers, & Lopez-Vasquez, 2001). Many lived with their families, while completing their postsecondary education. Self-ratings of comfort levels of asking others for help, trying out new ideas and taking control over one’s life increased from the initial interview to the follow-up interview. Whether this is attributed to maturation or life experiences these changes reflect an increased level of self-advocacy and self-determination.

Limitations of StudyThe results of this study cannot be generalized to American Indians from other tribes living in different regions of the country. The final sample included individuals with a variety of disabilities, but was heavily represented by students with learning disabilities and did not include students eligible under all categories of eligibility.

To accurately portray how successful students were in meeting their transition goals, more time should lapse between the two interviews. The goal of obtaining employment may not be achievable for the youth in this study because there are fewer job opportunities in communities on the reservation lands for young adults with and without disabilities (Ramasamy, 1996).

Implications for Practice:Secondary teachers supporting CLD students with disabilities in the transitional process must recognize the importance of the student’s connections to his or her family and community. Person-centered planning approaches should begin early in students’ academic career so that they are better prepared to make decisions and advocate for themselves. American Indian students should be given the opportunity to engage in the IEP process in a meaningful way. They may not choose to assume the lead, but can and should be encouraged to participate more fully in setting goals pertaining to transition. Special educators should be more systematic in their approach to helping students transition and promote the knowledge and skills students will need to reach their postsecondary educational goals.

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Instructional staff and faculty in postsecondary settings should be better prepared to teach American Indian students with disabilities. They should become familiar with the requirements of ADA and the resources available to students needing accommodations. Further training may be necessary to achieve this goal.

Conclusion and Implications for Future ResearchThis study explored a range of factors impacting transition of American Indian students with disabilities. Thirty-five students with mild to moderate disabilities were interviewed immediately after transition and 14 of those participants were interviewed approximately two years later. The results of this study emphasize the importance of the students’ relationships with adults in the educational setting, their families, and their cultural milieu that are important for all American Indian youth (Bergstrom et al., 2003). American Indian students with disabilities bring important cultural values to the academic setting that can be an important source of resilience and should be recognized. Preparing students to participate more fully in the IEP process in high school will give them the skills necessary to achieve their goals in postsecondary educational settings. Teachers who promote these skills and provide students with information and strategies they can use to be successful in higher education will see better results for their students. Further training of higher education staff and faculty is necessary to facilitate student participation in all academic activities.

Future research should explore the ways effective transition practices can be modified for American Indian students with disabilities. Particular emphasis should be placed on culturally sensitive approaches for promoting self-determination for these students. It is also recommended that factors impacting transition be conducted with participants from other tribes in the country to extend the research literature on American Indian students with disabilities. Finally, ways to improve training of professionals working with American Indian students with disabilities during transition is critical if we expect to see progress in the future.

ReferencesAvoke, S.K., & Simon-Burroughs, M. (2007). Providing transition services for students with disabilities from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 20, 66-72.Bergstrom, A., Cleary, L., & Peacock, T. (2003). The seventh generation: Native youth speak about finding the good path. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED472385)Blackorby, J. & Wagner, M. (1996). Longitudinal postschool outcomes of youth with disabilities: Findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study. Exceptional Children, 62, 399-413.Blum, R.W., Rinehart, P.M., (1997). Reducing the risk: Connections that make a difference in the lives of youth [monograph]. Bethesda, MD: Add Health. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED412459)Campbell, F.A., Pungello, E.P., & Miller-Johnson, S. (2002). The development of perceived scholastic competence and global self worth in African American adolescents from low-income families: The role of family factors, early education intervention and academic experience. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17(3), 277-302.Dona, J., & Edmister, J.H. (2001). An examination of community college faculty members’ knowledge of ADA of 1990 at Fifteen Community Colleges in Mississippi. Journal of Postsecondary Education, 14(2), 91-103.Frankland, H.C., Turnbull, A.P., Wehmeyer, M.L., & Blackmountain, L. (2004). An exploration of the self-determination construct and disability as it relates to the Dine’ (Navaho) culture. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 39(3), 191-205.Gennen, S., Powers, L.E., & Lopez-Vasquez, A. (2001). Multicultural aspects of parents involvement in transition planning. Exceptional Children, 67(2), 265-282. Greene, G., & Nefsky, P. (1999). Transition for culturally and linguistically diverse youth with disabilities: Closing the gaps. In B.A. Ford (Ed.), Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners, 3(1), 15-24.Grigal, M., Neubert, D.A., Moon, S.M., & Graham, S. (2003). Self-determination for students with disabilities: Views of parents and teachers. Exceptional Children, 70(1), 97-112.Jackson, A., Smith, S., & Hill, C. (2003). Academic persistence among Native American college students. Journal of College Student Development, 44(4), 548-565. Kohler, P.D., & Field, S (2003). Transition-focused education: Foundation for the future. Journal of Special Education, 37(3), 174-183.

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Leake, D. & Black, R. (2005). Cultural and linguistic diversity: Implications for transition personnel. In D. Johnson (Ed.) Essential tools: Improving secondary education and transition for youth with disabilities. Minneapolis, MN: National Center on Secondary Education and Transition.National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (2007. The documentation disconnect for students with learning disabilities: Improving access to postsecondary disability services. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 30, 265-274.Nolet, V., & McLaughlin, M.J. (2000). Accessing the general curriculum: Including students with disabilities in standards-based reform. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.Ramasamy, M. (1996). Post high school employment: A follow-up of Apache Native American youth. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(2), 174-149.Rao, S. (2004). Faculty attitudes and students with disabilities in higher education: A literature review. College Student Journal, 38(2), 191-199.Trainor, A.A. (2008). Using cultural and social capital to improve postsecondary outcomes and expand transition models for youth with disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 42(3), 148-162.Trusty, J., Plata, M. & Salazar, C.F. (2003). Modeling Mexican-Americans’ educational expectations: Longitudinal effects of variables across adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18(2), 131-153.Wehmeyer, M., & Schwartz, M. (1997). Self-determination and positive adult outcomes: A follow-up study of youth with mental retardation or learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 63, 245-256Zhang, D., & Benz, M. (2006). Enhancing self determination of culturally diverse students with disabilities: Current status and future directions. Focus on Exceptional Children, 38(9), 1-13.

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A Predictor Of Quality Of Life Of The Mainstreamed Elementary Students: Cognitive Errors

Hatice Odacı, Melek Kalkan, Pınar KarasuOndokuz Mayis University

The aim of this study is to examine the cognitive errors as predictor of quality of life of mainstreamed elementary students. Quality of life is the degree of well-being felt by an individual. The functional deficiencies, which occur due to physical, cognitive, sensory, emotional disorders, affect the quality of life of the individuals. In this study, it is aimed to analyze the cognitive errors as the predictor of the quality of life of the mainstreamed students. The sample of the research was composed of 117 mainstreamed students (46 of the students are female and 71 of the students are male) selected by random sampling method who attend from first to fifth classes of a school under the control of Ministry of National Education in the academic year of 2007-2008 in Turkey, Samsun. The students were evaluated by the Children’s Negative Cognitive Errors Questionnaire and Quality of Life Inventory for Children. The results of multiple regression analyses indicated that cognitive errors predict quality of life of the mainstreamed elementary students. The results of the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient showed that cognitive errors were related to quality of life of the mainstreamed elementary students. Future studies are needed to replicate these results. Moreover, the relation between cognitive errors and quality of life were examined by self-report measures. In the future studies, different methods such as interview or observation could be used.

The mainstreaming approach in education, which means that the students with disabilities are educated in general education schools with their peers, has been extensively accepted over the last 30 years. Students with disabilities have been educated with their peers who are not disabled in general education schools in many countries (Sucuoğlu & Özokcu, 2005). The separate education environment causes the students with disabilities to be alienated from the society and have trouble in adaptation (Yıkmış, 2006). The functional deficiencies which occur due to physical, cognitive, sensory, emotional disorders affect the quality of life of disabled children (Fellinger, Holzinger, Dobner, Gerich, Lehner, Lenz et al., 2005; Fellinger, Holzinger, Gerich & Goldberg, 2007; Rosenbaum, 2008). The research conducted by Davis and Lombardi (1996) showed that the quality of life of the students attending a special education setting is lower than those who have general education. The main objective of the mainstreaming in education, which should be started from the preschool period, is to integrate the students with disorders with their peers academically and socially; to meet their social and emotional requirements, to help self identity development, to make it easy to live in the society as independent and productive individuals (Darıca, 1992; Sucuoglu & Ozokcu, 2005) and thus to improve their quality of life.

Quality of life is defined as the emotional and personal answer (reaction) to the difference, that is perceived between the activities the person can still do and the activities the person wants to do (Oguz, Dursun & Dursun, 2004). This includes not only the personal state of health but also the personal state of being good (Altıparmak, 2006). Bowling defines that the quality of life is the satisfactory social situation within the limits of the physical capacity of the individual (Altparmak, 2006). It is affected by the state of health, spiritual situation, social relations, the level of independency, personal beliefs of the person and the society’s attitude to the person with disabilities (Voll, 2001; Uğuz, Dursun, Kaya & Çilli, 2006). On this issue Beck (1967) developed a cognitive model, which explains how individuals form own behaviors.

According to the cognitive model, the thoughts and beliefs of individuals’ about the environment, the future and self form their behaviors (Beck, 1967). Emotional and behavioral problems are not only determined by exterior reality, but also by the improper and unrealistic commends of the individual. The most noteworthy cognitive variants are the dysfunctional schemes and errors (Leung & Poon,

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2001). Schemes are the cognitive structures in the mind and the content of these structures is composed of the core beliefs. Under the core beliefs there are intermediate beliefs which finds expression with automatic thoughts, but more resistant to change. These intermediate beliefs are the strict belief systems composed of rules, commands, demands and musts. Automatic thoughts are the expression of the individual about himself and the environment and his inner monologues. These thoughts, which do not come from a rationalistic and systematic thought system, flow rapidly on certain situations in the minds of the individuals. They are formed spontaneously by clinging to the thought. The individual is not aware of these thoughts mostly. Only the feeling resulting from the thought stands in the forefront (Beck, 2001). These permanent schemes, which there is not, enough data about their reality constitutes cognitive distortions and errors. These errors include selective abstraction, mislabeling, overgeneralization, magnification and minimizing, personalizing, dichotomous thinking (Ucak-Simsek, 2003). Cognitive errors are the thoughts which make the adaptation of the individual both to himself and to his environment difficult and which cause both psychic and physical ailments (Leitenberg, Yost & Carrol-Wilson, 1986; Deal & Williams, 1988; Thurber, Crow, Thurber & Woffington, 1990; Johnson, Johnson & Petzel, 1992; Liau, Barriga & Gibbs, 1998; Epkins, 1998).

The researchers showed that the cognitive structure gains invariability with the increasing age and that the most important alterations happen up to the age of 12. The childhood period is considered to be the critical period in terms of the research about the factors causing the negative cognitive structure development (Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley, Rohde & Redner, 1993; Garber & Flynn, 2001). The difference of the adaptation behaviors of the individuals with disabilities is stemmed not only from the self-inability, but also the attitude and the reactions of the environment towards this inability. In connection to this, it is derived from individual’s thinking of self and acquired deficiencies. Investigation of the relations between the quality of life of the students with disabilities in mainstreamed primary classrooms and their cognitive errors, is seen as an important issue to be searched Öztürk (2006). It is a prime responsibility of special educators and psychological advisers to determine life quality of disable students and examining factors affecting their life qualities and using obtained data to strengthen their spiritual and emotional health. The researchers display the relation between the quality of life and the cognitive errors, which is thought to be one of the important determinants of the quality of life. This is very important for determining preventive interventions and for preparing the regulations oriented to improve the quality of life. For this reason, in this study, the researchers will analyze the cognitive errors as the predictor of the quality of life of the mainstreamed students. Answers will be sought to the questions as follows:

1. Is there a significant relation between the quality of life and cognitive errors of the mainstreamed students?

2. Are the cognitive errors of the mainstreamed students a significant predictor of quality of life?

MethodParticipants and InstrumentsThe sample of the research is composed of 117 mainstreamed students selected by random sampling method who attend from first to fifth classes of a school in Samsun (a city located on the Black Sea coast of Turkey) under the control of the Ministry of National Education in the academic year of 2007-2008. Forty-six of the students are female and 71 of the students are male. The average age of the students is 10.21 (S= 1.00).

In this study, two tools were used for data gathering. Children’s Negative Cognitive Error Questionnaire was used for determining the cognitive errors of the students and the Health Related Quality of Life Scale (Kid-KINDL) were used for determining the level of quality of life. The structure and contents of these tools are explained below.

Children’s Negative Cognitive Error Questionnaire Children’s Negative Cognitive Error Questionnaire was used to evaluate the cognitive distortion of children developed by Leitenberg et al (1986) and adapted to Turkish by Karakaya, Coşkun, Ağaoğlu, Öç, Çakin-Memik, Şişmanlar, et al. (2007). Validity and reliability of the scales were carried out in three elementary schools. The students were given The Children’s Negative Cognitive Errors Questionnaire (CNCEQ), Children’s Depression Scale, State- Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC), and Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. The CNCEQ was re-administered to the students

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seven days after its first administration. In the reliability analysis, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was calculated as 0.82 and 0.79. Test-retest reliability of the total score was 0.87. In comparing the CNCEQ to CDI, SAIC, TAIC, and SEI, correlations were r = 0.77, r = 0.57, r = 0.50, and r = –0.65, respectively (p < 0.001). As a result of the factor analysis three factors, which were called catastrophizing, personalizing, and selective abstraction and whose self-value is bigger than one were obtained (Karakaya, Coşkun, Ağaoğlu, Öç, Çakin-Memik, Şişmanlar, et al., 2007).

Health Related Quality of Life Scale (Kid-KINDL)Kid-Kindl is a general-purpose quality of life scale developed for children, comprised of 24 articles and six dimensions (physical well-being, emotional well-being, self-esteem, family, friend and school). Using the multitrait/multi-item analysis program (MAP) item-internal consistency and item discriminate validity was calculated to confirm the instrument structure. Likert Scaling assumptions were tested. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was applied as well. After the amendment of unsatisfactory two items the Kid-KINDL was applied to a separate random selection of 84 children and the analyses were repeated. Cronbach α was 0.35 – 0.78 before and 0.54-0.78 after the amendment. MAP-scaling success was 60-100% before and 90-100% after the amendment. CFA confirmed the Kid-KINDL structure for the original version (RMSEA=0.077) less than for the modified one (RMSEA=0.059) although for the latter sample size rather small. Floor effects were negligible, ceiling effects were up to 19% (Eser, Yüksel, Baydur et al., 2008).

ProcedureMeasurement tools were used in the class by the researchers. After the data gathering process was concluded, the gathered data was used in proper statistical processes in computer. Using SPSS did the analysis of the data. As a statistical analysis method Pearson correlation coefficient and linear regression analysis were used. Pearson correlation coefficient analysis is mainly used to examine the relations between to variables. In this study relations between quality of life, which is the constant variable, and cognitive errors were analyzed through Pearson correlation coefficient analysis. Linear regression analysis is used to predict dependent variable on the basis of two or more variables that are related to dependent variable (Büyüköztürk, 2002).

ResultsIn this study, results revealed that the quality of life of the mainstreamed students was negatively correlated with the catastrophizing (r= -.47, p<.01), personalizing (r= -.48, p<.01), and the selective abstraction (r= -.49, p<.01) (Table 1).

Table 1Relation between the Quality of Life and Cognitive Errors

Variable Quality of LifeCatastrophizing -.47*Personalizing -.48*

Selective Abstraction -.49**p<.01

Results also indicated that 22% of the variance in quality of life was accounted for by scores on Catastrophizing subscale [F(1,115)= 32.11, p<.001] (Table 2). The Catastrophizing subscale predicted significantly mainstreamed students’ quality of life (t= -5.667, p<. 001). The scores for Personalizing accounted for 22% of the variance in quality of life [F(1,115)= 33.81, p<.001]. This subscale made significant contributions to mainstreamed students’ quality of life (t= -5.815, p<. 001). Selective Abstraction scores scores were related significantly to quality of life, accounting for 24% of the variance [F(1,115)= 36.53, p<.001]. It was found that the third subscale was a significant predictor of quality of life (t= -6.044, p<. 001) (Table 2).

Table 2Linear Regression Analysis of Cognitive Errors Scores Predicting Quality of Life

Variable B β t p R R²Quality of Life Catastrophizing -.99 -.47 -5.667 .000 .47 .22

Personalizing -.86 -.47 -5.815 .000 .48 .22Selective Abstraction -1.09 -.49 -6.044 .000 .49 .24

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DiscussionQuality of life is described as the personal answer given to the physical, emotional, social impacts of disorders, which affect the personal satisfaction of individuals (Eser, Yüksel, Baydur et al., 2008). Emotional reactions of a human being depend on upon ones style of perception, recognition and interpretation of events. According to Beck’s cognitive theory, (1976) there is an interaction between how a person sees himself, his environment and his future and how he feels himself and behaves to himself (Karakaya, et al., 2007). Therefore, the perception of quality of life of individuals is thought to be in relation with a way of thinking. In this research the cognitive errors as the predictors of quality of life of mainstreamed students were analyzed. Differences in cognitive structures of individuals make their reactions towards self and towards situations. Therefore attitudes of disabled individuals towards their own disabilities are constantly changing and their satisfactions become diverse. in contrast to isolating disabled persons from the society, it is thought that integrating them with members of society make their perceptions positive about themselves and their disabilities. In this way, they will be able to give positive reactions to real life. For this reason it was thought that perceptions of individuals about their own life qualities are related to their thinking styles therefore, in this study cognitive errors which is a predictor of mainstreamed students’ life quality is investigated.

The results of this research showed that cognitive errors are meaningful predictors toward a quality of life for disabled persons. Furthermore, it was found out that there was a negative meaningful relation between the perception of quality of life of the mainstreamed students and the cognitive errors such as catastrophizing, personalizing, and selective abstraction. It is noted that in selective abstraction, generally individuals focus on an event in content and give meaning to the event through ignoring the more important elements of an event. Personalizing is described as relating a fact with self although it has nothing to do with the self. In personalizing, the individual thinks that he is the reason of other’s negative behaviors. Catastrophizing is predicting that the future is negative without taking the realistic results into account (Beck, 1995). The research showed the differences between the behavior adaptations result from the thought that the individual developed about himself or herself and his or her disability (Öztürk, 2006). This study also shows that when cognitive errors increase the quality of life decreases as well. Additionally, studies showed that the attitudes such as humiliation, scorn, excluding from the society, pity, kidding, taking them for a fool, discrimination are the most important factors affecting the quality of life (Eser, Aydemir, Özyurt, Ayık & Tıkız, 2007). When individuals’ attitudes towards environment and factors which affect their thinking taken into consideration, it can be understood that there is a negative relation between disabled individuals’ cognitive errors and their life qualities.

It is recommended that in order to find out the factors related to the quality of life of students with disabilities in mainstreaming education is important in terms of taking measures and making regulations for improving their life quality. The relationship between cognitive errors and quality of life affirms the need for interventions that seek to remediate these errors. There are numerous intervention methods available, which address cognitive errors in non-disabled children and their families (Robins & Hinkley, 1989; Leung & Wong, 1998). In order to deal with negative thoughts and to develop positive thoughts of elementary students and their parents should be given psycho-educational support in mainstreamed schools. For instance, cognitive-behavioral interventions can be beneficial for mainstreamed elementary students who have cognitive errors. Thus, it is thought that it helps to improve their quality of lives if individuals with disabilities and their families are well educated in dealing with cognitive errors and related disabilities.

Future investigations can improve upon limitations of this study. First, the mainstreamed elementary students were evaluated by self-report measures in this study. Alternative sources such as interview or observation could have been used. Additionally, findings emerge from family- or teacher-rated levels or symptoms could be examined, and direct or observational measures about children’s quality of life and cognitive errors could be applied for further investigations. Second, the generalizability of the present findings is limited to mainstreamed elementary students who participated in research. Future studies are needed to replicate these results. In conclusion, it is clear that cognitive errors play an important role in determining the quality of life of mainstreamed elementary students.

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Beck, A.T. (1976). Cognitive Therapy and Emotional Disorders. New York: International University Press. Beck, J. (1995). Cognitive Therapy Basics and Beyond. New York: The Guilford Press. Beck, S. J. (2001). Bilişsel Terapi Temel İlkeler ve Ötesi [Cognitive Therapy Basics and Beyond]. N. H. Şahin (Trans.). Ankara: Türk Psikologlar Derneği Yayınları.Darıca, N. (1992). Özürlü Çocukların Eğitiminde Entegrasyonun Önemi [The Importance of Integration on Education of Disabled Children]. I.Ulusal Özel Eğitim Kongresi [1st National Congress on Special Education], 11-12 Kasım 1992, Ankara.Davis, R.K., & Lombardi, T.P. (1996). The quality of life rural high school special education graduates: a follow-up study. Research Report. (ED394 765). Retrieved_from_http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sq1/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/14/7f/63.pdfDeal, S.L., & Williams, J.E. (1988). Cognitive distortions as mediators between life stress and depression in adolescents. Adolescence, 23 (90), 477-490. Epkins, C.C. (1998). Mother- and father-rated competence, child-perceived competence, and cognitive distortions: unique relations with children’s depressive symptoms. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27 (4), 442-451. Eser, E., Aydemir, Ö., Özyurt, B.C., Ayık, C., & Tıkız, C. (2007). Bedensel ve zihinsel engellilerine sunulan sağlık hizmetinin kalitesi ve yaşam kalitesi (DIS-QOL) projesi Türkiye merkezi odak grup sonuçları [The project of quality of life and quality of health service on physical and cognitive disorders (DIS-QOL)]. 2. Sağlıkta Yaşam Kalitesi Kongresi [2nd Congress on Quality of Life in Health], Ege Üniversitesi, 5-7 Nisan 2007. Eser, E., Yüksel, H., Baydur, H., Erhart, M., Saatli, G., Cengiz, B., et al. (2008). Çocuklar için genel amaçlı sağlıkla ilgili yaşam kalitesi ölçeği (Kid-Kindl) Türkçe sürümünün psikometrik özellikleri [The psychometric properties of the new Turkish generic health-related quality of life questionnaire for children (Kid-KINDL)]. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi [Turkish Journal of Psychiatry], 19 (4), 409-417. Fellinger, J., Holzinger, D., Dobner, U., Gerich, J., Lehner, R., Lenz, G., et al. (2005). Mental distress and quality of life in a deaf population. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40, 737-742. Fellinger, J., Holzinger, D., Gerich, J., & Goldberg, D. (2007). Mental distress and quality of life in the hard of hearing. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 115, 243-245. Garber, J., & Flynn, C. (2001). Predictors of depressive cognitions in young adolescents. Cognitive Therapy Research, 4, 353-375.Gotlib, I.H., Lewinsohn, P.M., Seeley, J.R., Rohde, P., & Redner, J.E. (1993). Negative cognitions and attributional style in depressed adolescents: an examination of stability and specificity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 607-615.Johnson, K.A., Johnson, J.E., & Petzel, T.P. (1992). Social anxiety, depression, and distorted cognitions in college students. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 11, 181-195. Karakaya, I., Coşkun, A., Ağaoğlu, B., Öç, Ö.Y., Çakin-Memik, N., Şişmanlar, Ş.G., et al. (2007). Çocukluktaki olumsuz düşünceleri değerlendirme ölçeği geçerlik-güvenilirlik çalışması [The reliability and validity of the children’s negative cognitive errors questionnaire]. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi [Turkish Journal of Psychiatry], 18 (2), 155-162. Leitenberg, H., Yost, L.W., & Carroll-Wilson, M. (1986). Negative cognitive errors in children: questionnaire development, normative data, and comparison between child with and without self-reported symptoms of depression, low self-esteem, and evaluaton anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psycholoy, 54, 528-536.Leung, P.W.L., & Wong, M.M.T. (1998). Can cognitive distortions differentiate between internalising and externalising problems? The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39 (2), 263-269.Leung, P.W.L., & Poon, M.W.L. (2001). Dysfunctional schemas and cognitive distortions in psychopathology: a test of the specificity hypothesis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42 (6), 755-765. Liau, A.K., Barriga, A.Q., & Gibbs, J.C. (1998). Relations between self-serving cognitive distortions and overt vs. covert antisocial behavior in adolescents. Agressive Behavior, 24, 335-346. Oğuz, H., Dursun, E., & Dursun, N. (2004). Tıbbi Rehabilitasyon [Medical Rehabilitation]. İstanbul: Nobel Tıp Kitabevi. Öztürk, S. (2006). İşitme, Görme ve Ortopedik Engelli İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Benlik Kavramlarının Özel Eğitim Okullarına veya Kaynaştırma Eğitimine Devam Etme Durumlarına Göre İncelenmesi [Examination of self-concepts of hearing impaired, visually impaired and orthopedically handicapped primary school students' that continue special education schools or integration education.]. Hacettepe University, Master Thesis, Ankara.

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Robins, C.J. & Hinkley, K. (1989). Social-cognitive processing and depressive symptoms in children: A comparison of measures. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17 (1), 29-36. Rosenbaum, P. (2008). Children’s quality of life: separating the person from the disorder. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 93 (2), 100-101. Sucuoğlu, B., & Özokçu, O. (2005). Kaynaştırma öğrencilerinin sosyal becerilerinin değerlendirilmesi [The evaluation of social skills on mainstreamed students]. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi [Ankara University Educational Sciences Faculty Journal of Special Education], 6 (1), 41-57. Thurber, S., Crow, L. A., Thurber, J.A., & Woffington, L.M. (1990). Cognitive distortions and depression in psychiatrically disturbed adolescent inpatients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46 (1), 57-60. Uçak-Şimşek, E. (2003). Bilişsel-Davranışçı Yaklaşımla ve Rol Değiştirmeyle Bütünleştirilmiş Film Terapisi Uygulamasının Üniversite Öğrencilerinin İşlevsel Olmayan Düşüncelerin Azalmasına ve İyimserliklerin Artmasına Etkisi [The effect of film therapy, integrated with cognitive behavioral approach and technique of role reversal to dysfunctional thoughts and optimism]. Ankara University, Doctoral Thesis, Ankara.Uğuz, F., Dursun, R., Kaya, N., & Çilli, A.S. (2006). Behçet hastalarında ruhsal belirtiler ve yaşam kalitesi [Psychiatric symptoms and quality of life in behçet patients]. Anadolu Psikiyatri Dergisi [Anatolian Journal of Psychiatry], 7, 133-139. Voll, R. (2001). Aspects of the quality of life of chronically ill and handicapped children and adolescents in outpatient and inpatient rehabilitation. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 24, 43-49. Yıkmış, N. (2006). İl Milli Eğitim Yöneticilerinin Kaynaştırma Uygulamalarına İlişkin Görüş ve Önerileri [The Views and The Suggestions of The District Education Diroctors Regarding The Mainsreaming Practices]. Abant İzzet Baysal University, Master Thesis, Bolu.

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Language Use By Bilingual Special Educators Of English Language Learners With Disabilities

Oneyda M. Paneque, Diane RodriguezEast Carolina University

Using an exploratory case study approach, the language use of five bilingual special education teachers of English Language Learners (ELLs) with disabilities was examined. Audio tapes, classroom observations, and teacher interviews yielded data on the language used by the bilingual teachers. Data revealed information on the frequency of the use of English and Spanish, patterns of language use for each language, and differences in the way English and Spanish were used in the classroom. Implications for teacher preparation programs are discussed.

There are many challenges that teachers face in the classroom particularly when working with students at risk of academic failure. Students with disabilities and those who are not fluent English speakers, have certain needs that are not always addressed by traditional teaching methods. For students who present two or more at risk factors, the probability of academic failure is exponentially increased (Baca & Cervantes, 2004). As with all students, their opportunities for academic success are dependent on having well prepared teachers who understand the strengths and limitations the students bring to the classroom. These teachers must be able to address students’ linguistic and cultural differences as well as their cognitive, emotional, and/or physical disabilities so they can achieve to their maximum potential.

The persistent overrepresentation in some categories of special education, while underrepresentation in other categories, for ethnic and language minority students in special education is of grave concern (Losen & Orfield, 2002). This racial inequity, coupled with the projected increase in the numbers of English Language Learners (ELLs) with disabilities receiving special education services (Heubert, 2002), is cause for alarm. The identification, assessment, and instruction of these students are as complex and diverse as the students themselves.

Most of the literature on English Language Learners with disabilities addresses issues related to overrepresentation in high incidence categories such as learning disabilities, mental retardation, and emotionally handicapped whereas there is an under representation in classes for talented and gifted students (Losen & Orfield, 2002).

A review of the literature on ELLs with disabilities generated many articles on the assessment and identification of the students (Artiles & Ortiz, 2002; Figueroa & Hernandez, 2000; Keller-Allen, 2006). However, there are a limited number of articles on teaching these students (Brice & Roseberry-McKibbin, 2001; Gersten, Baker, & Marks, 1998) and the preparation of teachers for this target population (Baca & Cervantes, 2004; Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Flippin, 2002).

The demand for special education teachers is expected in increase due to an increase in the number of students identified with disabilities and the low retention rate among special education teachers (McLeskey, Tyler, & Flippin, 2003). Tyler et al. (2002) argue that cultural diversity among teachers is important as well as cultural competence. This is of particular concern given the shortage of special education teachers who are culturally and linguistically diverse. In fact, the United States Department of Labor (2006) has recognized the need for bilingual special education teachers and those with multicultural experiences due to the rise in the number of students from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds identified as having special needs. This demand for teachers prepared to work with students from different backgrounds with disabilities accentuates the need for teacher preparation programs for preservice teachers and professional development opportunities for inservice teachers.

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Theoretical frameworkELLs with disabilities need special education teachers who are fluent in their native languages and have a sound understanding of their cultures in order to effectively instruct and assess their needs (Baca & Cervantes, 2004). Support of the native language is critical to facilitate the process of learning content area subjects, while learning English as a second language (Brice & Roseberry-McKibbin, 2001; Gersten et al., 1998). For many ELLs with disabilities, the emphasis of instruction is on language development in English only without support in the student’s native language. Misconceptions among educators about the relationship between the first and second language development (August & Hakuta, 1997) and the nature of bilingualism (Cheng, 1997; Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, 2004; Goldstein, 2004) have been documented. Furthermore, development of first language proficiency which is the basis for learning the second language (Cummins, 1984, 1994; Krashen 1991, 1997; Thomas & Collier, 1997) often times is not supported. These misunderstandings about language and the lack of support for the first language can negatively affect the language development of students with disabilities.

Zehler, Fleischman, Hopstock, Stephenson, Pendzick, and Sapru (2003) found that when ELLs with disabilities received more instruction in English, they were less likely to receive extended services for English-as-second-language or significant instruction in their native language than ELLs without disabilities. Unfortunately for many ELLs with disabilities, these decisions are made to only teach them in English “so they will not get confused.” Nevertheless, Maldonado (1994) found that bilingual instruction was beneficial for students with learning disabilities. After three years, ELLs with disabilities in integrated special education programs who received native language instruction and cultural development attained higher levels of English language proficiency than those who were in regular special education.

There is a lack of agreement on how and when to use the students’ native language. However, there is agreement that students’ fluency and proficiency in English is essential to their academic success (Tellez & Waxman, 2004). As in all teaching, the ultimate goal of teaching ELLs with disabilities is to assist the all students in learning cognitively, linguistically, and affectively to their maximum potential. Therefore, special education teachers of ELLs should utilize the students’ language and culture as a medium of instruction since they are the foundation upon which new experiences, knowledge, and skills will be taught (Baca & Cervantes, 2004).

Furthermore, an extensive nationwide survey study of personnel who served students with disabilities was conducted by Carlson, Brauen, Klein, Schroll, and Willig (2002). Among their results on different aspects of educational process of students with special needs, they found that the participants felt least skillful in accommodating the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students. However, those who did feel skillful in teaching the target population reported using different instructional practices than those who did not. These instructional practices included teaching key vocabulary prior to the lesson, developing lessons specifically designed for English language development, and extending language development opportunities. Of the teachers who were fluent in the languages of their students, many reported using the native language of the students to teach English language skills and academic concepts.

In a study of teacher efficacy of special education working with ELLs with disabilities, Paneque (2004) found that proficiency in the language of the ELLs was positively correlated with high teacher efficacy and accounted for significant variance in predicting the level of teachers’ perceived efficacy. Participant responses included that knowledge of the students’ language facilitated understanding and teaching the students as well as communicating with the parents more effectively. Several of the participants noted that having gone through the process of acculturation and speaking English as a second language was most helpful because it allowed them to relate better to their students.

The current study was an exploratory examination of five special education classrooms where the special education teachers were bilingual in English and the native language, Spanish, of the ELLs with disabilities. The research questions posed were:

1. Did the special education teachers use both English and Spanish for instruction? 2. If so, how were English and Spanish used?3. Were there differences in the use of English and Spanish by the special education teachers?

Method

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A case study approach was utilized in the present study due to the unique needs of ELLs with disabilities and the continuum of special education services to meet their needs. Yin (2003) supports the use of case study research that is exploratory in nature to study how or why an event or behavior occurs. Stake (2005) agrees that case studies are useful to gain greater understanding of a case where it occurs naturally. This is particularly appropriate for pilot studies to initially study a phenomenon, as in the use of the native language by special education teachers of ELLs with disabilities where there are few articles (Gersten & Baker, 2000; Ortiz, 2001).

Participants and Setting The study was conducted in the southeast region of the United States in a large, urban school district offering a wide range of educational programs including programs for students with disabilities and those who speak English as a second language. Two elementary schools were identified because of student population with a high number of culturally and linguistically diverse students as well as students receiving special education services. At the first school, 87% of the student body was Hispanic and 18% of the students received special education. At the second school the student body was comprised of 95% Hispanic students and 14% of the students received special education services. At each school special education teachers who were fluent in Spanish were invited to participate in the study. Five teachers volunteered, two from the first school and three from the second school. The volunteers were all female, Hispanic teachers who held full-time positions as special educators and worked in self-contained classrooms. Teacher characteristics are presented in Table 1.

The teacher participants were all bilingual in English and Spanish, Four of the five teachers reported that Spanish was the first language they had learned and then later English. One of the teachers reported that she had grown up in a bilingual home where both English and Spanish were spoken; she learned both languages simultaneously.

Olga and Annie worked at the first school. Olga worked with 13 students with orthopedic impairments in grades 2 and 3. Ten of her students were ESOL. She had earned Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in special education with ESOL endorsement. Additionally, Olga held special education certification and had 12 years of teaching experience.

Annie worked with 20 students who were educable mentally handicapped, 17 of whom were ESOL. She had earned a Bachelor’s degree in psychology and had only one year of teaching experience. Annie had passed the special education teacher certification examination, although she had not taken any special education courses. In addition, she was not ESOL endorsed.

Table 1:Participating Special Teacher Characteristics

Participant Student characteristics

Language skills Degrees earned Number of years teaching

Olga K – Grade 3, physically impaired

L1* – SpanishL2** - English

BA and MA in Special Ed with ESOL endorsement

12 years

Annie Grades 3 to 5,Educable Mentally Handicapped

L1* – bilingual Spanish and English

BA in Psychology 1 year

Mari Pre-K,Varying Exceptionalities

L1* – SpanishL2** – English

BA and MASpecial Ed with ESOL endorsement

16 years

Carolina Pre-K,Autistic


BA in Early Childhood Ed

2.5 years

Elsa Grades 2 to 3,Autistic


BA and MA in Special Ed

15 years

Note: L1* = First language learned, L2** = Second language learnedMari, Carolina, and Elsa worked at the second school. Mari and Carolina worked with PreK students. Mari taught in a reverse mainstream setting comprised of ten students. Seven had varying exceptionalities and of these five were ESOL. Mari had earned Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in

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Special Education with ESOL endorsement. She was certified in Special Education and ESOL endorsed. She had 16 years of teaching experience.

Carolina’s nine students had autism and of these seven were ESOL. Carolina had a Bachelor’s degree in Early Childhood and was certified in this field. In addition she was ESOL endorsed. At the time of the study, she was not certified in Special Education although she was working towards a Master’s degree in the field. Carolina had 2.5 years of teaching experience.

The fifth teacher, Elsa, was in a second-third grade combination class with eight students with autism, three of whom were ESOL. Elsa held both Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in Special Education. She was certified in Special Education, but not ESOL endorsed. Moreover, she had 15 years of teaching experience.

In sum, the five teachers varied in their educational background in the field of special education as well as their ESOL preparation. None of the teachers had received specific instruction in their teacher preparation programs or subsequent professional development activities regarding the use of the students’ native language as a medium of instruction. Their teaching experience ranged from 1 year to 15 years.

Data Collection ProceduresInformation for these five case studies was gathered from three sources to facilitate triangulation of data. The data collection procedures used in this study included classroom observations of the special education teachers, audio recordings of the teacher lessons, and teacher interviews

Classroom observations. The participants were observed during five class periods over the course of a six week period. The observations were conducted by the principal investigator (PI) of this study. The PI took notes during the class periods describing the context of the classroom learning situation, with particular emphasis on teacher-student classroom interactions and the teacher’s use of both English and Spanish. At the first school, Olga was observed in the mornings during language arts class and Annie was observed during science and social studies classes in the afternoon. At the second, Mari and Carolina were observed during the morning routine and language development periods. However, Elsa was observed in the afternoons during language arts class.

Audio recordings of teacher lessons. Each time the teacher was observed, the PI made audio recordings of the teacher lessons. These recordings were later transcribed and coded for frequency of language used and how the language was used, i.e., to clarify, to question. Interrater reliability was established by a second coder who is also bilingual and familiar with the process of coding and analyzing audio tapes.

Teacher Interviews. After the last classroom observation, each teacher was interviewed individually to gather additional data on their use of English and Spanish in the classroom. Information regarding the teachers’ processes of becoming bilingual, i.e., learning English and Spanish, was gathered. In addition, information on their teacher preparation programs and professional development for working with ELLs with disabilities was obtained.

Data AnalysisThe classroom observations were analyzed through the development of patterns of language use for each teacher participant. Patterns of language use and frequency were observed and classified. The audio recordings were transcribed and coded for the frequency of the use of English and Spanish and how the language was used, i.e., to clarify, to question. Interrater reliability was established by a second coder who is also bilingual and familiar with the process of coding and analyzing audio tapes.

ResultsThe data collected and analyzed on the five bilingual special education teachers who participated in the present study yielded findings on the frequency of language used and the way each language was used. The data revealed that the teachers were using both English and Spanish for instruction with the ELLs with disabilities. Analyses of the data indicated that overall the teachers used English over 90% of the time during instruction. Spanish was used most often with those students who were less fluent in English particularly to clarify content instruction. Additionally, Spanish was used to redirect students’

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attention to task oriented activities as well as to praise and reprimand students. Differences in language use among the teachers were observed.

Differences in the use of English and Spanish analyzed across teacher cases. All of the lessons observed began in English and English was the primary language of instruction. Spanish was used to clarify concepts and keep students on task. These differences in language use were attributed to the level of English fluency of the students and the nature of the learning activity. In each class, ELLs ranged in English language proficiency from beginning level to native-like fluency.

The following are some examples of the teachers’ use of Spanish in interactions with students. During a language arts lesson Olga was explaining the concept of action verbs using gestures, pictures, and actions. She gave examples such as running, clapping, and hopping” For the beginning English level students, the teacher gave the example [él] está cocinando [he is cooking]. This example demonstrates the transfer of knowledge about action words from the first language to English.

The second teacher, Annie would elicit answers from students by encouraging them to respond in Spanish if they did not know the answer in English. One example of this was observed during a lesson on personal hygiene. The teacher asked what a person should wash to keep clean. This teacher used cognates in explaining personal hygiene by saying hygiene personal in Spanish. When the beginning English level student could not respond, she said Dímelo en español. [Tell me in Spanish]. The student did not know how to say hair in English.

Mari and Carolina were observed during the first activity in the morning, which was the greeting circle. Both teachers engaged in a fairly scripted routine with songs and patterned speech to promote English language development among their students. Spanish was used primarily to redirect students especially those who were beginning English learners. The teachers spoke only in English with students who were already fluent in English.

Elsa worked with students with autism. She used Spanish to keep the students focused on the task at hand and to encourage student participation. She used Spanish primarily with the students who were less fluent in English.

All five participants viewed the use of Spanish for instruction as positive. The teachers reported that decisions on language selection and use were based on the needs of their individual students. All of the teachers reported their ability to use Spanish was an asset and planned on continuing to use it in the class as the need arose. Moreover, the teachers expressed that they were at an advantage when working with the parents and families of their students. Many of the families were not fluent in English and speaking with them in their native language facilitated communication.

Implications for Special Education Teacher Preparation Programs In the present study, the bilingual special education teachers used both English and Spanish in the classroom. Decisions on the language of instruction were made by the teachers, even though these teachers had not received formal training in delivering instruction in two languages. In the Mueller, Singer, and Grace (2004) study, special education teachers with even minimal language skills in Spanish used the language to communicate with their ELLs with disabilities. Similarly, they found that decisions about the language of instruction were made by the teachers even though most of the teachers in their study had not been trained to teach using two languages either.

Implications for special education teacher preparation programs fall into three major areas. First is the importance of recruiting bilingual students into special education teacher preparation programs. Second is the inclusion of special teacher preparation coursework that develops proficiency in and understanding of languages other than English for the special education teachers. The third area is preparing teachers on how to use the students’ native language to strengthen the development of English language skills and understanding of content area material.

In this research study, all of the teachers knew the students’ native language, Spanish, yet they had varying degrees of proficiency in Spanish. Concerns about bilingual teachers’ language proficiency have been raised (Sutterby, Ayala, & Murillo, 2005). No studies were found that specifically addressed the language skills of bilingual special education teachers, although Guerrero (1997, 1998) has examined the Spanish language ability of bilingual general education teachers. He addressed several

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important issues related to the teachers’ foreign or non-English language ability given the fact the there is a shortage of bilingual teachers.

Teaching strategies and instruction that use the native languages of the students can foster English language development because it will build on their prior knowledge. Explicit instruction on transferring skills for one language to the other will allow students maximize their learning by drawing on their background knowledge. Furthermore, using the native language to introduce new concepts and provide explanations for complex concepts will facilitate learning (Gersten et al., 1998). Preparing teachers to use effective instructional strategies that will build on the students’ prior knowledge and assist in developing fluency in English that is essential for academic success will benefit all students.

ConclusionResults from the national survey of public school districts in the United States regarding services for limited English proficient students with and without disabilities revealed that three-quarters of the district coordinators reported shortages of qualified teachers to serve their ELLs with disabilities (Zehler et al., 2003). Additionally, as Keller-Allen (2006) indicated in a study of state practices on services for ELLs with disabilities, there is insufficient personnel training in the areas of second language acquisition, cultural competence, bilingual education, instruction in English-as-a second-language, and use of prereferral interventions for both special and general educators.

This dire need, coupled with the limited number of studies that examine how non-English languages are used by bilingual special education teachers working with ELLs with disabilities, presents a significant challenge given the significant number of ELLs with disabilities and the need for highly qualified special education teachers to provide instruction. This exploratory case study is a beginning attempt to contribute to the gap in the area of using native language instruction for children with disabilities research how special education teachers can use bilingual skills when working with ELLs and how this language-based differentiated instruction affects ELLs learning. These initial findings suggest that teacher preparation programs should include instruction on how teachers can incorporate the use of their students’ native languages as well as English to address their cognitive, emotional, and/or physical needs. Further studies in this area are recommended.

ReferencesArtiles, A. J., & Ortiz, A. A. (Eds.). (2002). English language learners with special education needs: Identification, assessment, and instruction. McHenry, IL: Delta Systems. August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997). Improving schooling for language minority children: A research agenda. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Baca, L. M., & Cervantes, H. M. (2004). The bilingual special education interface. (4th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Brice, A., & Roseberry-McKibbin, C. (2001). Choice of languages in instruction: One language or two? Teaching Exceptional Children, 33(4), 10-16.Carlson, E., Brauen, M., Klein, S., Schroll, K., & Willig, S. (2002). Study of personnel needs in special education. Rockville, MD: Westat Research Corporation. Retrieved July 8, 2005, from http://ferdig.coe.ufl.edu/spense/Results.html Cheng, L. L. (1997). Diversity: Challenges and implications for assessment. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 19(1), 55-62.Cummins, J. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.Cummins, J. (1994). Knowledge, power, and identity in teaching English as a second language. In F. Genesee (Ed.), Educating second language children: The whole child, the whole curriculum, the whole community (pp. 103-125). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Figueroa, R. A., & Hernandez, S. (2000). Testing Hispanic students in the United States: Technical and policy issues. Washington, DC: President’s Advisory Commission on Educational Excellence for Hispanic Americans. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED441652) Genesee, F,. Paradis, J., & Crago, M. B. (2004). Dual language development & disorders: A handbook on bilingualism & second language learning. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Gersten, R., & Baker, S. (2000). What we know about effective instructional practices for English-Language-Learners. Exceptional Children, 66, 454-470.Gersten, R., Baker, S., & Marks, S. (1998). Teaching English language learners with learning difficulties: Guiding principles and examples from research-based practice. Reston, VA: Council for

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Exceptional Children, ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 417448)Goldstein, B. A. (Ed.). (2004). Bilingual language development & disorders in Spanish-English speakers. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Guerrero, M. (1997). Spanish academic language proficiency: The case of bilingual education teachers in the U.S. Bilingual Research Journal, 21, 1, 65-84.Guerrero, M. (1998). Current issues in the Spanish language proficiency of bilingual education teachers. Texas Papers for Foreign Language Education, 3, 3, 135-149.Heubert, J. P. (2002). Disability, race, and high-stakes testing of students. In D. J. Losen, & G. Orfield (Eds.). Racial inequity in special education (pp.137-165). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.Losen, D. J., & Orfield, G. (2002). Introduction: Racial inequity in special education. In D. J. Losen, & G. Orfield (Eds.). Racial inequity in special education (pp.xv-xxxvii). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.Keller-Allen, C. (2006). English language learners wit disabilities: Identification and other state policies and issues. Alexandria, VA: Project Forum, National Association of State Directors of Special Education. Retrieved August 31, 2006, from http://www.projectforum.org/docs/EnglishLanguageLearnerswithDisabilities-IdentificationandOtherStatePoliciesandIssues.pdfKrashen, S. D. (1991). Bilingual education: A focus on current research. FOCUS Occasional Papers in Bilingual Education No. 3. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 337034)Krashen, S. D. (1997). Why bilingual education? Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 403101)McLeskey, J., Tyler, N., & Flippin, S. (2003). The supply of and demand for special education teachers: A review of research regarding the nature of the chronic shortage of special education. (COPSSE Document Number RS-1E). Gainesville, FL: University of Florida, Center on Personnel Studies in Special Education. Retrieved September 25, 2006, from http://www.coe.ufl.edu/copsse/docs/RS-1E/1/RS-1E.pdfMueller, T. G., Singer, G. H. S., & Grace, E. J. (2004). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and California’s Proposition 227: Implications for English Language Learners with special needs. Bilingual Research Journal, 28(2), 231-251. Ortiz, A. (2001). English Language Learners with special needs: Effective instructional strategies. ERIC Digest, EDO-FL-01-08. Retrieved January 16, 2002, from http://www.cal.org.ericcll/digest/0108ortiz.htmlPaneque, O. M. (2004). Teacher efficacy of special education teachers of English Language Learners with disabilities. (Doctoral dissertation, Florida International University, 2004). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65, 146.Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 443-466). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Sutterby, J. A., Ayala, J., & Murillo, S. (2005). El sendero torcido al español: [The twisted path to Spanish]: The development of bilingual teachers’ Spanish-language proficiency. Bilingual Research Journal, 29(2), 435-452.Tellez, K., & Waxman, H. (2004). Quality teachers for English language learners: A research synthesis. Retrieved October 1, 2006, from http://www.temple.edu./LSS/pdf/publications/pubs2004-2.pdfThomas, W. P., & Collier, V. (1997). School effectiveness for language minority students. Resource Collection Series No. 9. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.Tyler, N., Yzquierdo, Z., Lopez-Reyna, N., & Flippin, S. (2002). Diversifying the special education workforce (COPSSE Document Number RS-3). Gainesville, FL: University of Florida, Center on Personnel Studies in Special Education. Retrieved September 25, 2006, from http://www.coe.ufl.edu/copsse/docs/RS-3E/1/RS-3E.pdfU. S. Department of Labor. (2006). Occupational Outlook Handbook 2006-07 Edition. Retrieved October 11, 2006, from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos070.htmYin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Designs and methods. (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Zehler, A. M., Fleischman, H. L., Hopstock, P. J., Stephenson, T. G., Pendzick, M. L., & Sapru, S. (2003). Descriptive study of services to LEP students and LEP students with disabilities. Policy report: Summary of findings related to LEP and SpEd-LEP students. Washington, DC: Development Associates. Retrieved October 15, 2006, from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/resabout/research/descriptivestudyfiles/policy-report.pdf

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http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos070.htm

http://www.coe.ufl.edu/copsse/docs/RS-3E/1/RS-3E.pdf


CARDIO RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS WITH LONG TERM PERSONALIZED EXERCISE PROGRAM IN A T12 SPINAL CORD INJURED PERSON

Angelo VasiliadisKosmas Christoulas

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, ThessalonikiChristina Evaggelinou

Ioannis VrabasAristotle University of Thessaloniki, Serres

The purpose of this study was to investigate the physiological adaptations in cardio respiratory endurance with a personalized exercise program with arm-cranking exercise in a paraplegic person (incomplete T12 spinal cord injury). A 32 year-old man with spinal cord injury (T12) participated in the present study performing 30 minutes arm cranking ergometry three times per week, for 12 weeks. Prior, during and after the training intervention, six maximal arm cranking exercise tests were performed on a Monark ergometer with the subject seated in his own wheelchair. Cardio respiratory and metabolic values were recorded during the exercise tests, and blood lactate concentration was measured after each test. A four-minute sub-maximal workload was selected to achieve cardio respiratory steady state, in order to evaluate sub-maximal performance. The peak oxygen uptake improved from 17.7 to 23 ml/min/kg for the arm-cranking test. Peak ventilation and maximal heart rate were higher at the end of the training program. The most impressive observation was a gradual increase during the six exercise tests in peak work rate from 10 to 40 Watt, and in total test time from 433 to 1024 sec. Finally, measurements at sub-maximal performance revealed lower oxygen consumption and decreased heart rate frequencies at the end of training intervention. The findings of this study showed that an individualized training program can motivate spinal cord injured persons to start exercising, and gain advantage from improvements to sub-maximal and maximal performance.

A spinal cord injury disrupts the nervous connections in the spinal cord and results in muscle paralysis, loss of sensation and autonomic dysfunction below the level of injury. In addition, well-known risk factors for cardiovascular diseases such as glucose intolerance, disturbances in lipid profile, alterations in body composition and morphological changes in skeletal muscles are observed in higher proportion in persons with long-term spinal cord injury (Dallmeijer, Hopman & van der Woude, 1997; Hjeltnes, Aksnes, Birkeland, Johansen, Lannegm & Wallberg-Henriksson, 1997). It is most likely that these profound metabolic alterations are related to the extreme physical inactivity, which is in direct consequence of the injury (Dearwater, Laporte, Rubertson, Brenes, Adams & Becker, 1986).

Several authors have emphasized the importance of physical exercise and sport in persons with spinal cord injuries for maintaining or improving adequate physical fitness levels (Glaser, Janssen, Suryaprasad, Gupta & Mathews, 1996; Davis, 1993; Hoffman, 1995; DiCarlo, 1982). Some authors assumed that higher fitness levels lead to improved daily functioning and health status (Noreau & Shephard, 1995; Dallmeijer & van der Woude, 2001). Since the beginning of the Stoke Mandeville era, physical exercise has been considered an important rehabilitation tool for spinal cord injured subjects to improve health and prevent complications (Guttmann, 1979). However, a causal relationship between increased physical endurance capacity and improved health has not been demonstrated for both chronic paraplegic (Nilson, Staff & Pruet, 1975; Knutsson, Lewenhaupt-Olsson & Thorsen, 1973) and tetraplegic subjects (McLean & Skinner, 1995; Gass, 1980).The interest in a reconditioning training program for the spinal cord injured population has already been demonstrated and can be justified by the following reasons: a) to increase peak oxygen uptake

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(VO2peak), b) to decrease the problems associated with their locomotion and c) to decrease the risks of medical complications such as urinary and kidney infections and skin breakdown. Due to the heterogeneity of the paraplegic population, the individualization of training program is of great importance. Most studies do not take into consideration the type of spinal cord injury of the participants in a training program (Bougenot, Tordi, Le foll, Parratte, Lonsdorfer & Rouillon, 2003). The development of individualized training programs need research data collection in order to support the benefits of exercise for spinal cord injured persons.

Thus, the main purpose of our study was to investigate the effectiveness of a well individualized and supervised training program on the physical fitness of a spinal cord injured person. The specific purposes of this study were to investigate the improvements: a) on maximal performance and aerobic capacity and b) on sub-maximal cardio respiratory function and energy consumption, during and at the end of the training program.

MethodSubjectIn the present study, a 32-year-old right-handed man (body weight, 84 kg; height, 179.5 cm; duration of injury, four years) sustained a displaced T12 incomplete fracture due to an accidental fall. The patient fell down from the third floor of a building while he was working and his body (67 kg; 179.5 cm) stopped over a vehicle. Before the accident the subject was healthy and was not regularly involved in any athletic activity. The planning of an individualized training program, the continuous guidance of the training and the steady examination of his physical condition constituted the motivation in order to start training.

Study designThe study was conducted in the Ergophysiology Laboratory of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. A mechanically braked arm cranking ergometer was used (Monark - Rehab Trainer 881 E) for the exercise testing as well as the training program work-outs. The main advantage of the arm ergometry was that it provided a readily standardized measure of cardio respiratory performance that can be performed by a person who could not walk but uses better the upper than the lower extremities paraplegics (Shephard, 1990). On a separate day, prior to exercise training, the subject participated in two sessions in order to try the arm cranking exercise (20 minutes each time). On the same day the subject got familiarized with the laboratory environment and the testing procedure. The subject performed two maximal tests (best measurement was used for analysis). During the training program the subject performed a maximal arm cranking test every two and one half weeks and the final measurement after 12 weeks of training. All the measurements carried out by the same examiners. The arm exercise testing and training sessions were performed after the essential medical check that allowed the subject to participate in a maximal exercise test and a vigorous exercise training program. The arm exercise testing and training sessions were performed after the essential medical check that allowed the subject to participate in a maximal exercise test and a vigorous exercise training program.

Procedure The weekly training schedule included three work-outs, Monday, Wednesday and Friday. The work outs consisted of both interval and continuous exercise on the arm crank ergometer (first week continuous, second to twelfth week, continuous and interval). The duration of the training program was 12 weeks, with six training sessions between measurements.

Each training session started with a five minute warm-up (arm cranking without resistance at 50 rpm), the initial workload was applied. The cadence for arm cranking was maintained at 50 rpm using a metronome; while the subject could also view the cadence on liquid crystal display. The program continued with gradually increased load. Because of the experimental design, the duration of each training session and work load of the arm cranking ergometer was increased from session to session. The training program started with continuous exercise until third training session for gradual adaptation of the subject to high intensities. Thereafter, each week the subject performed one continuous session and two interval sessions. Examples of continuous and interval training protocols are shown to Table 1. The importance of this study was the individualization of training program, continuously supervision of exercise by the investigator, and controlled laboratory conditions (temperature 20 - 22 °C and humidity 40 - 50 %).

Table 1Description of training methods and loads during 30 training sessions.

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Training loads

Trainingsession

Training method

Warm-up 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Total

time

1-3 Continuous%ML 0 50 70 50min 5 5 10 5 25

Example 3rd ContinuousWatt 0 5 7 5

min 5 5 10 5 25

4-30Continuous

%ML 0 50 70 50min 5 5 20 5 35

Interval %ML 0 50 80 30 80 30 90 30 90 30 90 30min 5 5 2 4 2 4 1 3 1 3 1 5 36

Example 29th Continuous Watt 0 17.5 24.5 17.5

min 5 5 20 5 35

Example 30th IntervalWatt 0 17.5 28 10.5 28 10.5 31.5 10.5 31.5 10.5 31.5 10.5

min 5 5 2 4 2 4 1 3 1 3 1 5 36

Testing protocolThe subject performed arm cranking exercise on a mechanically braked arm cranking ergometer while seated in his immobilized wheelchair. The radius of the handles of the arm ergometer was 16 cm. The center of the handles was adjusted at subject’s shoulder height when he was sitting straight. The distance between the seat and the handle was adjusted for the subject so that he could use the whole span of the arm from the shoulder to the palm. This distance was noted at the first visit and the identical set-up was used for each test and for all training sessions. The backrest was almost vertical and a belt held the subject in the seat. After a four minute warm-up (arm cranking without resistance at 50 rpm), the initial workload was applied. A four minute sub-maximal workload (Maltais, Kondo & Bar-Or, 2000) was selected to achieve cardio respiratory steady state (power output of 5 W at 50 rpm). The cadence for arm cranking was maintained at 50 rpm using a metronome; while the subject could also view the cadence within ± 5 rpm of the state cadence. A four-minute, sub-maximal exercise stage had previously been used in paraplegic subjects to achieve cardio respiratory steady state without provoking undue fatigue (Unnithan, Kenne, Logan, Collier & Turk, 2006). After the initial load of 5 W for the first four min, the workload was increased at a rate of 5 W every two minutes until the subject could no longer keep pace with the metronome. The room temperature was controlled at within the range from 20 - 22 °C and the humidity was 40 - 50 %.

MeasurementsOxygen consumption (VO2), heart rate (HR), ventilation (VE) and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were measured continuously with an open circuit spirometry system (Jager, Oxycon Pro, Wurzburg, Germany) throughout the arm cranking exercise. Concentration of gas and volume were calibrated before every test. VO2, HR, VE and RER were recorded every 20 sec during the arm cranking exercise test.

The main criterion for the attainment of VO2max was considered a plateau in oxygen consumption (VO2plateau) at the end of the test. Secondary criteria for attainment of VO2max included: (a) HR values within ten beats/minute of the age-predicted maximum and (b) RER greater than 1.1. In the absence of the main or secondary criteria the point of maximal exertion was termed as VO2peak (Mc Connell, 1988).

ResultsMaximal exerciseResults of maximal cardio respiratory response are shown in Figure 1. VO2peak increased in our subject from the first test to the fifth test (17.7 and 23 ml/min/kg at Test 1 and Test 5 respectively). There was a gradual increase in heart rate from the first to the sixth test up to 18% (from 145 to 171 beat/min). Greater increase was observed in ventilation during maximal exercise in our paraplegic subject (61 and 106 l/min at Test 1 and Test 5 respectively). The improvement of ventilation was up to 73.8 % (Figure

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1). At fifth test, the paraplegic subject reached a maximal lactate concentration of 12.6 mmol/l, while the value for the first test was 8.9 mmol/l (Figure 3).

Figure 1.VO2peak (ml/kg/min and l/min), HRpeak (beats/min) and VEpeak (l/min) during arm cranking maximal

performance in paraplegic subject, tested before (1) and during (2-6) the training period.

Figure 2.Maximal work load (Watt) and total time (sec) during arm cranking maximal performance in paraplegic

subject, tested before (1) and during (2-6) the training period.

Total test time increased up to 236.5 % (433 to 1024 sec) and maximal work load up to 300 % (10 to 40 W), from the initial values (first test) to the end of the program (sixth test). Total test time was increasing continuously from the first to the last measurement (433, 677, 729, 876, 964 and 1024 sec for T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6 respectively). Also, maximal work load was increasing from the first to the sixth measurement (10, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 W for T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6 respectively) (Figure 2).

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Figure 3.Maximal blood lactate concentration (mmol/l) during arm cranking maximal performance in paraplegic

subject, tested before (1) and during (2-6) the training period.

Sub-maximal exerciseThe paraplegic subject was able to perform a four-minutes sub-maximal bout of exercise (five Watts) at the beginning of exercise protocol in all six tests. During four minute’s cardiorespiratory steady state, the oxygen uptake, ventilation, heart rate and respiratory exchange ratio gradually decreased from T1 to T6 (Table 2).

Table 2Cardiorespiratory and metabolic parameters during submaximal arm ergometry in paraplegic

subject. The subject was tested six times during the training period (Test 1, T 2, T 3, T 4, T 5 and T 6, respectively).

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5 Test 6

VO2 (ml/min/kg) 13.4 13.3 13.4 13.0 13.3 12.8

VO2 (L/min) 1.13 1.12 1.12 1.09 1.07 1.04

VE (L/min) 39 38 37 36 37 34

HR (b/min) 131 123 122 120 114 107

Lactate (mmol/L) 1.02 0.98 0.94 0.90 0.96 0.92

DiscussionPersons with spinal cord injury have a reduced physical capacity because of muscle weakness, loss of autonomic control below the level of injury, reduced activity and subsequent changes in metabolic and vascular function (Haisma, van der Woude, Stam, Bergen, Sluis & Bussmann, 2006). Exercise rehabilitation has been shown to be an effective method of attenuating or reversing chronic disease in persons with spinal cord injury. Similar to the general able-bodied population (Warbburton, Nicol & Bredin, 2006), habitual physical activity (beyond activities of daily living) of spinal cord injured persons can lead to numerous health benefits that significantly reduce the risk for multiple chronic conditions and premature mortality. The adoption of an active life way and the integration of physical activity during rehabilitation phase can help to avoid these conditions (Warburton et al., 2006). Furthermore, exercise can improve the existing physical abilities such as cardio respiratory function and muscular strength (Noreau, Shephard, Simard, Pare & Pomerleau, 1993; Hjeltnes & Wallberg-

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Henriksson, 1998; Le Foll-de Moro, Tordi, Lonsdorfer & Lonsdorfer, 2005; Tordi, Dugue, Klupzinski, Rasseneur, Rouillon & Lonsdorfer, 2001).

Physical capacity can be described as the performance of cardiovascular, muscular and respiratory system (Stewart, Melton-Rogers, Morrison, & Figoni, 2000). Good cardio respiratory of persons with spinal cord injury is needed in order to avoid any complications. The most important target of rehabilitation programs is the improvement of cardio respiratory function (Eng, Teasell, Miller, Wolfe, Townson, Aubut et al., 2006). Therefore, it is necessary the addition of exercise to rehabilitation programs in order to improve cardiorespiratory health that leads to a better quality of life in this population.

The effect of exercise in rehabilitation phase could be different between individuals in heterogenic populations with differences in classification of disease (Bhambhani, 2002; Yamasaki, Komuro, Tahana, Muraki, Tsunamake & Ehana, 1998). The development of cardio respiratory fitness with arm cranking in rehabilitation phase have been shown to be very useful for the achievement of significant functional adaptations in spinal cord injured persons and also seems to be extremely critical during the early phase of training (Rimmer, 1994).

This study examined the effect of an individualized training program single subject design in cardio respiratory capacity of a spinal cord injured person after immobilization. The results of our study show that arm cranking exercise led in significant biological adaptations of cardio respiratory and metabolic parameters. Increasing percentages of biological parameters agree with the literature (Hjeltnes & Wallberg-Henriksson, 1998; Zoeller, Riechman, Dadayebeh, Goss, Robertson & Jacobs, 2005; Le Foll-de Moro et al., 2005; Tordi et al., 2001; El-Sayed, Younesian, Rahmna, Ismail & El-Sayed, 2004), confirming the effectiveness of training program.

In this study the increase of VO2peak up to 22.6% in relative values (ml/min/kg), between the first and the last measurement, indicated a considerable improvement in aerobic capacity that was in accordance with literature, where shown percentages ranged between 20 - 30 % (Hjeltnes & Wallberg-Henriksson, 1998; Davis, Plyley & Sherphard, 1991; Davis, Sherphard & Leenen, 1987). Values of VO2peak that measured after the training program were similar with the values of wheelchair athletes (Yamasaki et al., 1998) and a little greater from hospitalized spinal cord injured persons (Le Foll-de Moro et al., 2005). With regard to the absolute value of VO2peak (l/min) the scene was similar. Moreover, initial values of VE, as well as the magnitude of the adaptation that observed in VE after the training period, were in accordance with other studies (Yamasaki et al., 1998; Le Foll-de Moro et al., 2005; Tordi et al., 2001; Dallmeijer, Zentgraaff, Zijp & van der Woude, 2004; El-Sayed et al., 2004).

The most pronounced observation after arm crank training was the improvement in cardio respiratory endurance. Total time of arm-cranking exercise increased up to 136.5 %, and maximal work load up to 300 %. These impressive improvements to the total time and maximal work load did not keep up with the percentages of VO2peak. Endurance is affected only by the improved of aerobic capacity, but also from other factors such as decreased sub-maximal energy cost and increased strength. The person of our study had appeared reduction with regard to the energy consumption during sub-maximal work load (5 Watt). Comparisons between studies were difficult conclude due to, the total time of arm-cranking exercise, and differences among the exercise protocols (Bhambhani, 2002). Nevertheless, Mossberg et al (1999) showed a total time of 1356 ±114 sec during the exercise protocol.

This study was conducted on only one spinal cord injured individual. However, this gave the opportunity to apply a very well supervised personal training program. Thus, the person of our study appeared splendidly motivated and seemed to put his best efforts into testing and training period. We deeply thank the paraplegic subject for the enthusiastic and regular participation.

ConclusionsThe findings of this study showed that an individualized and well supervised training program could motivate spinal cord injured persons to collaborate with sports scientists and start exercising. Moreover, the results showed that the application of this program could considerably improve: a) The cardio respiratory capacity and maximal performance of spinal cord injured persons and b) The sub-maximal performance with lower oxygen consumption and decreased heart rate frequencies, during arm-crank exercise. This was of great importance for individuals with spinal cord injury, who rely on their locomotion upon their upper extremities’ muscular work.

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ReferencesBhambhani Y. (2002). Physiology of wheelchair racing in athletes with spinal cord injury. Sport Medicine, 32, 23-51.Bougenot MP, Tordi N, Le Foll D, Parratte B, Lonsdorfer J, Rouillon JD. (2003). Reconditioning programs for spinal cord-injured persons: a brief review and recommendations. Science and Sports, 18, 175-181.Dallmeijer AJ, Hopman MT, van der Woude LH. (1997). Lipid, lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein profiles in active and sedentary men with tetraplegia. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 78, 1173-1176.Dallmeijer AJ, van der Woude LHV. (2001). Health related functional status in men with spinal cord injury: relationship with lesion level and endurance capacity. Spinal Cord, 39, 577-583.Dallmeijer AJ, Zentgraaff IDB, Zijp NI, van der Woude LHV. (2004). Submaximal physical strain and peak performance in handcycling versus handrim wheelchair propulsion. Spinal Cord, 42, 91-98.Davis GM, Plyley MJ, Sherphard RJ. (1991). Gains of cardiorespiratory fitness with arm-crank training in spinally disabled men. Canadian Journal of Sport Science, 16, 64-72.Davis GM, Sherphard RJ, Leenen FH. (1987). Cardiac effects of short term arm crank training in paraplegics: echocardiographic evidence. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 56, 90-96.Davis GM. (1993). Exercise capacity of individuals with paraplegia. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25, 423-432.Dearwater SR, Laporte RE, Robertson RJ, Brenes G, Adams LL, Becker D. (1986). Activity in the spinal cord-injured patient: an epidemiologic analysis of metabolic parameters. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 18, 541-544.DiCarlo S. (1982). Improved cardiopulmonary status after a two-month program of graded arm exercise in a patient with C6 quadriplegia. Physical Therapy, 62, 456-459.El-Sayed MS, Younesian A, Rahman K, Ismail FM, El-Sayeed Ali Z. (2004). The effects of arm cranking exercise and training platelet aggregation in male spinal cord individuals. Thrombosis Research, 113, 129-136.Eng JJ, Teasell R, Miller WC, Wolfe D, Townson AF, Aubut J, et al. (2006). Spinal cord injury rehabilitation evidence. In: Kristin Konnyu (ed). Cardiovascular health and exercise following spinal cord injury. Vancouver, (pp. 1-28).Gass GC. (1980). The effects of physical training on high level spinal lesions patients. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 12, 61-65.Glaser RM, Janssen TWJ, Suryaprasad AG, Gupta SC, Mathews T. (1996). The physiology of exercise. In: Apple DF (eds). Physical fitness: A guide for individuals with spinal cord injury. Washington DC: Department of Veterans Affairs, (pp. 3-23).Guttmann L. (1979). New hope for spinal cord sufferers. Paraplegia, 17, 6-15.Haisma J, van der Woude L, Stam H, Bergen M, Sluis T, Bussmann J. (2006). Physical capacity in wheelchair-dependent persons with a spinal cord injury: a critical review of the literature. Spinal Cord, 44, 642-652.Hjeltnes N, Aksnes A, Birkeland KI, Johansen J, Lannem A, Wallberg-Henriksson H. (1997). Improved body composition after 8 wk of electrically stimulated leg cycling in tetraplegic patients. American Journal of Physiology, 273, 1072-1079.Hjeltnes N, Wallberg-Henriksson H. (1998). Improved work capacity but unchanged peak oxygen uptake during primary rehabilitation in tetraplegic patients. Spinal Cord, 36, 691-698.Hoffman MD. (1995). Cardiorespiratory fitness and training in quadriplegics and paraplegics. Sports and Medicine, 20, 226-250.Knutsson E, Lewenhaupt-Olsson E, Thorsen M. (1973). Physical work capacity and physical conditioning in paraplegic patients. Paraplegia, 11, 205-216.Le Foll-de Moro D, Tordi N, Lonsdorfer E, Lonsdorfer J. (2005). Ventilation efficiency and pulmonary function after a wheelchair interval-training program in subjects with recent spinal cord injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 86, 1582-1586.Maltais D, Kondo I, Bar-Or O. (2000). Arm cranking economy in spastic cerebral palsy: effects of different speed and force combinations yielding the same mechanical power. Pediatric Exercise Science, 12, 258-269.McConnell RT. (1988). Practical considerations in the testing of VO2max in runners. Sport Medicine, 5, 57-68.McLean KP, Skinner JS. (1995). Effect of body training position on outcomes of an aerobic training study on individuals with quadriplegia. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 76, 139-150.Mossberg K, William C, Topor MA, Crook H, Patak S. (1999). Comparison of asynchronous versus synchronous arm crank ergometry. Spinal Cord, 37, 569-574.

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Nilsson S, Staff PH, Pruett EDR. (1975). Physical work capacity and the effect of training on subjects with long-standing paraplegia. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 7, 51-56.Noreau L, Shephard R, Simard C, Pare G, Pomerleau P. (1993). Relationship of impairment and functional ability to habitual activity and fitness following spinal cord injury. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 16, 265-275.Noreau L, Shephard RJ. (1995). Spinal cord injury, exercise and quality of life. Sports and Medicine, 20, 226-250.Rimmer JH. (1994). Fitness and rehabilitation programs for special populations. In: Brown & Benchmark (ed). Spinal cord injury. Dubuqu, (pp. 206-246).Shephard RJ. (1990). Fitness in special populations. Campaign. IL: Human Kinetics.Stewart MW, Melton-Rogers SL, Morrison S, Figoni SF. (2000). The measurement properties of fitness measures and health status of persons with spinal cord injuries. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation,81, 394-400.Tordi N, Dugue B, Klupzinski D, Rasseneur L, Rouillon JD, Lonsdorfer J. (2001). Interval training program on a wheelchair ergometer for paraplegic subjects. Spinal Cord, 39, 532-537.Unnithan VB, Kenne EM, Logan L, Collier S, Turk M. (2006). The effect of partial body weight support on the oxygen cost of walking in children and adolescents with spastic cerebral palsy. Pediatric Exercise Science, 17, 11-21.Warburton DE, Nicol CW, Bredin SS. (2006). Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 174, 801-809.Yamasaki M, Komura T, Tahara Y, Muraki S, Tsunamake N, Ehara Y et al. (1998). Relationship between physical characteristics and physical responses during maximal arm cranking in paraplegics. Spinal Cord, 36, 579-583.Zoeller R, Riechman S, Dadayebeh I, Goss F, Robertson R, Jacobs P. (2005). Relation between muscular strength and cardiorespiratory fitness in people with thoracic-level paraplegia. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 86, 1441-1446.

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CULTURE AND SPECIAL EDUCATION

Beverley BaileyBrandon University

andPaul Betts

University of Winnipeg

In this paper we concern ourselves with the ways in which schools in general and special education procedures in particular tend to not be successful for those of our students who are from a different culture. (While we focus on Canadian Aboriginals, we also extend our thinking to those children who come from different races, ethnicities, socio-economic backgrounds, etc.) We outline the stories that have brought us to this place. We then go on to suggest that the adoption of different understandings and approaches could lead to the academic success of children from a variety of different cultures and backgrounds. We conclude with some direction for change.

In this paper we, two white educators, concern ourselves with the education of those students of Aboriginal descent who are seen by the school system as special. Our concerns are based on the stories we use to understand ourselves and our actions - stories of mistold history, socio-political issues, racism, the misuse of science - and the ways those stories disadvantage those who are different. Our hope is that we can begin to explore different more hopeful and empowering stories.

There are many reasons to be concerned about the existing state of special education, particularly with our Aboriginal students. Currently the following are common;

1. Our special education classes are top-heavy with Aboriginal and disadvantaged students.

2. We tend to focus on the deficits in other children rather than on the possibilities. We could embrace the position of William Glasser (1986): we choose to be whom and what we, and others, believe we are.1

3. We do not concern ourselves with the differences brought to school by children from other than the dominant culture.2

4. We are asking all small school children to do the pretty much the same thing at pretty much the same time and to meet some arbitrary standard of what they should or should not be able to do. We act despite current research concerning physiology and early childhood experience, which suggests that children are not ready for the same task at the same time.

5. The tests that we give children to determine the reasons for failure at school tasks are fallible and culturally insensitive and subjective.

6. A label tends to freeze a child in the definition attached to the label.

1 Bloom (1981) believes that the intellectual potential of all students is pretty much the same. The difference is in history. Malia Kan'iaupuni (2005) is concerned that if you focus on a deficit-based approach to education then you often miss the expertise that exists in communities and families, viewing instead outside experts as the only ones capable of "fixing" our problems.2 Including Aboriginal, Black, Hispanic, recent immigrants and the poor.

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7. We have a tendency to blame the victim or to blame the social background rather than look at ways we can change.

Clearly we need to find another way of viewing children and their learning. We are hoping to uncover stories that currently mediate, impair and colonize our special education practices, thereby beginning a dialogue concerning alternative stories of strength, knowing and power.

Stories that Get in the WayHistory Stories Malia Kan'iaupuni (2005) tells us how archeologists and historians have accepted a theory of accidental migration from Polynesia to the Hawaiian Islands to explain a 2200-mile voyage on the open seas. This in spite of evidence to the contrary, which makes it clear that the early Polynesian explorers did indeed have the sophisticated system of navigation needed for a planned and successful voyage. Malia Kan'iaupuni’s point is that the assumption of a people with no learning, no culture, no anything but maybe good luck, made it possible for colonizers to take on - in their own minds - the mantle of rescuer.

Iseke-Barnes (2005) is also concerned about the misrepresentation of Indigenous history and science. She wants us to challenge those assumptions that the colonizers found a people in need of saving from their own ignorance.

Paulo Freire (1971, 1997) has spent many years studying the impact of oppression on the colonized. In the name of saving a backward people from themselves the colonizers were able to perpetuate acts of cultural genocide and worse. The use of this story continues to impact on how the dominant cultures act out their oppression.

History is written by the winner, therefore we need to be highly critical of the history we read. While more blatant misrepresentations of the history of Canada are beginning to disappear, the whole story of colonization is not being told or written or disseminated. Instead, we are still trying to save lost Aboriginal souls. History stories mediate, impair and colonize special education practice, which we will illustrate by describing a socio-political and a scientific rigor story.

A Socio-Political StoryThis is a story of the purpose of education. We suppose schools are places where children are educated. But what are children educated to do or be? Gitlin (2005) gives a disturbing answer to this question:

[Public education is] not intended to fill the young of the species with knowledge and awaken their intelligence …Nothing could be further from the truth. The aim …is simply to reduce as many individuals as possible to the safe level, to breed and train a standardized citizenry, to put down dissent and originality. That is its aim in the United States… and that is its aim everywhere else. (p.22)

Many may disagree with this disturbing answer, suggesting that school graduates, for the most part, go on to become productive citizens. But citizenry becomes problematic when referring to Aboriginal peoples – it seems clear that, for the most part, people of Aboriginal heritage do not go on to become productive citizens within the dominant culture. A lack of successful citizenry by Aboriginal peoples seems to justify special education programs that are top heavy with Aboriginal students.

But success is politicized. Skovsmose (2005) outlines how schools practice both classic3 and progressive4 racism. Such practice allows us as educators not to have to take any responsibility for the failure of the child, as clearly the child brings the cause for his or her weak performance into school. Therefore:

Many deficiency theories (theories of the deprived child) follow the approach of racism in explaining away the socio-political dimension of school performances, by privatizing and personalizing the causes of such performance. (p. 5)

3 Classic racism assumes that the obstacles to learning are to be found in the child.4 Progressive racism assumes that any weakness in the child is the result of social background.

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So:The epistemic interpretation of learning obstacle is not the only one possible. However, processes of exclusion in education can be dressed up in such a way that their political dimension becomes hidden and ignored. It could appear that exclusion is not imposed on students. Instead, exclusion may appear as a consequence of some students' so-called low achievement. (p. 4)

He goes on to say that this leads to a particular way of organizing teaching/learning processes in ways that prevent students from acting like learners. In other words our story leads to actions that support the story.

A Scientific StoryA scientifically rigorous story dominates special education practice. The story, in brief, is that learning disability can be attributed to biological and environmental factors. Current models of abnormality are often based on the premise that a person will have a biological disposition toward a disorder, but that the presence of a disorder will also depend on environmental factors (Wortman, Loftus, & Weaver, 1999).

Brain function consists of biological processes involving genetic tendencies, chemical levels and electrical activity. Normal brain function can be delineated according to normal biological processes. In other words, we assume that learning disability is at least partially caused by excessive deviation from a normal range of biological processes. These biological processes can be measured in terms of genetic profiles, chemical levels (e.g., hormones found in blood) and electrical levels in the brain. Hence, it is assumed that learning disability can be measured using physiological properties of the brain. These ideas are supported by a dominant scientific culture, where scientific evidence generates facts that cannot be refuted.

Special education for children of Aboriginal heritage has been colonized by this scientific rigor story. In schools, we identify learning disabilities as follows: A teacher identifies a student who appears to be struggling, and refers the student to a team of specialists. The specialist tests, diagnoses, labels and sets out a remediation program. The teacher implements the program. It seems like a perfectly reasonable system of trying to help those with disabilities, based on scientifically rigorous knowledge.

But the story is flawed in three ways. First, the story of scientific rigor is told by a dominant culture. The colonizers write the books of knowledge, thereby attempting to establish without doubt what is true and what evidence is required to make a truth claim. Culturally laden epistemology certainty invades special education. For example, based on research literature generated by the dominant scientific culture, there is currently little scientific evidence to support a biological cause or disposition for most disorders of the brain (Wortman, et. al., 1999). It is assumed that biological roots exist that accurately captures a disability label. There is no scientific rigor in labels. The assumptions have pervaded special education and are taken as scientific fact. This is a writing of special education knowledge by colonizers.

Second, this scientific rigor story is based on behaviour and biology, while special education practice is based solely on behavior. Teachers, resource teachers, special education consultants and school psychologists base their labels on observing behaviour. Medical technologies are not used to detect genetic make-up, chemical levels or electrical activity in the brain, generating a diagnosis based on deviations from a normal range. We assume that our interpretation of behavior correctly identifies mental disability. But as we are caught inside stories that get in the way, we should not accept our interpretations of behaviour without question.

Third, this scientific rigor story is enacted in contradictory ways. To see the contradiction, we need to set the stage by describing physiological and behavioural evidence generated by scientific research. Studies of the physiology of the forebrain and hindbrain have shown that the slow processing of learning cannot occur during a moment of fear (Kalat, 1988). Based on this physiological evidence, educators might wonder about school and classroom environment. If a child is afraid, or afraid to learn, then they will not learn. Researchers have found connections between emotional states and learning (Zimbardo & Gerrig, 1996). Evidence of a connection between learning and emotion is accumulating to such an extent that there is a branch of psychological and educational research

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concerning emotional intelligence (EQ). For example, researchers have found correlations between EQ and ability to learn (Goleman, 1998). It is concluded that emotions should be nurtured as part of intellectual growth.

Moving from physiology to behaviour, psychologists have found evidence to support a strong connection between emotion and behaviour. Notable among this research is Glasser’s (1986) claim that as learners we need to have the mental image of ourselves doing that task, we need to know we can do it. For children if we firmly believe that a child could do something and bring them to the same belief, then learning previously thought impossible takes place. We suspect other teachers, based on their personal experiences, have similar beliefs concerning the potential of children to learn.

Coupling the physiological and behavioural evidence above suggests that a label is as much responsible for a child’s learning success as any other biological or environmental factor. The stage has been sent for noticing a contradiction in the scientific rigor story within special education. We are colonized to believe the scientific truth that disability is biological and behavioural. Hence, we label disability in hopes of solving the problem. But the same scientific culture generates the truth that labeling at least partially causes the behaviors associated with a disability. We label behaviour, not noticing that our stories mediate, impair and colonize our interpretations of behaviour.

Conceptualizing ChangeThere is no doubt in our minds that we are working with the best of intentions. We are not setting out to further disadvantage those who come to us from already established positions of disadvantage - impoverished backgrounds, different cultures, stressed families. We are doing the best we can with the knowledge and resources we have. What gets in our way is lack of imagination. We assume that the way we do things is the way to do things. We may be comfortable with some tinkering. But we see ourselves as educated people who are neither racist nor biased, and who are working in a good system, but with damaged and/or deficient people – this story concludes that systemic changes are not required.

We have a rigid educational system that states that success is measured in yearly doses and in each of those years students are expected to master a particular body of knowledge. It is an expected linear progression to success. Certain cultural imperatives are in place so that children from the dominant culture will more likely be successful. If you are not successful you are treated. The process of treatment takes away from your sense of competence as a learner, particularly in the school setting.

Here we want to become specific. The focus of this paper is on the teaching of Aboriginal learners, and what stops us from being successful. The linear model used in our factory model schools gets in our way. The assumption that we have the one right way gets in our way. History gets in our way. Racism gets in our way. Scientism gets in our way. We are not noticing alternative stories.

Previously we wrote (Betts& Bailey, in press) about using a different metaphor for education, one that was not linear. We suggested that we use the metaphor of fractal geometry (and all that means in terms of quantum mechanics and chaos theory). In fractal geometry the smallest part is a reflection of the whole. For example a twig is really a little tree.

In Aboriginal cosmology the basic unit is the Medicine Wheel, by definition a circular model so nothing is more important than anything else, all is of equal value. Each member of the community is an essential part of the whole. Earth, flora, fauna, human are all part of the circle of life required for existence. Education was a part of the whole, an on-going component of life (Courtney, 1986, Graveline, 1998, Regnier, 1995).

We illustrated that a non-linear and holistic story of education was tell-able within ultra-modern Western thinking and within the ancient wisdom of Aboriginal cosmologies. We saw with alternative stories. To see education for children, all of whom are special, rather than special education, as non-linear and holistic seems a place to begin.

We also see that a starting part is not enough to catalyze change. It is clear to us that the foreground must be that Aboriginal peoples have been and are oppressed and colonized. We do not need to go into the history of the subjugation of an entire race practiced over the years by the European colonizers. We

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all know the steps that were taken to destroy any vestige of the civilization that was in place at the time of contact. We get confused as to what to do about it now. After all, it was our ancestors, not us.5

We see what we are doing now in schools as an extension of that destructive process. Our governments are slowly beginning to allow for the full participation of Aboriginals in our world. But in many small and highly destructive ways we continue to contribute to the marginalization of that population. The world of special education is one place where we continue to do so. Knowing that a high proportion of the identified special population is Aboriginal, we continue to act as we always have, even in the face of evidence that the actions we take are not effective.

Paulo Freire (1971) suggests that it takes several generations for a culture to overcome the impact of oppression. Certainly we can see the truth of that statement as we watch many colonized peoples re-learn how to care for and govern themselves. In Canada, Aboriginal peoples are slowly, and over generations, learning how to be who they are, and to be successful in both cultures. This will not happen quickly, but it will happen surely. In the meantime there is no question that our Aboriginal population is dealing with serious problems and some of those impact on the ability of their children to learn, especially using the mores of another culture.

Our typical reaction as white educators is to want the Aboriginals to change. All would be right if only kids would come to school and on time. All would be well if their parents would stop drinking. All would be well if so much money wasn't being squandered on band council trips to Las Vegas. All of which may be factual, but does not excuse us from doing what we can to better the situation for the special children. The current reality of an oppressed population does not give us the right to blame the victim. Rather, as Skovsmose points out:

…“meanings of learning,” “meanings for students,” and “each student's meaning production” must be investigated and interpreted with reference to the dispositions of the student (including their background and foreground). Meaning production takes place in terms of what the students see as their opportunities, including motives, perspectives, hope and aspirations (p. 8).

Therefore in conceptualizing change we of the dominant culture need to place that conceptualization in hands other than ours, in the hands of those who know and honour their unique history and ways of being, who can best find the organic ways of empowering themselves and their children.

Having said that we do have some notions of what white educators can do.

1. Overcome our own racism. Get facts and information. Use our intelligence and face ourselves.

2. Accept the conditions. Things are as they are. Oppression has happened. It will take, according to the Bible and past experience, seven generations for the sins of the fathers to be expiated. In the meantime we have been given the task of teaching the children of oppression. What changes can we make to be more successful at that task?

3. Resist labels. Resist the push to find something wrong with the victim, rather change how we do things, how we approach the task.

4. Give our special kids the confidence to learn. Teachers are in positions of authority. Children really do think we know what we are talking about. If we consistently make it clear to children that they are capable of succeeding at the tasks we give them, sooner or later they will believe us. But first we have to genuinely believe that what we say is true. We cannot be faking it. From there we need to practice power-with rather than power-over.6

5 In July 2005, the descendants of the colonizer who razed an Indian village at Clyaquot Sound returned to the village to apologize for the deeds of their forefathers.6 Anne Bishop in Becoming an Ally: Breaking the Cycle of Oppression (2002), explicates the difference between power-over and power-with, although we tend to think the concept is somewhat self-explanatory

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5. Thus we give our special kids the power to learn. We work with them so that they are taking charge of their own learning; we give them agency. This is a difficult task for us to undertake. It means giving up some control, it means not taking the linear approach that gives us comfort and assurance through its familiarity. But difficult is not impossible.

6. Above all be patient. We are not going to get it perfect ever, but we will get better at working with rather than doing to, and the students will get better at taking responsibility and determining what they need to be successful.7

7. Then celebrate when a child tells you that they can finally do it because no one ever told them they could before.

Maybe the best suggestion we found came from a Native Hawaiian educator, a member of a population that is also dealing with the fall-out of oppression. Malia Kan'iaupuni (2005) strongly advocates for using the heritage and knowledge of the children’s culture:

As others before me have done, I end by calling for a new framework that brings to the fore Native Hawaiian strengths that have been too long misinterpreted, misrecognised, and undervalued. (p.32).

In his work he makes a convincing argument for strengths-based education, for using a structure that by definition builds on the knowledge and strengths the children bring into the classroom and at the same time begins to change the socio-political conditions.

First let's be clear that by strengths based, I do not mean glossing over problems in favour of a rosy picture. Strengths-based research, in my view, begins with the premise of creating social change. In contrast to the expert-driven, top-down approach assumed by deficit models, it means treating the subjects of study as actors within multi-layered contexts and employing the multiple strengths of individuals, families and communities to overcome or prevent difficulties. It is also about empowerment, where the purpose of strengths-based research and evaluation is to benefit the people involved in the study by giving them voice, insight, and political power. … As such it means empowering communities. (p.35)

It would seem obvious that such could be done here for those children who are the fruits of colonial oppression. The work of understanding, telling different stories and taking action continues.

ConclusionWe are not naïve. We know that the process of labeling is the result of the need for funding. We know that with classrooms of more than 20 that kind of individual attention is very difficult. We know that you will be surrounded by administrators, other teachers, parents, even the special children who will tell you to get the testing done and treatment program in place. We know that in the process of de-colonization the oppressed can take on the qualities of the oppressor. But we can become resistors, working with a sure knowledge that we know what doesn't work and that it is way past time to try something radically different.

It is clear that the past hundred years or so of schooling directed at Aboriginals has not been a big success. Indeed rather than educating Aboriginals to be successful in the dominant culture, we have an abysmal history of abuse and cultural genocide through education.

Many of the abuses of the past are in the past. However, with kindness and deep concern we are using the special education system to continue to marginalize and discredit a large number of Aboriginal children8.

We are suggesting that maybe things could be better.References

7 Children also fall into the patterns of self-excuse – I have already been told that I can't read so why would I work at it. Don't you know I can't do that.8 We do believe that this is the case with all children designated special needs. We may not have the answers but we are pretty clear that we do have a considerable problem that we are not prepared to look at squarely.

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Bishop, A. (2002). Becoming an ally: Breaking the cycle of oppression. Fernwood Publishing; HalifaxBloom, B. (1981). All our children learning: A primer for parents, teachers and other educators. McGraw-Hill: New York.Courtney, R. (1986). Island of remorse: Amerindian education in the contemporary world. Curriculum Inquiry, 16(1), pp. 43-65.Freire, P. (1971). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Herder and Herder: New YorkFreire, P. (1998). Pedagogy of Freedom. Rowman & Littlefield: New York.Gitlin, A. (2005). Inquiry, imagination, and the search for a deep politic. Educational Researcher 34 (3), pp. 15-24.Glasser, W. (1986). Control theory in the classroom. Harper and Rowe: New York.Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York. Bantam Books.Graveline, F.J. (1998). Circle works: Transforming Eurocentric consciousness:Halifax: Fernwood.Iseke-Barnes. J. (2005). Misrepresentation of Indigenous history and science: Public broadcasting, the internet, and education. Discourses: studies on the cultural politics of education 26 (2), pp. 149-165.Kalat, J. (1988). Biological psychology (3rd. ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Malia Kana'iaupuni, S. (2005). K'akalai Ku Kanaka: A call for strengths-based approaches from a Native Hawaiian perspective. Educational Researcher 34(5), pp.32-37 Regnier, R. (1995). The sacred circle: An Aboriginal approach to healing education at an Urban high school. In M. Battiste & J. Barman (Eds.), First nations Education: The Circle Unfolds (pp. 313-330. (Vancouver: UBC Press)Skovsmose, O. (2005), Foregrounds and politics of learning obstacles. For the learning of mathematics 25 (1), pp. 4-10.Wortman,C., Loftus, E., & Weaver, C. (1999). Psychology (5th ed.). New York: Harper Collins College.Zimbardo, P. & Gerrig, R. (1996). Psychology and life. New York: Harper Collins College.

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KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS BY PHYSICAL EDUCATION STUDENTS

Maria MousouliDimitrios Kokaridas

Nicoletta Angelopoulou-Sakadamiand

Maria Aristotelous,.University of Thessaly

The purpose of this study was to examine the knowledge and attitudes of physical education undergraduate students towards children with special needs. A questionnaire of seven questions was submitted to 140 physical education students. Questions concerned the knowledge about the different kinds of disability, the acceptance of children with special needs in regular classes, the willingness of PE students to work with children with special needs, the objective of special education, and the sources of information about the topic.Results showed that mental retardation was recognized by the highest percentage of students, however, mental retardation was often confused with the general issue of special needs. Disability was correlated with the need for education in special schools. The partial awareness about special needs is related to the moderate willingness of the PE students to work with children with disabilities in their classroom. Assigning children with special needs to regular classes was not yet a familiar issue, due to insufficient information from popular sources. The findings of the study suggest that the limited awareness about schools, special education and integration cannot be dealt only with university efforts. Systematic information and interaction is needed in order to improve the knowledge and attitudes towards children with special needs.

Over the last 20 years in Greece the number of children and adults with special needs has doubled as more successful medical approaches have increased life span. The percentage fluctuates around 10%, so it is calculated that in Greece exist roughly 300.000 children and adults with special needs (Angelopoulou-Sakadami, 2002).

Adapted physical education is one of the most important sections in the field of special education. Its aim is to produce physically able individuals who live active and healthy lifestyles, which in turn enhances their progress toward self-actualization. (Rich, 2002; Sherrill,1998).

Physical education teachers and students should be aware about the different kinds of disabilities and be sensitive concerning the integration of children with special needs in regular classes.

A number of researches have been conducted in an attempt to examine teachers’ and students’ attitudes toward children with disabilities. Kowalski and Rizzo (1996) examined the factors that influence the attitudes of physical education students toward individuals with disabilities, by using the Physical Educators’ Attitude Toward Teaching Individuals with disabilities (PEATID – III). The results showed that the number of courses, coursework and adapted physical education programs, were significant predictors of favourable attitudes. Results also showed that students’ perceived competence in teaching was the best predictor of favourable attitudes.

In a comparative study, Down and Williams (1994) examined the attitudes of undergraduate students toward the integration of people with disabilities in activity settings, with the use of the Physical Educators’ Attitudes Toward Teaching The Handicapped, (PEATH) instrument. The sample consisted

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of physical education undergraduates from England, Denmark, Belgium, and Portugal. Results revealed significant attitudinal differences in terms of gender, previous experience and classification of disability. Cross-culturally, the attitudes of Belgian students were found to be significantly different and negative compared to the attitudes of English, Danish and Portuguese students.

Theodorakis, Bagiatis and Goudas (1995) examined attitudes and intentions of physical education students toward teaching individuals with disabilities. All participants attended adapted physical education courses. Research showed that professional intentions to work with individuals with disabilities were formed as part of their social identity and affected by their confidence toward teaching individuals with disabilities.

Angelopoulou-Sakadami, Tsikoulas, Abatzides and Bagiatis (1994) developed a questionnaire that examined the knowledge and attitudes towards children with special needs of lyceum students, medical education students and physical education students, secondary education teachers and persons having an exceptional child in their immediate family. More specifically, they examined: a) the knowledge of ‘categories’ of children with special needs, b) acceptance of children with special needs in regular classes, c) the willingness to work with children with special needs d) the objective of special education and e) the sources of information about the topic. The research showed that the highest percentage of interviewed people recognized mentally retardation as the main category of children with special needs. The education of exceptional children in special school and classes as more effective than in regular classes was supported by 50 to 75%. Lyceum students as well as teachers drew information about the specific topic from newspapers and television. The teachers were disappointed as they had not been taught about the needs of disabled children and they had little information about chronic disabilities. As a result, they often deprived children with disabilities from physical exercise. The results indicate partial awareness about children with special needs and negative attitudes towards acceptance and integration.

Due to the fact that there is partial awareness and negative acceptance of children with disabilities in regular physical education, further research is needed to examine this issue.

The purpose of this study was to explore the knowledge and attitudes of physical education undergraduate students towards children with special needs. In the light of the findings, the intention of the study was to answer the following questions:

1. Is there an improved body of knowledge concerning the different kinds of disability of children with special needs?

2. Is the issue of acceptance and integration of exceptional children in regular classes improved? 3. Which proposals can be made for further improvements aiming at the more complete

preparation of future PE teachers?

Method A questionnaire of seven items, which had been successfully used for first time in a sample of 1145 persons by Angelopoulou-Sakadami, Tsikoulas, Abatzides and Bagiatis (Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1994), was submitted to 140 students (55 males, 85 females) at the Department of Physical Education and Sports Science of the University of Thessaly. The 15,7% was first-year students, with the 28,6%, 32,9% and 22,9% representing the second, third and fourth year students respectively. The questionnaire was submitted personally to the students and was supplemented in the teaching classes of the Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, of the University of Thessaly. When it was necessary, the researchers were present to provide additional information. The classification of children with special needs was based on the DSM-III-R (American Psychiatric Association, 1987). The questionnaire contained questions about the knowledge of PE students regarding the different kinds of disability, the acceptance of children with special needs in regular classes, the willingness of PE students to work with children with special needs, the objective of special education, and the sources of information about the topic (Table 1).

Statistical AnalysisThe Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS 10) was used for the descriptive analysis of

the results.

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Table 1.Questionnaire concerning children with special needs

1. Check the categories representing children with special needsa. Speech delay or disordersb. Learning difficultiesc. Emotional or behavioral disordersd. Mental retardatione. Orthopedic handicapping conditionsf. Blindnessg. Severe hearing loss-deafnessh. Multiple disadvantagesi. Blindness-deafnessj. Chronic organic diseases (epilepsy, diabetes melitus, cystic fibrosis, hemolytic

anaemias, heart diseases, etc.)2. Children with special needs can attend

a. Regular classesb. Special schoolc. Special classes in regular school

3. Would you like to have a student or schoolmate in your classroom?a. Yesb. Noc. Selective conditions

4. Would you like to work with exceptional children?a. Yesb. No

5. According to your opinion, why do exceptional children need special education?a. For self-helpingb. For school or academic educationc. For social integration

6. What is your source or information about the topic?7. Is there any person with special needs in your immediate family?

Results According to the results, the category with the highest percentage of appearance corresponded to children with mental retardation (92,1%), while the category with the smaller percentage was that of multiple disadvantages (30%). A high percentage of answers occupied the categories of cerebral palsy (81,4%), blindness-deafness (77,9%), severe hearing loss-deafness (75,7%), speech delay or disorders (74,3%) and blindness (72,1%). Smaller percentage of appearance had the orthopedics handicapping conditions (65,7%), learning difficulties (56,4%), multiple sclerosis (45,7%), chronic organic diseases (40%) and emotional- behavioral disorders (35,7%) (Figure 1).

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Figure 1.Knowledge of PE students concerning different kinds of special needs.


The acceptance of children with special needs in regular schools was supported by the 7,1% of PE students, whereas the 45,7% of the PE students supported that children with special needs should attend special classes in regular schools. The 47,1% of the students believed that children with special needs should attend only special schools.

The 51,4% of the students would want to have a student or schoolmate with special needs in their class, while 54,3% expressed their desire to work with children with special needs.

The 49,2% of students answered that special education should focus on the development of self-helping skills of the individuals with special needs, 5,6% supported school \academic education and 44,3% considered the social integration of children as the major issue.

The students drew information about children with special needs from the university (32,9%), the means of mass briefing (22,1%), books (10%) and friends (10,7%), while a 24,3% of PE students had no information at all about the topic. The 15,7% of the students reported that they have a person with special needs in their family.

Discussion As it is shown, most students were familiar with mental retardation as the main category of special needs and it appears that many times PE students confuse children with special needs with mentally retarded children.

The acceptance of children with special needs in regular schools was considerably moderate. Although systematic approaches to include students with disabilities in regular PE settings has been suggested (Block, 1994), assigning children with special needs to regular classes is not yet a familiar issue. In Greece, disability is still correlated with the need for education in special schools. It seems that there is still confusion about how school integration succeeds, due to further information that is needed.

The partial awareness about children with special needs is related to the moderate willingness of the PE students of this study to work with children with special needs or to have a student with disabilities in their classroom.

Social integration and the development of self-helping skills of children with special needs were equally considered as the main objectives of special education. Academic education was mainly supported as a goal of special education by the students reported having a person with special needs in their family.

As the study showed, university represented the main source of information for PE students. The improvement of knowledge and attitude towards children with special needs was directly analogous to their year of studies. No significant differences revealed in terms of gender.

The findings of this study suggest that the information provided for children with special needs is not yet effective or detailed. At present, information from popular sources is still incomplete. The limited awareness about schools, special education and integration cannot be dealt only with university efforts. Systematic information and interaction is needed in order to improve the knowledge and attitudes towards children with special needs. The organization of educational seminars for persons with special needs not only in Departments of Physical Education and Sports Sciences but also in other universities could be beneficial, because anyone can meet and cooperate daily with a person with special needs. Additionally, the course of special physical education could be one of the main courses in the Departments of Physical Education and Sport Sciences; therefore the students could have the opportunity to be informed about children with special needs. In conclusion, better and wide ranging information about persons with disabilities and their needs can lead to the increase of the acceptance of children with special needs in regular schools.

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ReferencesAmerican Psychiatric Association. (1987) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: Author.Angelopoulou-Sakadami, Ν. (2002) Special Education: Basic principles and Methods. Thessaloniki: Christodoulidis Publishing.Angelopoulou-Sakadami, N., Tsikoulas, J., Abatzides, G. & Bagiatis, K. (1994) Knowledge of and attitudes towards children with special needs by selected groups. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 79, 19-23.Block, M. (1994) A Teacher’s Guide to Including Children with Disabilities in Regular Physical Education. Baltimore, MO: Paul H. Brooks.Down, P. & Williams, T. (1994) Student attitudes towards integration of people with disabilities in activity settings: A European comparison. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 11(1), 32 -34.Kowalski, E. & Rizzo, T. (1996) Factor influencing preserves students attitudes towards individuals with disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 13 (2), 180-196.Rich, J. (2002) Instructional strategies for adapted physical education, in J. Winnick (ed.), Adapted Physical Education and Sports. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Sherrill, C. (1998) Adapted Physical Activity, Recreation, and Sport: Cross -disciplinary and Life Span. Madison, WI: WCB McGraw-Hill.Theodorakis, Y., Bagiatis, K. & Goudas, M. (1995) Attitudes toward teaching individuals with disabilities: Application of planned behavior theory. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 12, 151-160.

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INSTRUCTIONISM AND CONSTRUCTIVISM: RECONCILING TWO VERY GOOD IDEAS

Genevieve Marie Johnson Grant MacEwan College

Instructionism refers to educational practices that are teacher-focused, skill-based, product-oriented, non-interactive, and highly prescribed. Constructivism refers to educational practices that are student-focused, meaning-based, process-oriented, interactive, and responsive to student interest. There is disagreement regarding which curricular orientation best serves the educational needs of children. Evaluative outcome research is contradictory and the superiority of either instructional orientation has not been clearly established. A combination of instructional methods may ultimately prove most beneficial. For example, intensely teacher-mediated lessons could be sprinkled throughout the school day, thereby minimizing teacher and student mechanization while maximizing student achievement gains. Instructionist-constructivism would promote systematic instruction within a context of individual meaning and personal interest. For example, skills such as spelling and grammar, rather than taught in isolation, could be embedded in meaningful literacy activities. Extreme and exclusionary instructional methods may be the ultimate threat to effective education.

All educational practices are based upon philosophical assumptions regarding the nature of students and the mechanisms that give rise to human learning (Ernest, 1995; Gergen, 1995). Instructionism refers to a collection of educational practices that are teacher-focused, skill-based, product-oriented, non-interactive, and highly prescribed (Jonassen, 1996). In contrast, constructivism refers to a collection of educational practices that are student-focused, meaning-based, process-oriented, interactive, and responsive to student personal interests and needs (Goodman, 1998; Honebein, 1996). Instructionism and constructivism reflect polarized assumptions regarding the nature of human learning (Jonassen, 1991). Before it can be argued that two apparently contradictory instructional orientations are, in fact, highly compatible, review of the philosophical assumptions that give rise to instructionist and constructivist praxis is required.

Epistemology: The Nature of Human KnowledgeEpistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the origin, nature, and limits of human knowledge. There are two basic epistemological orientations, objective and subjective (von Glasersfeld, 1995a). An objective perspective holds that knowledge is absolute, separate from the knower, and corresponding to a knowable, external reality. Knowledge is stable because the essential properties of objects are knowable and relatively permanent. The important assumptions of objectivism are that the world is real, structured, and that that structure can be taught and learned (Rorty, 1991). Objectivism posits that the purpose of the human mind is to mirror objective reality via thought processes. The meaning that is produced by thought is external to the thinker and is determined by the structure of the real external world (Steffe & Gale, 1995). In this philosophical tradition, knowledge represents a real world that is assumed to exist separate and independent of the knower; knowledge is considered true only if it correctly reflects that independent external world (Gross, Levitt, & Lewis, 1996).

In direct contrast to objectivism, a subjective perspective maintains that knowledge is part of the knower and relative to unique individual experiences (Phillips, 1995). The subjectivist view holds that knowledge and reality do not have an objective or absolute value. Reality is made up of the network of things and relationships that we rely on in our living, and on which, we believe, others rely on, too

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(von Glasersfeld, 1995a, p. 7). The knower interprets and constructs reality based on personal experience and private interaction with a subjective environment. Subjectivism breaks with convention and develops a theory of knowledge in which knowledge does not reflect an objective, ontological reality but exclusively an ordering and organization of a world constituted by our experience (von Glasersfeld, 1984, p. 24). Rather than defining truth as a match to reality, the focus is on viability. To the subjectivist, concepts, facts, and information are viable if they prove adequate in the contexts in which they were created (von Glasersfeld, 1995a, p. 7).

Objectivism and subjectivism are conceptualized as extremes on an epistemological continuum (Johnson, 1993; Rorty, 1991). These two contrasting epistemological assumptions, although frequently renamed, have characterized philosophical discourse since the nature of human knowledge was first debated (Wilson, 1997). Indeed, various philosophical treatises, academic disciplines, and all educational practice can be dichotomized on the basis of these two fundamental philosophical assumptions regarding the structure and mechanism of knowledge. Currently, as well as historically, the practices of education have corresponded, to varying degrees, to either a static, passive view of knowledge or an adaptive and active view (Prawat, 1996). Epistemological assumptions inform, justify, and sustain all educational endeavors (Gergen, 1995; Martinez, Sauleda, & Guenter, 2001).

From Epistemology to Educational Practice: InstructionismEducational application of objectivism is referred to as instructionism. In contemporary educational contexts, instructionism is the term used to describe teacher-centered, teacher-controlled, outcome-driven, highly structured, and non-interactive instructional practices (DynaGloss, 1998). Instructionism has been referred to as systematic teaching, explicit teaching, direct teaching, and active teaching (Schug, Tarver, & Western, 2001), terms that emphasize teacher, as opposed to student, behavior (Jonassen, 1996). Because the content of instruction and the content of knowledge are assumed to be isomorphic (Driscoll & Rowley, 1997), teachers are conceptualized as transmitters of objective reality; students are viewed as passive receptors of knowledge. Since learning outcomes are objective and standardized (Kazdin, 2001), instruction is directed toward efficient movement of skills and knowledge from the teacher to the student, often in the form of drill, practice, and rote memorization. Instructionists focus on detailed lesson preparation, on teacher organization and management, and on teacher communication and effectiveness (Adams & Engelmann, 1996; Kameenui & Carnine, 1998).

When children fail to learn in school, instructional characteristics, not student characteristics, are assumed to be the cause (Adams & Engelmann, 1996). Engelmann and Carnine (1991) point out that children are perfectly capable of learning anything that we can teach ... We know that the intellectual crippling of children is caused by faulty instruction -- not by faulty children (p. 376). Instructionists claim that they succeed where other educational approaches fail, most notably with students with learning and behavioral challenges (Swanson, 2001). Driscoll and Rowley (1997) summarize instructionism in terms of: 1) identification of student prerequisite or entry-level skills, 2) determination of the most effective methods of knowledge transmission, and 3) formation of evaluative strategies that detect problems of transmission that must be corrected for the instruction to be deemed effective (p. 313). While there are many classroom applications of instructionism, a particularly notable example is direct instruction.

Instructionism Applied: Direct InstructionDirect instruction emerged from Siegfried Engelmann’s early work on beginning literacy (Bereiter & Engelmann, 1966) and resulted in a programmed instructional package published under the trade name DISTAR (Direct Instruction System for Teaching and Remediation; Engelmann & Carnine, 1991). Over the past decades, the term direct instruction evolved to include educational practices that generally adhere to Engelmann’s initial emphasis on well developed and carefully planned lessons designed around small learning increments and clearly defined and prescribed teaching tasks (Swanson, 2001). Originally associated with attempts to improve the educational outcomes of disadvantaged learners, during the past 40 years, direct instruction has been applied to teaching elementary through secondary language, reading, mathematics, higher-order thinking and reasoning skills, written composition, science, and social studies (Adams & Engelmann, 1996; Kameenui & Carnine, 1998).

Direct instruction applies a basic set of instructional principles. First, all skills and concepts are broken into subskills or small component skills that are taught in isolation (Kameenui & Carnine, 1998). Advocates of direct instruction maintain that specific underlying skills are prerequisite to school learning (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Lloyd, 1999; Stickland, 1998). The goal of sound instruction is to

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identify and efficiently teach these prerequisite subskills. For example, proponents of direct instruction endorse the teaching of alphabet sounds as an essential prerequisite literacy skill. The aim of direct phonics teaching is to make explicit to students the alphabetic principle. As Byrne (1996) observed, it might be prudent to tell children directly about the alphabetic principle since it appears unwise to rely on their discovery of it themselves. The apparent relative success of programs that do … support the wisdom of direct instruction (p. 424).

Each of these identified prerequisite subskills is taught and re-taught until students achieve a high level of mastery (Adams & Engelmann, 1996). The assumption is that mastery of prerequisite skills is necessary to the development of more complex skills and that partial or incomplete learning accumulates over time to result in inadequate patterns of skills and knowledge. Binder (1996) claimed that:Educational programs will be more effective in the long run if they produce a more focused, but truly mastered, repertoire rather than a broad but fragile repertoire. The latter might be said to characterize the usual educational approach in America, which introduces but never ensures mastery of a broad range of skills and knowledge. (p.179)

Direct instruction, then, is summarized as a systematic set of procedures for: 1) determining students learning requirements, 2) enhancing the efficacy of the learning environment, and 3) monitoring student curricular progress so that instruction can be improved and corresponding learning outcomes maximized (Schweinhart, & Weikart, 1997). Direct instruction reflects instructionist assumptions -- lessons are teacher-controlled, prescriptive, and focused on observable student achievement outcomes. In stark contrast to objectivist assumptions and direct instruction are subjectivist assumptions and constructivist instruction.

From Epistemology to Educational Practice: ConstructivismEducational application of subjectivism is referred to as constructivism. In contemporary educational contexts, constructivism is the term used to describe student-centered, student-controlled, process-driven, loosely structured, and highly interactive instructional practices (Ernest, 1995; Prawat, 1996; von Glasersfeld, 1996). Constructivism defines learning as a process of active knowledge construction and not as passive knowledge absorption (Reigeluth, 1999; von Glasersfeld, 1995b). Rather than absorbing information and ideas presented by teachers, or internalizing skills through rote memorization, constructivism posits that students construct or create their own knowledge (Phillips, 1995). Students assimilate new information into pre-existing mental structures, and modify personal interpretation in light of new information and experience (Jonassen, Davidson, Collins, Campbell, & Haag, 1995). From the constructivist perspective, learning is not a stimulus-response phenomenon. It requires self-regulation and the building of conceptual structures through reflection and abstraction (von Glasersfeld, 1995a, p.14).

For constructivists, the emphasis is on learning processes as opposed to learning products. The process by which a student determines a particular answer is more important than retrieval of objective solutions. Student error is viewed as a mechanism of gaining insight into how the student organizes his/her experiential world (Smith & Elley, 1995). In fact, the term error is largely incompatible with the constructivist perspective because such terminology implies that an objective reality exits by which responses or individual interpretations can be deemed correct or incorrect (Fosnot, 1996). Thus the notion of multiplicity is central to constructivism, that is, there are multiple representations of reality, none of which is automatically or necessarily superior or inferior to the others (von Glasersfeld, 1996).Constructivism has enjoyed an element of educational popularity in recent years (Martinez et al., 2001; Phillips, 1995; Reigeluth, 1999). Although various interpretations and applications exist, constructivist instruction and constructivist classrooms are characterized by authenticity and a focus on students (Jonassen et al., 1995). Constructivist classrooms attempt to create real-world environments in which learning is relevant (Honebein, 1996). Instructional focus is on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems. The teacher is conceptualized as a facilitator of student understanding as opposed to a transmitter of knowledge. The role of the teacher is not to dispense knowledge but to provide students with opportunities and incentives to make meaning (von Glasersfeld, 1996). Mayer (1996) described the teacher as guide and the learner as sense maker.

Ernest (1995) summarized constructivist education in terms of sensitivity toward and attentiveness to learner's previous constructions, attention to metacognition and strategic self-regulation by learners, and awareness of the importance of social contexts in learning or creating meaning. While there are many classroom applications of constructivism, a particularly salient example is whole language.

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Whole language clearly illustrates the epistemological assumptions of subjectivism and exemplifies corresponding instructional practice.

Constructivism Applied: Whole Language InstructionWhole language represents a philosophy of curriculum manifest in literacy instruction (Ediger, 2001; Fink, 1996). It is based on the assumption that children learn only that which is meaningful, necessary, and useful in the context of personal experience (Boran & Comber, 2001). Oral language, for example, is not acquired in contrived and artificial practice situations; language is learned in meaningful regular exchanges with responsive communicative partners (Goodman, 1998). Students learn to read and write via the same mechanisms -- in meaningful shared communication.

A whole language curriculum regards the learner as a partner in conversation and a maker and seeker of meaning (Goldberg, 1992). Whole language teachers support student effort to communicate as opposed to directing student language usage (Boran & Comber, 2001). With each language encounter, whether oral or written, the child constructs knowledge about the world, the function of symbols, and communication strategies. Whole language teachers provoke, elicit, and demonstrate communication exchanges within and beyond the classroom (Fisher, 1991). Whole language curriculum immerses students in situations requiring authentic oral and written language use (Smith & Elley, 1995).

Error is inherent in the processes of learning language. Teachers who endorse whole language encourage the processes of language acquisition by finding meaning in children's oral and written attempts to communicate. What instructionists define as error in need of correction (Engelmann, Hanner, & Johnson, 1989), constructivists define as spelling invention intended to communicate (Boran & Comber, 2001). Rather than correcting and prescribing exactness, student inventive and explorative usage of written language is celebrated for its contribution to communication and its attempt to construct meaning (Fink, 1996). With the support of teachers, students’ spoken and written experiments ultimately assist in locating and learning conventional language usage.

Whole language instruction is summarized in terms of fundamental practices that exemplify constructivism (Boran & Comber, 2001; Smith & Elley, 1995). First, whole language is holistic. Instruction does not fracture content into subskills but, rather, presents material in whole forms because meaning is most apparent in the whole rather than the parts (McIntyre & Pressley, 1996). Whole language is based on a positive view of human learners. The metaphor is not one of rats pressing levers for food pellets or machines responding in predicable ways to teacher transmissions. Whole language teachers view children as individuals with dignity, autonomy, emotions, motivation, curiosity, personal needs, and free will (Martinez et al., 2001). Learning occurs in authentic contexts when it is functional for learners (Krashen, 1999). Learning is empowerment; prescribed curricula and prescribed instruction are dehumanizing and shift power from people to material (Goodman, 1998). Whole language instructors believe in the developmental nature of learning which builds on learners' prior knowledge and experience (Ediger, 2001; Fisher, 1991).

The epistemological assumptions upon which whole language is based and which illustrate the essential features of constructivism appear true and enlightened, in the opinion of some (Krashen, 1999). Direct instruction, on the other hand, has been referred to as ugly but effective (Schug et al., 2001, p. 4). Direct instruction and other extreme forms of objectivism are often interpreted in negative terms, perhaps because underlying assumptions paint a mechanistic portrait of human learning (Martinez et al., 2001). Subjectivists argue that personal feelings and individual interpretations are the only legitimate reality; if teachers feel good about constructivist instruction, they should use it. In contrast, objectivists claim that measurable student achievement gains are the only legitimate criteria by which to judge instructional effectiveness.

Instructionism versus Constructivism: The Effectiveness DebateExtensive theoretical, empirical, and practical attention has focused on the processes of learning and the most effective methods of instruction (Adams & Engelmann, 1996; Ediger, 2001; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Taylor, 1998). Such interest and activity can be dichotomized in terms of instructionism (i.e., skill-based approaches) and constructivism (i.e., meaning-based approaches). On the one hand, the position that skill is prerequisite to meaning; on the other hand, the position that meaning is prerequisite to skill. Evaluative research methodologies provide a set of empirical strategies for determination of instructional effectiveness. From an epistemological perspective, however, such methodologies are not without controversy (Johnson, 1993).

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Evaluative outcome research methodologies favor instructionism as opposed to constructivism (Johnson, 1991). Instructionism is generally more compatible with scientific inquiry than is constructivism. The philosophical basis of constructivism is that reality is personal and subjective. Such a position constitutes the antithesis of conventional science (Gross et al., 1996). Science is based on the assumption that an objective reality exists and that it is knowable and governed by discernable rules. Thus, science itself is objectivist in its fundamental assumptions. Instructionist researchers, such as those who investigate direct instruction and other skills-based curricular approaches, are more likely to use science to establish the effectiveness of instructional methods. This may account for the abundance of evaluative studies focused on skills-based instructionist approaches (Carlson & Francis, 2002; Rosenshine, 2002; Snow et al., 1998; Swanson, 2001) and the relatively modest number of rigorous evaluative studies focused on meaning-based constructivist approaches.

In contrast to instructionists who define student success in terms of objective measurable outcomes, constructivists argue for meaningful analysis that do not reduce literacy to decoding and do not limit learning outcomes to prescribed responses on standardized tests of achievement (Krashen, 1999). For constructivists, legitimate evaluation focuses on the subjective experience of learners (Morrow, 1992). Constructivists argue that instructional efficacy is measured in the joy of student learning as opposed to the number of words correctly decoded (Fisher, 1991). Constructivists, such as those who endorse whole language, claim that their assumptions are consistent with personal experience and that objective evaluative criteria reduce and trivialize human learning outcomes (Taylor, 1998). To some, constructivist concepts such as meaning, community, connectedness, conversation, and authenticity are personally attractive and intuitively accurate. Constructivists claim, in some cases, that the value and correctness of instructional approaches such as whole language are apparent in practice and obvious in the motivation of students (Boran & Comber, 2001). Indeed, empirical studies have established the instructional effectiveness of whole language (Krashen, 2001; Smith & Elley, 1995). In comparing skill-based and whole language instructional effectiveness for at-risk students, Dahl and Freppon (1995) explained the whole language advantage in terms of increased student motivation to engage in literacy activities.

Although not all would agree (MacIver & Kemper, 2002a; Swanson, 2001), the effectiveness research does not reveal an obvious superiority of either instructional paradigm. Numerous studies report significant reading improvement associated with constructivist meaning-based approaches for students generally (Krashen, 1999) and for at-risk students particularly (Manning, Manning, & Long, 1989; Morrow, 1992). Correspondingly, numerous studies report significant reading improvement associated with instructionist skill-based approaches for students generally (Carlson & Francis, 2002; Herman et al., 1999) and for at-risk students particularly (Gersten, 1985; O’Brien & Ware, 2002). In comparing instructionist and constructivist approaches, many studies fail to find significant differences in student achievement (Jeynes & Littell, 2000; Krashen, 2001). When such undifferentiating findings do not support the conceptual orientation of the researchers, a variety of creative explanations are provided. As MacIver and Kemper (2002b) conclude: Future research, based on a well-established implementation (rather than the problem-filled early years of implementation experienced by these 6 schools) might uncover significant effects that were not evident at the time this article was written. DI [direct instruction] appears to be a viable option for raising student reading achievement, even if this study has not yielded evidence that DI performs significantly better than other reading curricula. (p. 197)

Conventional science, apparently, cannot resolve the instructionist-constructivist effectiveness debate. On the one hand, scientific inquiry favors the objectivity of instructionism and discriminates against any position that does not support the existence of objective reality (Taylor, 1998). On the other hand, practitioners often favor instructional approaches that foster student motivation and facilitate authentic personal involvement. Furthermore, science has not consistently established the effectiveness of instructionism nor consistently established the inferiority of constructivism. A meta-analysis establishes the superiority of direct instruction (Jeynes & Littell, 2000), but the analysis is reportedly flawed and the results grossly misinterpreted (Krashen, 2001). Perhaps such seemingly irresolvable empirical controversy and pedagogical confusion suggest that there is truth and legitimate instructional value in both curricular approaches.

Reconciling Instructionism and ConstructivismWhat is the core value of constructivism? Terms such as meaningful learning and student-centered instruction are dogma and are not useful in daily classroom practice. Active student involvement,

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student interest and motivation, and student personal satisfaction with learning may be the core benefits of constructivist education (Dahl & Freppon, 1995; Fisher, 1991). Both teachers and students are drawn to instructional methods in which students take responsibility for learning, in which students are highly motivated to learn, and which recognize the humanity of teaching and learning (Hogan & Peterson, 2001; Martinez et al., 2001). And yet, direct instruction, while mechanistic and thereby, to some, dehumanizing (Johnson, 1998), is highly effective in facilitating student skill acquisition (Carlson & Francis, 2002; Kameenui & Carnine, 1998).

How can a curricular orientation that is intuitively rejected by many teachers (i.e., instructionism) yield positive student learning outcomes? What is the core value of instructionism? Terms such as prescribed, systematic, efficient, and teacher-controlled are dogma and are not useful in daily classroom practice. Student time-on-task, teacher organization, teacher corrective feedback, and specific learning objectives may be the fundamental strengths of instructionist education (Hoover & Fabian, 2000; Swanson, 2001). In light of the teacher effectiveness research, the instructionist focus on teachers, as opposed to the constructivist focus on students, is prudent (Kemp & Hall, 1992).Teacher effectiveness research follows a simple methodology (Braskamp, Brandenburg, & Ory, 1984). Groups of students are compared in terms of indicators of school success, for example, performance on standardized tests of academic achievement. Students who score high on outcome measures are compared with students who score low on outcome measures. Holding constant student characteristics such familial income and cognitive development (Millman, 1997), a relatively consistent pattern of teacher behavior is associated with higher student achievement (Donovan, Bransford, & Pellegrino, 1999). Teacher behaviors associated with positive student learning outcomes (i.e., systematic teaching procedures, specific corrective feedback to students, frequent review of material, orderly classrooms, and explicit explanations of concepts) are typical of instructionist teachers (Kemp & Hall, 1992; Wenglinsky, 2000). With respect to measurable, objective, standardized learning outcomes, the value of instructionism and the importance of teacher instructional behavior are beyond debate (Carlson & Francis, 2002; Schug et al., 2001)

How then can the beauty of constructivism be reconciled with the utility of instructionism? From an epistemological perspective, human knowledge is both objective and subjective. There is an objective reality that is shared; communication occurs and knowledge accumulates (Gross et al., 1996). But reality is also subjective, personal, and private; communication is often partial and meaning is situation-specific (Steffe & Gale, 1995). There is an accumulated body of human knowledge (i.e., curriculum) that students must acquire to function in the shared objective world. But it is also true that student personal experience, interpretation, and response to curriculum are individual, subjective, and unique. Instructional practices that spring from a moderate position on the epistemological continuum equally reflect instructionist and constructivist pedagogy.

An obvious application of instructionist-constructivism would be the intermittent application of various instructional strategies. Intensely teacher-mediated strategies such as direct instruction could be sprinkled throughout the school day, thereby minimizing teacher and student mechanization. Short periods of highly teacher-controlled instruction could be applied to rotating small groups of students while the remainder of the class engages in self-directed and self-selected learning activities. In daily lesson planning, teachers might consider a variety of instructional approaches (Hoover & Fabian, 2000). Excessive self-selection and extended thematic approaches, often associated with constructivism (Honebein, 1996), may contribute to off-task student behavior. Teacher-control, group response, and clear learning criteria, often associated with instructionism (Snow et al., 1998), may be motivating to students, if not excessive and exclusive.

Instructionist-constructivism would focus on systematic instruction within a context of individual student meaning and personal student interest. For example, skills such as spelling and grammar, rather than being taught in isolation, are embedded in meaningful literacy activities. In this context, teaching specific skills is a consequence of student need where meaning and comprehension are emphasized (Strickland, 1998). Instructionist-constructivist teaching might involve specific skill instruction, including phonics, embedded in enjoyable and meaningful reading and writing experiences. Thus, students are explicitly taught discrete skills while simultaneously experiencing interesting stories and writing activities (Snow et al., 1998). Penmanship, spelling, and sentence structure become important and meaningful to children when they are writing letters to someone with whom clear communication and a good impression are essential, such as Santa (Hogan & Peterson, 2001).

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There is increasing concern that epistemological controversy and its practical consequence, disagreement regarding the nature of ideal instruction, are consuming researcher and practitioner resources (Ediger, 2001). In isolation from each other, objectivism and subjectivism equally provide a partial understanding of human learning. In isolation from each other, instructionism and constructivism equally provide a restricted curricular orientation. The insistence on a single strategy bears the hallmark of academic educators who are isolated in their own theoretical models (Baines & Stanley, 2000, p. 327). There is not unidirectional causation between skill and meaning; the relationship is spiral and reciprocal.

The ultimate contribution of epistemological extremists may reside in recognition of the necessity of balance. Extreme and exclusionary instructionism or constructivism may be the ultimate threat to effective education.

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Goodman, K. S. (1998). In defense of good teaching: What teachers need to know about the reading wars. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.Gross, P. R., Levitt, N., & Lewis, M. W. (1996). The flight from science and reason. New York:New York Academy of Sciences.Hallahan, D. P., Kauffman, J. M., & Lloyd, J. W. (1999). Introduction to learning disabilities(2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.Herman, R., Aladjem, D., McMahon, P., Masem, E., Mulligan, I., O’Malley, A., et al. (1999). An educators’ guide to schoolwide reform. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research.Hogan, L., & Peterson, T. (2001). Camelot: Our search for “good teaching.” Kappa Delta Pi Record, 38(1), 6-8.Honebein, P. (1996). Seven goals for the design of constructivist learning environments. In B.Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist learning environments (pp.17-24). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Hoover, M. R., & Fabian, E. M. (2000). A successful program for struggling readers. Reading Teacher, 53(6), 474-476.Jeynes, W., & Littell, S. (2000). A meta-analysis of studies examining the effect of whole language instruction on the literacy of low-SES students. Elementary School Journal, 101(1), 21-33.Johnson, G. M. (1991). Ecological theory and conventional science: Irreconcilable differences? Canadian Journal of Special Education, 7(2), 153-163.Johnson, G. M. (1993). Conceptual resolution of the educational research paradigm dichotomy: Q-continuum. Teacher Education Quarterly, 20(2), 91-103.Johnson, G. M. (1998). Principles of instruction for at-risk learners. Preventing School Failure, 42(4), 167-174.Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism vs. constructivism. Educational Technology Research and Development, 39(3), 5-14.Jonassen, D. H. (Ed.). (1996). Handbook of research for educational communications and technology. New York: Simon & Schuster.Jonassen, D. H., Davidson, M., Collins, M., Campbell, J., & Haag, B. B. (1995). Constructivism and computer-mediated communication in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 9(2), 7-26. Kameenui, E. J., & Carnine, D. W. (1998). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.Kazdin, A. E. (2001). Behavior modification in applied settings (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.Kemp, L., & Hall, A. H. (1992). Impact of effective teaching research on student achievement and teacher performance: Equity and access implications for quality education. Jackson, MS: Jackson State University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED348360)Krashen, S. (1999). Three arguments against whole language and why they are wrong. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.Krashen, S. (2001, August 5). Comments on Jeynes and Littell’s “A meta-analysis of studies examining the effect of whole language instruction on the literacy of low-SES students.”

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RESEARCH-BASED INSTRUCTIONS TO INCREASE COMMUNICATION SKILLSFOR STUDENTS WITH SEVERE DISABILITIES

Peg PintoCynthia Simpson

Sam Houston State University

Jeffrey P. BakkenIllinois State University

Communication skills are of great importance for children with developmental disabilities to be functional and independent in their own lives. This paper provides results of a comprehensive literature review on current researched-based intervention strategies that appear effective to increase communication skills for students who have severe disabilities. Researchers typically have combined intervention strategies and the actual effectiveness of isolated procedures is less clear. This review is aimed at investigating these isolated procedures and attempts to link research and practice in the area of communication.

The ability to communicate in meaningful and acceptable ways is fundamental for participation in our society. Without an effective means of communication, individuals with moderate and severe disabilities can experience the phenomenon of learned helplessness (Guess, Benson, & Siegel-Causey, 1985). Communication skills are essential for everyday social and learning interactions. Most students with severe disabilities need systematic instruction to learn communication forms and strategies that are easily understood by others. Efficiently teaching functional skills so that students can participate in everyday interactions is the primary goal for systematic instruction in communication (Snell & Brown, 2006). Persons with severe disabilities are individuals who require extensive ongoing support on more than one major life activity in order to participate in integrated community settings and to enjoy a quality of life that is available to citizens with fewer or no disabilities (TASH, 1991, p. 19). Most individuals who are severely disabled are limited in their ability to communicate, though these skills can become functional with appropriate intervention. Communication is the key to learning because what we learn depends on interactions with others. Every time at least two people come together, communication can occur. Although all human being communicate, some individuals, due to the severity of their disabilities, may have limited communication skills. Individuals with severe and multiple disabilities may not have full access to, or full control of, the multiple means by which most individuals communicate (e.g., speech, facial expressions, body movements, gazing, gesturing, touching, and print). This inability to express themselves as others does not indicate that these individuals have nothing to say, nor does it diminish their need and right to communicate, but it can result in less interaction with others. Therefore, teaching communicative should be a very high priority in order to provide the best possible tool for these students to achieve their desired outcome without resorting to unconventional forms, such as challenging behaviors. A communicative action is successful when the partner understands the learner’s message. In general, success is reflected when a person obtains what he or she wants to receive or accomplish. Although the partner may decide not to do what the individual asks him or her to do, success is obtained when the partner acknowledges the learner’s communicative act. By experiencing success, communicative responses are shaped and become less ambiguous (Snell & Loncke, 2002). Researchers have documented different strategies for teaching communication skills to students who have severe communication difficulties. The current trend is to teach communication in ways that match the learner’s regardless of the mode of expression. What are the research / evidence-based intervention

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strategies to increase communication skills for individuals / students who have severe communication deficits / difficulties? Please see Table 1 for a summary of research findings.

Table 1:Summary of Research Findings

Study Subjects Methods FindingsBehavior Indicator and Functional Communication Training to Establish an Initial Sign Repertoire With A young Child With Severe Disabilities(Drasgow, Halle, Ostrosky, & Harbers, 1996).

A four year old girl.

Functional Communication Training (FCT).

The results showed successful acquisition and discriminated use of six signs to replacing existing behavior. The findings also indicated that generalized use of the sign “no” did not occur in the untaught situations.

The Picture Exchange Communication System: Communication Outcomes for Young Children With Disabilities(Schwartz, Garfinkle, & Bauer, 1998).

31 preschool children (29 girls, two boys).

Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS).

The results of the study found that all 31 children learned to use the PECS system within an average of 14 months. The children also demonstrated generalized use of the system and 44% of the children showed increase in spoken language after using PECS.

Functional Communication Training Using Assistive Devices: Recruiting Natural Communities of Reinforcement,(Durand, 1999).

Five students (5-11 years old)

Functional Communication Training (FCT), using assistive technology in school and community.

The study indicated that the communication devices help decrease problem behaviors in all five students and that can be used in the community.

Teaching the Condition use of Communication Requests to Two School-Age Children With Severe Developmental Disabilities (Reichle & Johnson, 1999).

Two students( Seven year old boy, and Nine year old boy).

Conditional use of Communication Requests.

The findings suggested that the conditional discriminations were established quickly. Both learners generalized their conditional discriminations to other contexts within classroom.

Communication Patterns of Youth With Mental Retardation With and Without Their Speech-output Communication Devices (Romski, Sevcik, & Adamson, 1999).

13 males subjects(13-28 years old).

Speech-Output device, WOLF, was used to exam the effect on the subjects when engaging in a conversation.

The results showed that the speech-output communication device had a positive effect on the participants’ communication with and without unfamiliar partners and enhance the ability to engage in the conversation.

Effects of Prelinguistic Communication Levels on Initiation and Repair of Communication in Children With Disabilities (Brady, Steeples, & Fleming, 2005).

45 childrenThree -six years old(23 boys, 22 girls).

Plays activities are used to examine the effects of expressive the receptive language on initiated and repair behaviors.

The conclusion of the study found that the levels of prelinguistic communication development predict commenting abilities in children with severe disabilities but did not appear to predict the likelihood to repair communication breakdown. The results suggested that children with gestures that are more basic and vocal skills communicate less frequency, but they also appear less adapt to understand social rules of conversational exchange.

Responses to Communication Breakdowns by Nonverbal Children With Developmental Disabilities (Erbas, 2005).

Three preschool children (two boys and one girl).

Opportunities with three types of listener feedback conditions served to evoke repair behaviors by the subjects.

All 3 children used different repair behaviors across three conditions to achieve their communication goals. The study found that all subjects produced more repair behaviors in gestural

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conditions than others. The repetition was the choice of repair strategy.

Parents’ Perspectives on the Communication Skills of Their Children With Severe Disabilities (Stephenson & Dowrick, 2005).

10 children (Four-nine years old)nine boys, one girl.

Parents were interviewed about the forms of communication used by their children.

Parents described a wide range of behavior, including the use of facial expression, body movement, vocalization, gestures, word approximation and words, formal and made-up signs, objects and picture symbols, as communicative behaviors.

The Effect of Picture Communication Symbols on the Verbal Comprehension of Commands by Young Children With Autism (Preis, 2006).

Five students(Three girls, two boys).

Alternating treatments design was used to assess the effect of picture symbols on each participant’s respond to verbal commands. The alternating treatment involved the presentation of verbal commands with and without picture symbols.

The findings of the study indicated that visual supports, especially picture communication symbols, are more effective in prompting the generalization and maintenance of acquired skills for young children with disabilities.

Teaching Augmentative and Alternative Communication to Students With Severe Disabilities (Snell, Chen, & Hoover, 2006).

40 research articles from 11 journals (published between 1993-2003),93 subjects (from birth to 21 years old).

Description analysis of peer-reviewed, single subject design, intervention research on AAC.

The review lends support to a number of teaching strategies that appear effective when building AAC skills in beginning communicators with S.D. The review indicated that a variety of antecedent and consequence have been reported to improve AAC communication with S.D. whose communication ranges from nonsymbolic to symbolic AAC. The review identified weaknesses in the database: little reporting of generalization and maintenance of outcomes, infrequent involvement of teachers and parents, infrequent measurement of partner behavior, poor reporting of treatment integrity, and contexts that less often included general education and disabled peers.

Responses to Communication BreakdownsSuccessful communication depends on conditions such as participants’ motivation to share information, the participants’ decision on the form of communication to convey the information, the participants’ awareness of the occurrence of communication breakdown, and their effect to repair them (Roth & Speakman, 1994; Scudder & Tremain, 1992). Repairing a communication breakdown is defined as a skill to maintain communication by first noticing that a targeted message is not conveyed and then making necessary modifications (Alexander, Wetherby, & Prizant, 1997). In hope of extending the current research on repairing behavior of nonverbal children with developmental disabilities, Erbas (2005) studied the different types of listener feedback on repair behaviors of three nonverbal children with disabilities. Three preschool children (three -four years old) with developmental disabilities participated. An alternating treatments design was used to compare the effect of different types of listener feedback or breakdowns on subjects' communication repairs. The study focused on two areas: motivation and environment. Specifically, the author examined ways to control motivation status of the subjects by assessing individual preferences used to create motivating opportunities for the subjects. In addition, Erbas examined repair opportunities in the naturally occurring environment. An alternating treatment design was implemented to compare the effects of different listeners’ feedback to evoke

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repair behaviors for nonverbal students with disabilities. Four ways that communication is broken down was examined: repetition, recast, addition and reduction. Repetition means repeating the same repair behavior. Recast, on the other hand, means completely using a different repair strategy to communicate. Addition means using the same strategy, plus adding an additional gesture or vocalization. Last, reduction is any subtraction made from the first repair strategy. Discrete categorization was implemented for this study because the behaviors had discrete beginning and endings. Video recordings were also implemented to gather data and interobserver agreement was used to evaluate the subjects’ communication repair behaviors. In addition, parents and teachers were also interviewed. Observations for this study were completed using the ABC (antecedent, behavior, and consequence) recording method. Last, a paired preference assessment was conducted to see what snacks would be chosen by the students. In this study, opportunities with three different types of feedback or breakdowns served to evoke repair behaviors by the subjects. These were gesture response, wrong response, and ignore. Gesture response is when a request was not accurately received; a gesture response would be used. The wrong response is when a behavior occurs and the listener responds with a wrong response. The ignore condition is when a behavior occurs and the listener intentionally does not listen or pay attention. These were all used to see how they would affect communication. Findings indicated that the gesture response condition was used the highest percentage of the time with all three children. The results showed that all children used different repair behaviors across the different conditions to achieve their communicative goals at snack time routines. In addition, the children produced more repairs in the response to the gesture response condition than the others. The aforementioned findings provide evidence that the students can detect communication breakdowns and can attempt to correct them.

Effects of Prelinguistic CommunicationBrady, Fleming, and Steeples (2005) examined the effects of expressive and receptive language levels on initiated and repaired communication with children with developmental disabilities. The participants were forty-five children between the ages of three and six years old with severe delays in expressive communication. Some of the participants communicated with twelve or fewer spoken words, communicated with gestures and vocalization, and 41 of the 45 had below average IQ scores. This particular population was selected as children with developmental disabilities rely on prelinguistic gestures and vocalization well into their toddler and preschool years instead of just using them in their early years like most children (Bates, Benigni, Bretherton, Camaioni, & Volterra, 1979; Bruner, 1975; Butterworth, & Grover, 1988; Sugarman, 1984.) Each child engaged in thirteen play activities where the researchers presented opportunities for the children to initiate communication. The script was designed to provide opportunities for six communicative requests (imperatives) and seven communicative comments (declaratives). The researchers also used three different child-initiated commutative acts during each task: (a) request for clarification, when the researchers ask “What?” after the child initiated a communication act, (b) non-acknowledgement, when the researcher pretended not to notice the child’s communication attempt and continued interacting with the materials, and (c) topic shift, when the researcher responded inappropriately following the child’s initiated communication act. For example, the researcher responds to a request for help to open a container by commenting about the contents, I like bubbles, too. The conclusion of this research found that the levels of prelinguistic communication development predict commenting abilities in children with developmental disabilities, but it did not appear to predict the likelihood to repair communication breakdowns. The results indicated that in regard children with autism or Down syndrome did not respond differently from other children regardless of their diagnosis. Expressive communication levels and receptive communication scores were a significant predictor to initiated communication. They were both statistically significant predictors of comments and expressive communication levels were statistically significant in predicting the initiated request after IQ was controlled. The researchers found that prelinguistic children were motivated to initiate communication, and the results from their study extended their understanding of the course of prelinguistic development in children with intellectual disabilities. Not only did the researchers find that children with more basic gestures and vocal skills communicated less frequently, but they also appear less adept to understand social rules of conversational exchange. The outcome of this study documented important distinctions between levels of paralinguistic development in children with disabilities.

Functional Communication Training (FCT)Functional communication training (FCT) has been an effective strategy for replacing challenging behavior with more socially acceptable behavior that serves the same communicative function.

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Drasgow, Halle, Ostrosky, and Harbers (1996), examined the application of FCT, which was extended, to replacing behavior that was communicative, but not identified as challenging. In their study, signs for five specific activities were taught as requests and one sign was taught as a protest. Three purposes were identified for their investigation: (a) to determine the effects of the instructional strategy on sign acquisition; (b) to assess the generalized use of the protest sign in a context that varied from that of instruction; and (c) to assess the discriminated use of the newly acquired signs (e.g., Would they be withheld on occasions similar to those of instruction when their use was unnecessary?). The participant, Mary, was four years four months old at the start of this study. Physicians reported that Mary might have autism or Rett’s syndrome, but no conclusive diagnosis had been made at the time of the study. Although Mary was nonverbal, she engaged in behavior that appeared to serve the functions of requesting and rejecting. She appeared to use signaling behavior (i.e., eye contact, loud vocalizations, leading, extending arms to an adult) in other situations where her intent was unclear.

This study took place in three settings over 15 months. It began in Mary’s initial school placement, continued in her summer school program, and was placed in her new school placement and all settings were quite similar. The classroom environments were arranged with various activity centers and had similar routines (e.g., short structured, group times, free play, snack time), and each setting included an outdoors playground. A within subject multiple baseline design (Bear, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) across behaviors was implemented in the study. Three signs were targeted for teaching as specific requests in each of the first two baselines and a general reject sign was taught in the third baseline. The introduction and teaching of the signs was staggered in time across the three baselines. The teaching strategies included modeling, physical prompts, and reinforcement. Seven new signs were targeted for teaching and included: eat, drink, swing, open (the door), bubbles, stairs, and no. The new target was taught only in situations in which behavioral indication occurred; no behavioral indication meant that the situation was not used for teaching. The results of the intervention indicated that Mary acquired five and used six of the seven targeted signs; stairs had been acquired previously and bubbles did not evoke behavioral indication after the initial days of intervention and, therefore, did not receiving training. As each new sign was acquired and used spontaneously, use of the old forms serving function was proportionately reduced. This perfect inverse relationship suggests the functional equivalence of these two alternative forms. For the second purpose, the study indicated that generalized use of protest sign did not occur in the untaught situations. Mary learned to shake her head no when offered unpreferred items (instead of pushing away); however, she continued to pull away, scream, or flop to the floor when accompanied to unpreferred activities. The study also indicated that Mary used the new signs in a discriminated fashion 84 % of the time. This study demonstrated that using behavioral indication to identify teaching opportunities and then teaching in naturally occurring situations are effective instructional strategies for establishing an initial communication repertoire in a young child with severe disabilities. Durand (1999) evaluated the effectiveness of functional communication training (FCT) as an intervention of severe disabilities. He conducted this assessment in two settings: school, and community. The FCT is supposed to decrease these behaviors in those two settings: aggression, self-injury, and severe tantrums. This study analyzed the effect of FCT on decreasing or eliminating these behaviors. Three studies were conducted on five students. The first study involved functional assessment of the problem behaviors. The second study included teaching students to use assistive devices to request the stimuli and assessment of the effect it has on their problem behaviors. The third study was to assess whether the new communication skills work in the community. The five students demonstrated problem behaviors and a need for assistive technology. To prepare the teachers, parents, and other related staff they all attend a series of workshops on FCT. The workshop was three days long and presented to them by the author. The workshop involved discussion of the functional nature of problem behavior, instruction in various functional assessment procedures, instruction in teaching students to use assistive devices, instruction in FCT, and assistance in developing individualized intervention plans for each student. The classroom teachers introduced the sessions in community environments with no additional prompts and having their device continually available. The findings proved that the students were able to use the device in new situations without prompts, and the adults were able to respond appropriately to the students. This study showed that the communication devices help decrease problem behaviors and that they can be used in the community by students who have severe communication deficits.

Communication Requests

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Reichle and Johnson (1999) researched how to teach two students with severe disabilities to request a desired snack in different situations. The researchers wanted to observe and teach the students to make a request for the snack even if the snack was right in front of them or across the room to insure that the students understood this form of communication. The participants or subjects were two male students attending elementary school. One student was seven years old and the other was nine years old. The seven-year-old boy was severely intellectually disabled, nonverbal, and prone to seizures. When they started the investigation he would communicate using idiosyncratic gestures (tapping on the table), and facial expressions (grimace to show dislike). He was integrated into a regular education kindergarten classroom to participate in art, physical education, morning circle, and free play. The rest of the day he was in a self contained classroom with four other classmates. The nine year old boy was severely intellectually disabled and nonverbal. He could communicate through idiosyncratic gestures, vocalization, and physical direction of an adult in his environment, as well as use a graphic general request symbol (Mary- Johnson black and white line drawing) in a communication wallet. He was included in a third grade regular education class during music, physical education, social studies, and spent the remainder of the day in a self- contained classroom. As a result of this study, the researchers found that if the item were in close proximity to the participants (6-8 in.) they would take it. If the item was not in close proximity to the participants (18-24 in.), the subjects would use a communicative request. The results suggested that the conditional discriminations were established quickly and both learners generalized their conditional discriminations to other contexts within classroom. The study demonstrates the importance of attending to conditional discriminations when teaching communication requests.

Picture Exchange Communication SystemFunctional communication requires that children be able to generalize communication skills from training to other settings and situations, and to the events experienced in daily living (Horner & Budd, 1985). To meet this functional criterion, children need to use the skills not only across environments, but also spontaneously at contextually appropriate times and in a variety of settings. Schwartz, Garfinkle, and Bauer (1998) investigated the use of the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) for children with severe disabilities. The purpose of their studies was to examine PECS as a way of teaching functional communication skills to children with severe communication difficulties. The study examined the rate of acquisition of PECS. The participants were thirty-one young children enrolled in an integrated, university affiliated preschool program. Their ages ranged from three to six years old and 16 of the children had been diagnosed with autism. Other participating children had been diagnosed with Down syndrome, Angelman’s syndrome, or other developmental disabilities. All interventions took place in the children’s classrooms, which had the same structure and types of activities, including small group activities, two large-group circles, snack, free choice, and outside time. The Boardmaker for Windows (1995) computer program generated pictures used in the PECS investigation. Both black-and-white and colored symbols were used. All children started with 2 x 2 inch symbols, and the symbols for some children were changed to 1 x 1 inch as they became more independent and facile with the system. Instructional strategies were consistent with the PECS Training Manual, which involved the amount and type of materials to use with instructional strategies, prompting strategies, and the criteria to be achieved. The training program steps in this study were: basic exchange, distance and persistence, discrimination, sentence building, and PECS with peers. All children in the study had symbols available to them throughout the classroom during the entire school day. To facilitate PECS use, systematic opportunities to use PECS were integrated into the school day. This was done by identifying preferred materials, integrating these materials into planned activities, and requiring children to request the materials. The instructors continuously assisted children in using PECS symbols to communicate with one another and with adults to request materials, make comments, and solve problems. This study suggested that children who learn PECS use the system across settings. Children demonstrated generalized use of the system communicating with different people across settings and demonstrated mastery of different communicative functions. Furthermore, 44 % of the children in the study demonstrated marked increase in spoken language after using PECS.

Preis (2006) also investigated picture communication symbols. She asked three questions when she started her study: (a) Will verbal requests presented in conjunction with picture communication symbols result in a higher number of correct responses for following directions than verbal requests alone? (b) Will commands achieved generalize to a novel therapist under those same conditions? and (c) Will the command achieved maintain over time? There were five participants in this study that met the criteria for autistic disorder as stated in the Diagnostic and Statistical manual Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The five participants ranged in age from five to seven years old (three

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girls, two boys). All of the students had no prior experiences using picture communication system as means of following directions except for organization (i.e., schedules, labels). The study took place in a university speech-language pathology center and there were three phases: command acquisition, generalization, and maintenance. Each of the phases had a treatment A and treatment B. Treatment A involved the presentation of verbal commands with an associated picture symbol, and Treatment B was without picture symbols. The picture symbols were commercial produced four-inch black and white line drawings (Mayer-Johnson Company, 1994) with text accompanying each picture. Both treatments consisted of verbal commands involving body movement, manipulative materials, or identification of pictured items. The results of this study suggest that visual supports, specifically picture communication symbols, are more effective in prompting the generalization and maintenance of acquired skills for following verbal directions for young children with autism. Therefore, experts have suggested that visual cues for children with autism be included as a consideration when designing any intervention program (Quill, 1995).

Parents’ PerspectivesIn 2005, Stephenson, and Dowrick explored the behaviors that parents interpret as communication and how the development of communication skills of children with severe disabilities depends partly on the responsivity of a partner. The researchers found their participants at two special schools in the suburban western Sydney in New South Wales, Australia. These schools work with students who have are moderate to severe intellectual disabilities. The researchers chose ten parents that have children between the ages of 4 and 9 years old with little or no spoken language. Nine of the students were boys and one was a girl. The researchers interviewed the parents about how their child communicates and how they, as parents, communicate with their child. During these interviews, nine mothers showed up (three were single parents), and one interview was with both parents. The first interview was for collecting background information (including age and gender of child, language(s) spoken at home, household composition, child’s strengths, and information about the child’s disabilities). The next section of the interview questioned parents about the child’s current method of communication at home and school. The communicative behaviors were behaviors that researches have explored, such as intelligible words, manual sign, use of aids such as pictures or tangible symbols, gestures, reaching, pointing, physical manipulation, self-directed behavior, aversive behaviors directed at others, vocalizations or sounds, eye contact, and facial expression (Cirrin & Rowland, 1995; Donnellan, Mirenda, Mesaros & Fassbender, 1984; Lobato, Barrera, & Feldman, 1981: Ogletree et al., 1992; Romski, Sevcik, Reumann, & Pate, 1989; Rowland & Stremel-Campbell, 1987). The third section of the interview was concentrated on commonly identified communication behaviors such as requesting, commenting, getting attention, providing information, refusing or rejecting, answering, greeting, intonating, and maintaining and terminating interactions (Reichle, 1997). Parents were then asked how their child accomplished this. After interviewing the parents, the researchers asked teachers and family members for their feedback. After the interview they then transcribed the interviews from their tape recorder. The transcribed document was then given to the parent(s) to review and make corrections. The interview and the parents’ revision of the documentation allowed them to understand the context in which the behaviors occurred and how they were perceived. Parents described a wide range of behaviors, including the use of facial expressions, body movements, vocalizations, gestures, word approximations and words, formal and made-up signs, and objects and picture symbols, as communicative behaviors. To be able to communicate and understand a child with severe to moderate disabilities you need to communicate with the parent and the teacher to understand and be co-adhesive for the child.

Speech-Output Communication DevicesRomski, Sevcik, and Adamson (1999) investigated the communication skills of 13 youth with moderate or severe mental retardation and how they communicated with a standard partner with and without access to their augmented communication devices. The subjects were 13 ambulatory males with moderate or severe disabilities with little to no functional speech who had been participants in a two-year longitudinal study of symbol acquisition and use (Romski & Sevcik, 1996). At the time of the study (1999) the participants ranged from 13.17 to 28.67 years old. The subjects all had a minimum of five years of communication experience using the system for Augmenting language which consists of five components: (a) speech-output device, the WOLF (Adamlab, 1988), (b) individualize symbol vocabulary, using arbitrary visual graphic symbol, (c) opportunities to use the device at home, and in the community on the daily bases, (d) augmented communicative input from adult partners, and (e) a resource feedback mechanism. The subjects had a mean of 69.0 vocabulary items on their WOLFs (range 41-104 symbols). Each participant was observed in two conditions: speech output device

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condition and no device condition. During both of these conditions, they were videotaped interacting with a trained but unfamiliar adult female partner. The room that they observed the interaction was always in a lounge located in the participant’s school or workplace. The participants were seated at the large table where there was popcorn paraphernalia placed on the table. During the first condition, the participant’s WOLF was available for them to use. The participants had 10-27 symbols to choose from, including words such as hello, thank you, help, more, good-bye, I want, excuse me, glass, ketchup, drink, and me. When the symbols were pressed the corresponding individual English word was spoken. Symbols could be pressed in sequence to form a combination (Wilkinson, Romski, & Sevcik, 1994).

Three weeks after the speech-output device condition each participant was videotaped without the speech-output device. After the conditions were videotaped six trained coders, who were not aware of the study, coded the data. The results showed that the speech-output communication device had a positive effect on the participants’ communication with an unfamiliar partner. The three conversational interactions of appropriateness of the information conveyed, clarity of conversational focus, and exact information content conveyed, were influenced. In conclusion, the findings emphasize the important role of augmented communication devices with unfamiliar partners, facilitate specific and clear communication, and enhance their ability to engage in a conversation.

Augmentation and Alternative CommunicationIn 2006, Snell, Chen, and Hoover conducted a description analysis of peer-reviewed, single subject design, intervention research on augmentative and alternative communication (ACC) for individuals with severe disabilities. This review examined seven years of research, published in English starting in 1997 and ending in 2003 on ACC communications that were applied to persons with severe disabilities from birth to 21 years of age. The focus of the review was on identifying evidence-based interventions that enable individuals to communicate with others using ACC alone or with words. The researchers started the review by identifying the criteria for selecting research to include in the database. These criteria were modified from a previous study to include interventions addressing prelinguistic or ACC communication with others. The forty research articles from 11 journals were located through electronic searches using ERIC and PsycINFO and determined to meet the seven criteria requirements as follows: (a) it was published in peer-refereed journal in English between 1997-2003, (b) its participant(s) were aged 21 years or younger, (c) its participant (s) had a severe disability, (d) target communication forms were either prelinguistic or symbolic AAC expressive responses, (e) a single subject experimental research design was implemented with one or more participant, individual student data were graphically displayed and reliability estimates for the dependent variables were reported and acceptable, (f) the independent variable was educational, involving a teaching intervention, and (g) the dependent variable(s) included interactive communication responses that were not spoken, but other responses (e.g., eye contact, receptive skills, reduction of problem, speaking) also may have been measured. In the database of 40 studies, 93 individuals met the age and disability criteria. The participants were primarily from preschool/elementary schools and male, with a majority having autism or severe disabilities.

The percentage of studies with one or more individuals between age zero and five was 50 %, ages 6-11 (52.5%), 12-17 (25%), and 18-21 (5%), whereas 92.5% of the research had one more male participant and 42.5% had one or more female participants. The percentage of studies with one or more participants identified as having autism was 65%, severe disabilities 50%, moderate mental retardation 17.5%, developmental delay 17.5%, sensory impairments 15%, attention disorders 5 %, emotional disorders 2.5%, and traumatic brain injury 2.5%. Interventions were planned and implemented by experimenters or research assistants/ therapists in all 40 studies. The AAC research evaluation instrument used to code studies in the database was organized into four categories: general, functional assessment, reinforced assessment, and intervention. Intervention research was conducted in one or several settings including the special education classroom (47.5%), in-patient settings and the general educational classroom (22.5%), the home (20%), instructional school settings beyond the classroom (e.g., cafeteria, library, recess) (12.5%), empty classroom (12.5%), the community (7.5%), and outpatient clinics (5%). By selection, all studies measured participants and ACC communication. Specifically, simple aided/iconic forms (e.g., objects, pictures, communication books) were measured in 47.7 of the database, unaided symbolic gestural communication (e.g., conventional gestures, manual signs) 45 %, prelinguistic forms (e.g., looking at or reaching for an object, stiffening of the muscles, vocalizations, leading another) 36.5%, and device-aided/iconic symbolic forms on speaking devices 35 %. Unaided spoken communication was also measured in 40% of the studies. The requesting function was addressed in 87.5% of the database; the function of engaging another in social interaction (e.g.,

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requesting social routine, greeting, calling) was addressed in 37.5%, and the function of establishing joint attention (e.g., directing another’s attention to an object, event, or topic) was addressed in 30% of the database. Although the majority of research assessed interactions with adult partners (90%), peer/sibling interaction was measured in 17.5% of the database. Dependent measures addressed spontaneous, self-initiated communication in 82.5% of the studies, whereas communication elicited in response to a partner was measured in 50% of the research, and imitative communication was measured in 5% of the research. Additional student-dependent variables addressed by this database included disruptive behavior (35%), destructive behavior (32.5%), skills (social, academic; 22.5%), eye contact (7.5%), and engagement (5%).

This review supports a number of teaching strategies that appear effective when building AAC skills in beginning communicators with severe disabilities. Because researchers typically have combined intervention strategies, the effectiveness of isolated procedures is less clear. Although it is common to classify early communication by their naturalistic features, these classifications lack universal acceptance and do not clearly predict effectiveness. However, the review indicated that a variety of antecedent and consequence intervention components, typically used in combination, improve AAC communication in learners with severe disabilities from birth to 21 years whose communication ranges from nonsymbolic to symbolic AAC. These findings are consistent with the results of other reviews of children with autism and other severe disabilities learning to communicate with or without AAC (Goldstein, 2002; Hepting & Goldstein, 1996; Hwang & Hughes, 2000a; Mirenda, 2001; Reichle, 1997; Romski & Sevcik, 1997). Furthermore, these findings extend the understanding of effective communication methods to a more recent seven -year period and with the population of individuals who do not use spoken words as their primary communication mode. When problem behavior and communication were targeted, functional communication training (FCT) was the method of choice. This review also identified several general weaknesses in this database: little reporting of generalization and maintenance of outcomes, infrequent involvement of teachers and parents, infrequent measurement of partner behavior, poor reporting of treatment integrity, and contexts that less often included general education and non disabled peers.

ConclusionCommunication skills are of great importance for children with developmental disabilities to be functional and independent in their own lives. Most scholars today agree that with appropriate instruction and support, individuals with severe disabilities can learn to communicate effectively regardless of the nature and / or cause of their underlying impairments by using either idiosyncratic or symbol forms (National joint Committee for the Communication Needs of Persons with Severe Disabilities, 2002a, p. 148, 2002b). Individuals who have severe communication deficits can always improve their communication by becoming more effective and efficient in their interactions, using socially appropriate signals, and expanding their communicative functions. The outcomes of this comprehensive literature review lend support to a number of evidence-based intervention strategies that appear effective to increase communication skills for individuals who have severe communication disabilities. The key to the effectiveness of the interventions described in this paper has been the emphasis on intervention in daily and natural situations and the importance of participant understanding of communication as an interactive process in which they play an integral role. By attempting to identify partner needs, transfer research into a user-friendly resource, and provide inservice training in an applied and practical fashion, some concerns have been addressed and skills and knowledge enhanced. The field, and most particularly our students, will benefit from continuing attempts to link research and practice in the crucial area of communication intervention. Additionally, the intervention strategies referred to as naturalistic from the peer-reviewed research article by Snell, Chen, & Hoover (2006) appears to be the most effective method. There are many different ways to communicate without symbols, and nonsymbolic communication can be very powerful (Snell & Brown, 2006). The goal is to use methods or strategies that incorporate students’ nonsymbolic skills and build on their repertoires of communication skills so that they can understand and use more sophisticated symbolic skills to improve overall quality of life. The finding from this comprehensive literature review suggests that children with severe disabilities can learn to communicate by engaging in a variety of communication methods. The current trend to include students with severe disabilities in general education classrooms with their peers has shown positive affect to all students. Therefore, it is important for parents and teachers to consider the most effective communication intervention strategy in order to promote and enhance their child’s abilities to communicate. For future researchers, it is important that they continue to research communication skills and investigate which acquired skills generalize and are maintained for children with severe disabilities. This review demonstrates the link

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between current researched-based intervention strategies and practice that increase communication skills for students with severe disabilities. Communication skills are of great importance for children with developmental disabilities to be functional and independent in their own lives and all professionals and parents must work together so students can improve their communication skills at school, in the community, and at home.

ReferencesAdamlab. (1988). WOLF manual. Wayne, MI: Author.American Psychiatric Association. (2002). Diagnostic and statistical manual for mental disorders (4th

ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Alexander, D., Wetherby, A., & Prizant, B. (1997). The emergence of repair strategies in infants and toddlers. Seminars in Speech and Language, 18, 197-212.Bates, E., Benigni, L., Bretherton, I., Camaioni, L., & Volterra,(1979). The emergence of symbols: Cognition and communication in infancy. New York: Academic Press.Bear, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.Boardmaker for Windows [Computer Software]. (1995). Solana Beach, CA: Mayer Johnson.Brady, N. C., Fleming K., & Steeples, T. (2005). Effects of prelinguistic communication levels on initiation and repair of communication in children with disabilities. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48, 1098-1113.Bruner, J. (1975). The ontogenesis of speech acts. Journal of Child Language, 2, 1-19.Butterworth, G., & Grover, I. (1988). The origins of referential communication in human Infancy. In L. Weiskrantz (Ed.) Thought without language (pp. 5-24). New York:Oxford University Press.Cirrin, F. M., & Rowland, C. M. (1995). Communication assessment of nonverbal youths with severe/profound mental retardation. Mental Retardation, 23, 52-62.Donnellan, A., Mirenda, P., Mesaros, R., & Fassbender, I. (1984). Analyzing the communicative functions of aberrant behavior. Journal of the Association for Persons with SevereHandicaps, 9, 201-212.Drasgow, E., Halle, J. W., Ostrosky, M. M., & Harbers, H. M. (1996). Using behavioral indication and functional communication training to establish an initial sign repertoire with a young child with severe disabilities. Topics in Early Children Special Education, 16, 500-521.Durand, V. M. (1999). Functional communication training using assistive devices: Recruiting natural communities of reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 247-267.Erbas, D. (2005). Responses to communication breakdowns by nonverbal children with developmental disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 40, 145-157.Goldstein, H. (2002). Communication intervention for children with autism: A review of treatment efficacy. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 373-396.Guess, D., Benson, H., & Siegel-Causey, E. (1985). Concepts and issues related to choice making among persons with severe handicaps. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 10, 79-86.Hepting, K. H., & Goldstein, H. (1996). What’s naturalistic language intervention? Journal of Early Intervention, 20, 249-265.Horner, R. H., & Budd, C. M. (1985). Acquisition of manual sign use: Collateral reduction of maladaptive behavior, and factors limiting generalization. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 20, 39-47.Hwang, B., & Hughes, C. (2000a). The effects of social interactive training on early social communicative skills of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 30, 331-343.Lobato, D., Barrera, R. D., & Feldman, R. (1981). Sensorimotor functioning and prelinguistic functioning in profoundly retarded individuals. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 85, 489-496.Mayer-Johnson Company. (1994). Mayer-Johnson picture communication symbols. Solano Beach, CA: Author.Mirenda, P. (2001). Autism, augmentative communication, and assistive technology: What do we really know? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16, 141-151.National Joint Committee for the Communication Needs of Persons with Severe Disabilities (2000a). Position statement on access to communication services and supports: Concerns Regarding the application of restrictive “eligibility” policies. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 23, 143-144.

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Ogletree, B. T., Wetherby, A. M., & Westling, D. L. (1992). Profile of the prelinguistic intentional communication behaviors of children with profound mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 97, 186-196.Preis, J. (2006). The effect of picture communication symbols on the verbal comprehension of commands by young children with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 21, 195-210.Quill, K. (1995). Visually cued instruction for children with autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Focus on Autistic Behavior, 10, 10-20.Reichle, J. (1997). Communication intervention with peers who have severe disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 31, 110-134.Reichle, J., & Johnson, S. S. (1999). Teaching the conditional use of communication requests to two school-age children with severe developmental disabilities. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in School, 30, 324-334.Romski, M. A., & Sevcik, R.A. (1996). Breaking the speech barrier: Language development through augmented means. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.Romski, M. A., & Sevcik, R. A. (1997). Augmentative and alternative communication for children with developmental disabilities. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Review, 3, 363-368.Romski, M. A., Sevcik, R. A., & Adamson, L. B. (1999). Communication patterns of youth with mental retardation with and without their speech-output communication devices. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 104, 249-259.Romski, M. A., Sevcik, R. A., Reumann, R., & Pate, J. L. (1989). Youngsters with moderate or severe mental retardation and severe spoken language impairments I : Extant communication patterns. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54, 366-373.Roth, F., & Speakman, N. (1992). Assessing the pragmatic abilities of children: Part 1. Organizational framework and assessment parameters. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 49, 1463-1468.Rowland, C., & Stremel-Campbell, K. (1987). Share and share alike: Conventional gestures to emergent language for learners with sensory impairments. In L. Goetz, D. Guess, D., & K. Stremel-Campbell (Eds.), Innovative program design for individuals with dual sensory impairments (pp. 49-75). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.Schwartz, I. S., Garfinkle, A. N., & Bauer, J. (1998). The picture exchange communication system. Topics in Early Children Special Education, 18, 144-159.Scudder, R. R., & Tremain, D. H. (1992). Repair behavior of children with and without mental retardation. Mental Retardation, 30, 277-282.Stephenson, J., & Dowrick, M. (2005). Parents’ perspectives on the communication skills of their children with severe disabilities. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities, 30, 75-85.Snell, M. E., & Brown, F. (2006). Instruction of students with severe disabilities (6th Ed.). Upper Saddle River. New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.Snell, M. E., Chen, L.Y., & Hoover, K. (2006). Teaching augmentative and alternative communication to students with severe disabilities: A review of intervention research 1997-2003. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31(3), 203-214.Snell, M. E., & Loncke, F. T. (2002). A manual for the dynamic assessment of nonsymbolic communication. Unpublished manuscript, University of Virginia at Charlottesville.Sugarman, S. (1984). The development of preverbal communication: Its contribution and limits in promoting the development of language. In R. L. Schiefelbusch & E. Pickar (Eds.), The acquisition of communicative competence (pp. 23-67). Baltimore: University Park Press.TASH (The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps). (1991). “Definition of the people serves.” In L. H. Meyer, C. A. Peck, & L. Brown, Critical issues in the lives of people with severe disabilities. Baltimore: Brookes.Wilkinson, K., Romski, M. A., & Sevcik, R. A. (1994). Emergence of visual-graphic symbol combinations by youth with moderate or severe mental retardation. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 37, 883-895.

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EDUCATION OF CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES IN RUSSIA: ON THE WAY TO INTEGRATION AND INCLUSION

Maria OreshkinaUniversity of Scranton

This paper presents an overview of the current situation with integration and inclusion in Russia. It explores the challenges of special education and legislation. It provides some examples of integration and inclusion initiatives and discusses them as examples of social transformations in post-Soviet Russia. The study concludes that the world trend towards inclusive schools has impacted the post-Soviet Russia and an attempt to narrow the gap between special and regular education has been made by non-governmental organizations, individual schools, and the formal system. More decisive and synergetic effort is required from the state as well as individuals to develop and implement a well defined policy that supports inclusion and equity education for all.

The socio-political reforms of the 1990s in Russia gave the impetus to the integration and inclusion movement. The spirit of pluralism quickly spread throughout the post-soviet society, as more and more marginalized groups became vocal about their difficult conditions and violations of their human rights. Among these groups were parents of children with disabilities supported by progressive educators and human rights activists who sought solutions to the problem of segregated or no education for this group of children, especially children with severe or multiple disabilities. Russia's signing of international agreements supporting the rights of children with disabilities, along with the developing cooperation of the research and educational community abroad were among the other factors that contributed to further development of the movement.

Special education international discourse lacks information about inclusion and integration in Russia. Some studies dealt with the history and trends of special education in the late 1990s (Grigorenko, 1998; Korkunov, Nigayev, Reynolds, & Lerner, 1998; Malofeev, 1998). More recently, studies addressed the perception (Agran & Boykov, 2003) and training of special education teachers (Judge & Oreshkina, 2004). The latest information is virtually unavailable to English-speaking audience. It is the intent of this paper to fill this gap and to examine the development of integration and inclusion practices within the context of contemporary Russia. The examination of these practices is based on the analysis of Russian educational literature, legal documents, and World Wide Web resources.

In the beginning, few terms require clarification. In international literature, many authors distinguish between integration and inclusion (Ainscow, 1998; Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Sebba & Ainscow, 1996). Integration is described as an ‘assimilationist’ process, when the placement of the child depends on his/her ability to fit a largely unchanged schools environment (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002, p. 131). The practice of integration implies a continuum of children’s participation in regular schools to the extent that is appropriate to their particular needs and circumstances (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002, p. 131). Inclusion involves a restructuring of mainstream schooling that every school can accommodate every child irrespective of disability (Avramidis & Norvich, 2002, p. 131). The inclusion movement has gained its impetus with the passing of The Salamanca statement and framework for action (UNESCO, 1994) which stated that those with special educational needs must have access to regular schools which should accommodate them within a child-centered pedagogy capable of meeting these needs (p. viii). It is important to note that the practice of inclusion implies changes and alterations for all children, not only for children with disabilities.

In Russia, the term integration entered public and pedagogical discourse in the early 1990s and until recently this term has been more familiar and widely used. Nazarova (1998) defined integration as a process, result and condition when invalids [a term for individuals with severe disabilities] and other

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individuals with disabilities are not socially desegregated or isolated but participate in all spheres and forms of social life together (equally) with others (p. 262). The term inclusion is also gaining acceptance and discussions about the differences between the two have emerged in scholarly literature (Furyaeva, 2006; Groznaya, 2006). These discussions are largely based on North American and European literature and repeat similar themes. In the paper, the term integration or inclusion will be used depending on which term was used in a corresponding source. In the discussion of education in less segregated environments in general, the expression integration and inclusion practices or initiatives will be used.

Children with disabilities are another term that requires clarification. State legislation distinguishes between children with disabilities and children with severe disabilities or invalids. The law On Social Protection of the Disabled (Invalids) in Russian Federation (1995) states that a person with a severe disability is the one who has health problems with stable dysfunction of the body as a result of illnesses, injuries, and disabilities that result in limited life activity and require his/her social protection (article 1). The statistics on children with severe disabilities is often reported separately and the law On Social Protection of the Disabled outlines additional services for the severely disabled. In this paper, the term children with disabilities will be used to describe all children who are qualified for special education services and the term children with severe disabilities will be used to describe children who are qualified as children-invalids.

The first section of the paper will describe the context of integration and inclusion including current characteristics of Russian education, special education, and special education legislation. The second section will provide examples of integration and inclusion. The third section will discuss integration and inclusion as examples of social transformations in the post-Soviet Russia. The conclusion will summarize the findings of the study and formulate its implications for policy and practice.

Context of Integration and Inclusion in RussiaCurrent Characteristics of Russian Education As of 2009, Russia has population of approximately 140 million people (Central Intelligence Agency, 2009). As of January 1, 2005, there were 29 million children in Russia age 0 – 18; 20 million of them lived in urban areas and 9 million - in rural areas (Federation Council, 2006). The literacy rate, according to the 2002 Census data, is 99.4% (Central Intelligence Agency, 2009).

Russian system of education includes four levels: preschool education, general education, vocational education, and higher education. Preschool education (further referred to as preschools) consists of nursery schools and kindergartens for children of age 2 through ages six or seven and is not compulsory. It includes more than 50,000 institutions and has an enrollment of almost 4.5 million children or approximately 56% of all children population of this age (Statistics of Russian Education, 2009a). General education is represented by elementary education (age six or seven – 10), basic secondary education (10 – 15), and upper secondary education (15 – 17or18). Secondary education is compulsory for all citizens of Russia. There are about 67, 000 institutions of general education with approximately 20 million students, age six-seven through 17-18. About 81% of children of the school age population attend schools (Statistics of Russian Education, 2009b). The formal statistics identify 1.6 million children who require special education (Volosovets, 2003).

The reforms of the 1980s and 1990s had a multifarious impact on education. On the one hand, they initiated democratization of school life and brought positive changes in educational governance, curriculum, and instruction. As a result, regional educational authorities and school administrations gained more power in decision-making that allowed them to promote integration and inclusion on regional, municipal, and school levels. On the other hand, these reforms led to a dramatic economic and social stratification of the society. Funding of schools - except the institutions with a federal status – became the responsibility of local authorities and/or subjects of federation. Different degrees of economic prosperity of the regions and the commitment of local authorities to education are responsible for unequal expenditures on education, special education, and the development and implementation of innovations. On the level of individual families, households with higher incomes can afford better health care for pay and additional educational opportunities through private teachers, tutors, and professionals. Maintaining quality education for all, regardless of families’ income or place of residence, has become one of the biggest challenges of the post-Soviet Russia.

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Special Education in Transition The formal organization of special education has changed little since the fall of the Soviet Union and is represented by eight types of schools: special preschools, schools, and boarding schools, as well as special groups and classes in regular preschools and schools (Government of Russian Federation, 1997). These institutions enroll children with eight types of disabilities: deafness, hearing impaired and late onset deafness, blindness, partial blindness and late onset blindness, speech impaired, physically disabled, temporary delay in mental development, and mental retardation. The term a temporary delay in mental development refers to a group of children who do not perform to the level of their peers but can eventually catch up if appropriate remedial education is provided (Grigorenko, 1998). The formal system does not distinguish learning disability as a separate category. Children with multiple disabilities are also not distinguished as a separate category and one has to be diagnosed with one of the eight disabilities to be qualified for special education services.

The composition of the special education system is well demonstrated by data available from 1998-99 academic year (UNESCO, 2000). On a preschool level, it was mainly represented by special preschools or special groups in regular preschools for children with speech impairments (Table 1). I

Table 1Institutions for Children with Disabilities on Preschool Level

Types of institutions/group Number of schoolsFor speech impairments 6,024For tubercular intoxication 831For visual impairments 531For physical disabilities 382For mental disabilities 259For hearing disabilities 107Other profiles 336 Total number of institutions 8,470Total number of students ~352,000

According to the same data, on a general school level, most institutions were for children with mental retardation and a temporary delay in mental development and placement in boarding schools (internats) significantly prevailed placement in schools (Table 2).

Table 2.Institutions for Children with Disabilities on General School Level

Types of institutions Total number of schools

Schools Boarding schools (internats)

For the mentally retarded 1,408 349 1,059For the deaf 86 8 78For the hearing impaired and late onset deafness

83 10 73

For the blind 17 2 15For the seeing impaired and late onset blindness

71 17 54

For the speech impaired 60 9 51For the physically disabled 65 11 44For the temporary delayed in mental development

101 50 51

All types of institutions 1,905 456 1,425All types of students 281,218 201,514

A comparison of Tables 1 and 2 shows a significant decrease in institutions for children with speech impairments and an increase in institutions for children with mental retardation and a temporary delay as children finish preschool and enter general education level. The first trend suggests that most children with speech impairments receive efficient intervention during preschool years and become successfully integrated in regular schools. The second trend demonstrates that most children with mental retardation and a delay in mental development are identified at the start of formal schooling.

Until now, special education institutions on both the preschool and general educational levels have had the most qualified special education teachers. Education in these schools is based on specialized

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programs developed for each category of students; it is highly individualized and many schools enjoy low teacher-student ratio (Kulagina, 2007; Malofeev & Shmatko, 2008). Despite these attainments, the availability and quality of special education remains its most pressing problems (Kulagina, 2007).

According to the most recent data, 1.6 million children in the Russian Federation, or 4.5%, require special education (Volosovets, 2003). The same author reported that on the preschool level, 352,900 children attend special education groups and preschools and 63.6% of them regularly interact with their peers. On the general educational level, 277,700 children attend special education institutions; 203,000 children are educated in special education classes in regular schools; 34,000 children receive education at home; 2,500 children attend regular classes; and 2,500 children, who require long-term medical supervision, receive education in sanatoriums, special long-term stay schools with medical supervision. Volosovets also stated that overall, 38% of all children with disabilities are integrated in regular settings. To summarize, out of the 1.6 million children who require special education, 872,600 receive education either in special or regular settings. It is not clear what education the remaining 727, 400 children receive. It is possible that this figure includes children of preschool age who do not attend any educational institutions, as well as children who are labeled uneducable. Separate statistics on children with severe disabilities show that there were 554, 867 children with severe disabilities of ages 0 – 15, according to the 2000 year data, and only a half of them, 236, 000 children, received education in regular and special education or home settings (Statistics of Russian Education, 2009b).

Between 1980 and 2003, 393 new schools opened, while the population of students decreased by 12,700, reflecting the country's decreasing population and low birth rate (Kulagina, 2007). Despite the increasing number of special education schools and a decreasing number of students, the system still fails to meet the demands of those who require its services. In addition, not all types of special education institutions are available in children’s places of residence. Volosovets noted that only 20 out of 83 subjects of the Russian Federation have all eight types of special institutions (as cited in Kulagina, 2007). As a result, many children have no access to those institutions or have to leave their families in order to attend schools located away from their homes. When parents do not want to send their children far away and keep them at home, these children are often turned away from their local schools or attend them without the provision of special education services.

New institutions have been established disproportionately. From 1980 through 2003 the number of institutions for children with a temporary delay in mental development increased 33 percent (Kulagina, 2007). During the same period, the number of schools for children with physical, visual, and auditory disabilities has grown slowly or even decreased. The need for substantial investment in school construction, equipment, and maintenance accounts for the slow growth of these schools, affecting their availability to those who require their services.

The lack of qualified teachers undermines the quality of special education. Only 10% of teachers in special schools have a degree in special education. The situation in regular schools is even more challenging (Kulagina, 2007). The number of students in special classes of regular schools have increased 3.8 times, from 53,000 in 1990 to 205,600 in 2003 (Kulagina, 2007) and most of these students have a temporary delay in mental development (84%) or mental retardation (12.9%). The majority of teachers do not have necessary qualifications to work with these students (Kulagina, 2007). The lack of individual educational plans, special materials, and high teacher student ratio exacerbates the problem. While some regions have found strategies of successful integration of special classes in regular schools, the mechanism of providing quality education in the system as a whole does not exist yet. Kulagina (2007) sadly described such situations as a seeming integration which results in an increased number of students with disabilities in regular schools accompanied by a close-down of special education institutions.

Problems of quality and availability of special education schools have been aggravated by the atmosphere of loneliness and isolation that prevails there. In those conditions, students develop secondary problems that they initially did not have. For example, Racheotes (1997) cited research suppressed by the Soviet regime, which indicates that 85 percent of the visually impaired students [from boarding schools] were made neurotic by their education (Section one, para 3). Special education settings are often characterized by downward rather than upward movement when children, once placed there, rarely move to more educationally advanced environments (Gerasimenko & Dimenstein, 2000).

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The examination of the special education system reveals that the movement of integration and inclusion takes place in conditions when the system, especially on its general education level, has been experiencing serious problems. Access to special education services, quality of teachers’ cadres, and atmosphere of exclusion and hopelessness are among the major challenges that the system has faced. The lack of supportive legislation presents another problem.

Special Education Legislation Development of legislation regulating integration and inclusion has been a lengthy process that has not been finished yet. Russia adopted and ratified many international documents that protect rights of people with disabilities including The Salamanca statement and framework for action (UNESCO, 1994). The practices of integration and inclusion have also been addressed in the state national documents. For example, The national doctrine on education in Russian Federation (Government of Russian Federation, 2000), a major state document on the development of education till the year 2025, announces access to free general education and special education if necessary for children with disabilities one of the goals of the state policy. The concept of modernization of Russian education till the year of 2010 (Ministry of Education of Russian Federation, 2002a) emphasizes the necessity to provide psychological, pedagogical, and medical support to children with disabilities. The document, The main directions of the state social policy on improvement of situation of children in Russian Federation till the year of 2010 (Interdepartmental Commission, 2002) discusses in greater detail the measures to include children with disabilities into common educational space. Some of these measures include provision of medical-psychological support in regular settings; de-institutionalization of children with severe disabilities and conducting their rehabilitation at home; development of integration practices; development of education for children who have not received education in the past; restructuring of special boarding schools into consultation centers and short-term stay facilities; development of professional training and the system of post-boarding schools adaptation; and preparation of children with disabilities for family life and creation for them equal opportunities on the labor market.

The language of the state documents supports integration and inclusion. These documents, however, do not have the power of law. Human rights have to be regulated by law and only law, stated Smolin (2007, p.80), Deputy Chairman of the Committee on Education and Science of the lower chamber Russian parliament, State Duma, and an advocate for the rights of individuals with disabilities. The two federal laws that regulate education of children with disabilities are the law On Education (1992) and the law On Social Protection of the Disabled in Russian Federation (1995).

The law On Education announces the principle of accessibility and adaptability of the educational system to students’ levels of development and individual characteristics (article 2). It guarantees education regardless of one’s state of health (article 5.1), access to all levels of education free of charge (article 5.3), partial or full coverage of educational expenses of those who require social support (article 5.5), and provision of the necessary special education to all citizens with disabilities (article 5.6). The law also protects non-discriminatory enrollment in educational institutions on all levels (article 16).

This law further describes students’ rights to receive education within the state educational standards and in accordance with an individual educational plan, if such is required (article 50.4). Educational authorities are responsible for establishment of special education institutions (classes, groups) where students can be placed only upon agreement of their parents (caregivers) and upon the recommendations of a psycho-medical-pedagogical commission (PMPC) (article 50.10). Students can also transfer from one educational institution into another of a similar educational level upon agreement of such institution (article 50.19).

The law also clearly states that parents (caregivers) have the right to choose the educational institution for their children, protect children’s educational rights and interests, and participate in governance of an educational institution (article 52). It also expresses commitment to a public atmosphere valuing diversity and an integrative character of education (article 14).

The law On Social Protection of the Disabled addresses such important issues as development of an individual plan of rehabilitation with recommendations mandatory for educational institutions (article 11), provision of a free access environment (article 15), and education of children with severe disabilities in regular education settings with provision of necessary assistive conditions (articles 18

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and 19). Application of this law, however, is limited only to children with severe disabilities, not all children with disabilities. In addition, these provisions are rarely implemented in schools.

Describing current legislation, Kotova and Koloskov (2005) characterized it as neither impeding nor facilitating inclusion. Indeed, the examination of the law On Education shows that while it emphasizes the adaptability of the educational system to the needs of students and ensures provision of appropriate education to all citizens; it lacks emphasis and specifics about education in integrative and inclusive settings. The law On Social Protection of the Disabled does regulate important aspects of education in special and regular settings. This law, however, is limited to children with severe disabilities only. Many advocates of integration and inclusion believe that the two laws are not comprehensive enough to address all aspects of education of children with disabilities. Though limited these laws serve as foundation to protect educational rights of children with disabilities.

Well-defined legislation is certainly needed if the declared commitment to integration and inclusion is to be translated into practice. Yet, several attempts to pass the On Education of Children with Disabilities (Special Education) Bill failed. Despite the positive feedback on the bill from national and international experts and its passing by both houses of parliament twice, in 1996 and 1999, the bill was twice rejected by Russian government and removed from consideration in 2004 (Smolin, 2007). The Committee on Science and Education of the lower chamber of Russian parliament, State Duma, was charged with the task of developing amendments to the law On Education. Although the amendments received positive feedback, the possibility of passing them is not clear yet (Smolin, 2007).

The lack of clearly formulated legislation is exacerbated by the non-implementation of the existing law. According to Smolin, the principal difficulty in Russia is not the formulation of the laws…but their enforcement (it is more accurately to say their non-implementation) (as cited in Racheotes, 1997, Conclusion section, para 2). A similar idea was expressed by Human Rights Commissioner Lukin. In his 2006 report On the observance of rights of children with severe disabilities in Russian Federation , he pointed out that unsatisfactory implementation of the existing laws is the main cause of violations of children with severe disabilities right to live in a family, the right to education, and the right to rehabilitation.

Many non-governmental organizations provide legal assistance on how to navigate existing laws in order to gain access to educational resources of the parents' choosing. This assistance, however, is limited only to those who have knowledge of existing resources, a larger network of social support, and, not less important, stable access to communication facilities such as phone lines and the Internet. A single, not-working mother in the north of Russia who is battling to survive on a meager pension for a child’s disability might face a tremendous challenge in fighting her way to send her child to a regular school (Regnum Information Agency, 2008). Therefore, the problems that the bill on special education was designed to address remain among the most pressing and essential problems in the educational landscape of Russia. Despite the challenges, a variety of practices has developed in an attempt to provide educational opportunities in less segregated settings.

Integration and Inclusion in PracticeCurrent integration and inclusion practices are diverse. Some of them represent top-down efforts to narrow the gap between special and regular education settings while others are examples of bottom-up initiatives. The top-down initiatives are evident in the establishment of preschools (nurseries and kindergartens) of the combined type. Such institutions enroll children of age two through seven and can offer a variety of educational settings, including: (1) self-contained special education groups, (2) mixed groups attended by regular and special education children; and (3) regular groups. Self-contained and mixed groups are based on a disability category, have a lower than regular groups teacher- student ratio, and have a special education teacher and other professionals on staff. The ratio of children with disabilities and their normally developing peers in mixed groups varies and depends on children’s age and category. For example, it is 2:8 in a nursery and 3:8 in a kindergarten group attended by deaf children or 6:10 in a nursery and 6:12 in a kindergarten group for children with physical disabilities (Ministry of Education of Russian Federation, 2002b). Children in mixed groups are pulled out for special education group and individual work. They have individual educational plans and in the end of each year a psycho-pedagogical and medical evaluation determines the placement of the child for the next year. Children whose developmental level is close to the level of their normally developing peers can also attend regular groups and be pulled out for special education services. One preschool of the combined type can have groups serving children with different disabilities.

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The number of preschools of the combined type has been growing. They comprise 16.4% of all preschool educational institutions and have enrollment of 25-30% of preschool population (Scherbakova, 2009). To compare, special preschools make up 3.7% of all preschool educational institutions and are attended by 3% of children (Scherbakova, 2009). It is not clear, however, how many children with disabilities attend preschools of the combined type and how many of them are placed in different types of integrative settings. Organization of education in these institutions is strongly influenced by a special education model when placement is determined by a disability category and the level of child’s development. These institutions, however, increase access to special education services and provide some integration of children with disabilities, although the degree of integration varies.

The development of preschools of the combined type is supported by the position of the Institute of Correctional Pedagogy of the Russian Academy of Science. The experts of the institute defined the current period of special education as a transitional one (Malofeev, 2007). These experts believe that all children can benefit from integration but they do not support full inclusion. While educational institutions of the combined type are popular on the preschool level, the development of schools of the combined type is only in its beginning.

The bottom-up initiatives are diverse in their scope, organizational forms, educational practices, and underlying assumptions. There are many reports on implementation of integration or inclusion in individual schools; there are also some regional initiatives that effect larger population of children. An important role in the development of inclusive schools and the support of bottom-up initiatives belongs to non-governmental organizations. The 2006 report of the Human Rights Commissioner Lukin provided a list of 65 non-governmental organizations that offer pedagogical services to children with disabilities. One such organization is a non-governmental organization Perspektiva, a leader in inclusive schools movement. It has implemented over 50 projects to change public opinion about people with disabilities, raise awareness about disability issues, and promote inclusive education and full access to mainstream employment. For example, the goal of one of its projects, The Protection of the Human and Legal Rights of Russians with Disabilities: Access to Education Project (2003-2006) was to create a network of different entities - non-governmental organizations, local authorities, businesses, and educational institutions to promote equal access to education and, above all, inclusive education. One of the essential components of the project was a legal assistance for people with disabilities and their families to gain access to education. As a result, many parents became active advocates of their children’s rights.

Another project Inclusive Education Week, gathered educators from all over the country to discuss the practices and challenges of inclusion. Perspektiva was the initiator of one of the first inclusive schools in Moscow that opened its doors to children with disabilities in 2005. The measures that transformed a regular school into an inclusive one included arranging conditions for free access environments, conducting disability awareness training, organizing teachers’ professional development, and raising parents’ awareness on educational rights of their children. Many activists of the organization are people with disabilities who have first hand experiences of overcoming physical, social, and psychological barriers on their ways to inclusion into society.

As a result of local initiatives and activities of NGOs, the movement towards inclusive schools has been steadily growing. In 2008 eleven regions had schools that were implementing inclusive education (Ivaylova, 2008). An important role in the inclusion movement is played by For Education for All, a national coalition of non-governmental organizations in twenty five regions formed as a result of several Perspektiva’s projects. One of its initiatives called state authorities to accept the following measures to support inclusive schools: (1) development of legislation supportive of inclusive education; (2) preparation of qualified pedagogical cadres; (3) development of socio-psychological and environmental conditions for inclusion; and (4) development and adoption of the strategy on implementation of inclusive education. The last measure particularly emphasizes the need to develop a subprogram in inclusive education in the national program Education with clear stages and timelines of its implementation.

It is important to note that there is a diversity of views on what constitutes the best educational environment for children with disabilities among representatives of non-governmental organizations as well. For example, the pedagogues of the Center for Curative Pedagogics, one of the first non-governmental organizations to offer psychological and educational services to children with

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disabilities, believe that the road to full inclusion may pass through several integrative settings (Gerasimenko & Dimenstein, 2000). Such environments should bring out children’s strengths and create conditions for developing skills and competencies necessary for a further transition to environments of higher educational and social complexity. Many students of the Center have taken such a path and made progress from being labeled uneducable to students of regular schools. Dimenstein and Larikova (2008) agree with the proponents of full inclusion that each child has to develop in an environment of the high educational complexity. The requirement of high complexity, however, does not necessarily mean an environment of a regular school from the start.

The examination of the integration and inclusion initiatives reveals a diversity of approaches and demonstrates that the discussion about an appropriate educational environment for children with disabilities has become a part of the Russian educational discourse. The examination of the initiatives also shows that more teachers and educators get involved in implementation of integration and inclusion in their schools. The growing bottom-up movement is an example of the strengthened sense of self-determination and social activity of Russian people. Development of integration and inclusion initiatives, therefore, also reveals important social transformations in the Russian society. Integration and Inclusion as Examples of Social Transformations

Zaslavskaya (2006), a Russian sociologist, described the Soviet society on the eve of reforms of the 1980s and 1990s by a means of three societal characteristics - its institutional structure, group structure, and its human potential. In Zaslavskaya’s opinion, it was the low level of the activity component of human potential that hindered further modernization of the Soviet state and finally led to its collapse. She described it,

The roots of its [Soviet system] collapse lay in the inappropriately low rating of the role of the human factor…The disregard of, indifference toward, and even contempt for the ‘little man’… fundamentally conflicted with trends in world development at the end of the second millennium. For this reason, one of the most important tasks of perestroika and the reforms that came in its wake was to create the conditions necessary for more effective use of the country’s human potential and, most important to improve its cultural and activity components. It was the kind of task that could not be accomplished by technical or organizational means; the way to accomplish it had to be through changing the social structure of society, through liberating and activating the human personality, through creating conditions necessary for raising people’s levels of education and qualifications and putting to use the creative strengths of the majority of citizens And these things, in turn, would require the liberalization of the basic economic institutions and the democratization of social and political relations. (p. 13)

The examples of the integration and inclusion movement discussed above demonstrate the creative strengths put into construction of new forms of education of children with disabilities. Needless to say, a lot needs to be done to ensure that all children have access to quality education of their parents’ choosing nationwide. A growing number of schools and preschools that offer integrative and inclusive forms of education, however, prove that more educators and parents are taking responsibility for the future of their children.

The organization of new forms of education brings to attention another concern – the attitudes of the society towards individuals with disabilities. Many express an opinion that integration and inclusion are not possible until the larger society changes its perception of and the attitude towards people with disabilities. It is true that bringing a child with a disability into a regular classroom is a delicate process which requires tact and much work. Educational environments other than a regular classroom, as intermediate and more sensitive to child’s needs, should also be considered in planning children’s educational trajectories. Changes in attitudes, however, are not possible without lived experiences of integration and inclusion. The research of Yarskaya-Smirnova and Loshakova (2003) supports this position. In a study of social attitudes towards students with disabilities they found that children, who had personal experiences of interaction with a child or an adult with disabilities, were more positive about learning together with them.

The practices of integration and inclusion raise another important question - the attitudes of the society towards diversity. Russian education honors academic achievement and individual abilities. While such an attitude should be well respected, it is essential to remember that no truly democratic society can be created until the uniqueness of each individual is valued above one’s place on an academic ladder. The

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movement of integration and inclusion gives Russia a chance to re-evaluate its system of values and to learn to respect and to respond to the needs of each child or adult regardless of his/her achievement or status.

ConclusionThere is a Russian expression dorogy osilit idushiy. Its literal translation would be the one who tries will succeed in walking the road or, shorter, the one who tries succeeds. Indeed, implementation of innovations can be compared to a journey. It starts with hopes and excitement but is also full of uncertainties and unexpected turns. More importantly, a journey may call for re-evaluation of one’s values and one is not the same at the end as one was in the beginning.

The examination of educational and legal variables of the Russian context demonstrates that the integration and inclusion movement is influenced by different forces. On the one hand, the increased power of regional and school authorities, adoption of international documents, and the passing of national laws that acknowledge the right of children with disabilities on education in regular settings and support parents’ rights are among the forces that support integration and inclusion. On the other hand, the lack of qualified teachers’ cadres, scarce financial resources, the absence of respective legislation, and non-implementation of the existing laws are the forces that impede development of the initiatives. Despite the challenges more non-governmental organizations and individual schools are supporting inclusive practices and the formal system has started to change too. These innovations, however, are sporadic and changes take place in challenging conditions which impede integration and inclusion or, in some cases, lead to spontaneous practices and children’s needs remain unmet even in inclusive settings. It is evident that the synergy between the state and individuals are necessary to work out and implement educational policies that guarantee access to quality education of parents’ choosing for all children.

The study also revealed that the integration and inclusion movement had uncovered the human potential of Russian people and at the same time called for further re-evaluation of their belief system. Over time, one can evaluate the success of integration and inclusion in Russia not only by a number of children who receive education in regular schools, but by a societal appreciation of human diversity and schools’ ability to respond to educational needs of all children. This is a change worth struggling for and this is a road worth walking.

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THE DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON NURTURING INTELLECTUAL GIFTEDNESS

Ahmad Mohammad Al-ShabatatMerza Abbas

Hairul Nizam IsmailUniversiti Sains Malaysia

Many people believe that environmental factors promote giftedness and invest in many programs to adopt gifted students providing them with challenging activities. Intellectual giftedness is founded on fluid intelligence and extends to more specific abilities through the growth and inputs from the environment. Acknowledging the roles played by the environment in the development of giftedness leads to an effective nurturing of gifted individuals. Further, giftedness requires a context that enables it to develop. However, no study has investigated the direct and indirect effects of environment and fluid intelligence on intellectual giftedness. Thus, this study investigated the contribution of environment factors to giftedness development by conducting tests of fluid intelligence using CCFT and analytical abilities using culture reduced test items covering problem solving, pattern recognition, audio-logic, audio-matrices, and artificial language, and self report questionnaire for the environmental factors. A number of 180 high-scoring students were selected using CCFT from a leading university in Malaysia. Structural equation modelling was employed using Amos V.16 to determine the direct and indirect effects of environment factors (family, peers, teachers, school, society, and resources) on the intellectual giftedness. The findings showed that the hypothesized model fitted the data, supporting the model postulates and showed significant and strong direct and indirect effects of the environment and fluid intelligence on the intellectual giftedness.

Environment plays an essential role as an incubator hold the energy, direction, and feedback which give the gifted opportunities to manifest their potentials, and support constructing connections between the fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence through social interfaces (Al-Shabatat et al., 2008). However, giftedness requires social context that enables it to develop and individuals’ aptitudes need nurturance and support. The child surrounded environments such as family, peers, school, and community, beside the social, economical, and political institutions can help to determine the field of talent that society expects to be achieved (Tannenbaum, 1991). However, researchers advocating the environment, or nurturing, account of talent development promoted the belief that appropriate environmental conditions could lead to the development of giftedness to become into talent. Individuals’ dedication to their activities is typically accompanied by great sacrifices for both the individuals themselves and their families, they are surrounded by others, who support and nurture their talent. Further, families, peers, and teachers play an essential role in the development of expertise (Bloom, 1985; Csikzentmihalyi et al., 1993; Feldman, 1986; Winner, 1996).

Environment has been studied through two levels; micro-level (e.g. family, personality givers, socioeconomic) that children interact with their families, peers and school (Amabile, 1983; Csikzentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1998; Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 1998; Wachs, 1992). Second is the macro-level (e.g. demographic, sociological) which helps to shape environments as a larger socio-historical milieu (Li, 1997). Bloom (1985) demonstrates that the role of families is vital in nurturing individuals’ talents. In his study, the individuals participating defined their families as greatly child-centered in which parents offer efforts to support their talent development. For example, they would work more than one job to pay for private skating lessons, or make extra efforts in order to be closer to training facilities. Indeed, as Csikzentmihalyi et al. (1993) stated that when the child's abilities are truly

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prodigious, parental and social investments need to be prodigious as well (p. 26). Therefore, parents must provide the right nurture stimulation at the right time according to the genetic trait of the child in order to give a greater chance for the child to achieve giftedness (Haensly, 2004).

Parents tend to set high standards for their talented children rather than their emotional and financial support (Winner, 1996). Parents also support their children to challenge, to strive for increasingly higher levels of achievement and evaluate the success of their performances (Bloom, 1985). According to Zimmerman and Ringle (1981), talented children's levels of achievement and personal ambitions are affected by the goals parents set for them. Thus, the best environments for cultivating talent challenging are provided by supportive families (Csikzentmihalyi et al., 1993). Moreover, the behaviours parents’ model influences children's talent development (Bloom, 1985; Winner, 1996). For example, children closely notice the way in which parents conduct themselves, and they garner many parental values. In addition, parents also can teach children industriousness and perseverance by working hard themselves. Indeed, Zimmerman and Ringle (1981) found that the length of time children were keen to work on a similar situation, influence the duration of an adult model's persistence on a task significantly.

Competitive and supportive peer groups can serve to promote the intrinsic value of school and the educational process in its members (Ryan, 2001). The influence of the peers is quite considerable outside the classroom. Peers have an influential effect on attitudes and concepts (Guimond, 1999). Children's peers also support the development of talent (Bloom, 1985). However, talented children often tend to spend their time alone and with parents more than with than non-talented children, because they feel isolated from mainstream peers (Csikzentmihalyi et al., 1993; Winner, 1996).

Even parents themselves often feel alone and unable to talk with friends about their parenting experiences and their children’s development (Delisle, 2002a; Webb & DeVries, 1998). Moreover, talented’ peers themselves are varied in terms of their developmental and social goals. For example, a child whose central ambition is often looking for peers of similar ability to chase her/his talent development. These children flourish when encircled by peers that challenge, support, and legitimize their talents. On the other hand, the tendency to interact more frequently with non-talented children accompanied by a proclivity that often consequences in a lessened desire to achieve by talented whose main goal is to be sociable (Feldman, 1986).

Teachers also play an important role in the development of talent (Bloom, 1985; Csikzentmihalyi et al., 1993). Instructional environments affect the ways in which children are motivated to participate and excel in their activities. Teaching styles characterized by clear rules for achieving distinction, controlled decision-making, and public performance evaluations promote extrinsic motivation in children. On the other hand, teaching styles that highlight student participation in evaluations of success and decision-making processes encourage intrinsic motivation and autonomy (Eccles et al., 1998).

Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence Sternberg (1985) identifies three kinds of giftedness including analytic, synthetic and practical giftedness. The identification includes assessment through observation of a student’s ability in these three areas. Teachers may then design opportunities for students demonstrating analytical, synthetical and/or practical abilities. According to Sternberg (1985), people with analytical giftedness can analyze and understand problem elements, and this kind of giftedness might be tested by traditional tests for intelligence, such as testing analogies, synonyms and matrix problems. The second type is synthetic giftedness, which might be noted on the people who are creative or tend to deal with discovering and inventing. Unlike the first kind of giftedness, this kind might not be measured by the traditional tests of intelligence. The third type of giftedness is practical giftedness, people who are practitioners have a propensity to apply and implement what have been analyzed or synthesized, with an investment of environment situations. The analytical abilities were investigated in this study by measuring the effects of general abilities g and the environmental factors on this element of intellectual giftedness.

MethodParticipantsThe study involved one hundred and eighty students (age ≈ 19-20) in the schools of Mathematics and Computer Science at a leading university in Malaysia. Students were selected through lecturers’ nominations and exceeding the cut-off point of 35 of the raw scores of CCFT. A total of 210 students

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were nominated by their lecturers as good to excellent first-year students at these schools. The Cattell Culture Fair Test (CCFT) was then administered to identify the potentially gifted students. Since CCFT can be administered by groups, the nominated students (210) were divided into five groups and tested according to the test manual. Out of the 210 students, only 180 exceeded the 35 cut-off point of CCFT raw scores and were chosen for the study. The analytical test was administered the following week through two sessions with a refreshment break. The environment questionnaire was administered immediately after the students had completed the analytical test.

MeasuresCattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CCFT) The test consisted of four types of spatial problems administered according to a set time. All four subtests of geometric figures are intended to give the widest range of perceptual relation-educing operations possible. Each subtest begins with three practice items. Test items are graded in order of increasing difficulty following an easy-to-grasp item to start off with (Cattell & Cattell, 1960). To score performance on the test, one point is given for each correct item. A total score out of 46 is calculated. The test can be given either as a group test or as an individual test using exactly the same instructions and time limits. The test is considered to have low knowledge dependence, thereby making it a reliable test for measuring general intelligence g despite socioeconomic status, educational background, and cultural upbringing of any participant.

Analytical Abilities Measure To measure the analytical abilities 30 items were developed and validated prior to the time of conducting this study. These items were subjected to factor analysis which revealed five factors with Eigen values greater or equal to one while three items were dropped due to cross loadings (> 0.30). Further the items were subjected to reliability scale to calculate the internal consistency; Spearman-Brown technique was used to calculate the reliability coefficient for the analytical abilities items. The internal consistency measuring the reliability of the analytical abilities measure using Spearman-Brown was ranging from 0.70 to 0.79 and the overall coefficient for the scale was 0.73. These values show high reliability indices which support the appropriateness of the instrument as shown in Table 1. According to Nunnaly (1967), a value above .70 is considered as highly reliable.

Table 1Summary of Internal Consistency Indices for the Ten Factors of the Analytical Abilities

N Factor Valid Items Spearman-Brown1 Problem Solving 7 0.742 Pattern Recognition 7 0.723 Artificial Language 4 0.794 Audio-Logic 5 0.705 Audio-Matrix 4 0.77

Total 27 0.72

Pattern Recognition This section contained two parts. The first part is composed of two items require from the respondents to recognise a shape given on the top of the questions within a list of choices attached to the questions. The shapes are similar to the required shape but only one accurate shape matches the given shape that is to be identified out of the given choices. Item number three of the test was conducted through computer flash application. A shape was to be identified out of a number of shapes. When identifying the correct choice of the shape, it will be removed from the arranged given shapes. Then another shape was given and so on. All the given shapes were constituted of geometrical figures ordered from easy to difficult. The second part of this test consisted of four items with auditory contents. Respondents were asked to hear a musical sound then to match it to the similar sound form the given options. All sounds have the same rhythm but differed in their pitch.

Problem Solving This section is composed of seven items. Items number one, two, three, and four have primitive indices followed by dilemmas, however, the solutions for the proposed problems was covered by irrelevant remarks. Respondents have to go backward and forward through the primitive indices for the situations connecting the relative indices and eliminating the irrelevant ones seeking for the correct solutions. The correct answers or choices were attached to each item. Items number five and six have weight measurement contained grading system on each side of the scale. The weight was known but the

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concentration or scaling point to figure out the needed weight on the other side of the scale to achieve balance. Items number seven and eight include two maps, on the right side; they contain an indicator for the direction along with four symbols. The directions and symbols are [a star; indicates the east, triangle; indicates the north, square; indicates the south, and a circle and triangle indicate to the north-west direction]. Respondents were given instructions in each question to move according to the provided symbols. Each move was designed for one intersection included in the map. Respondents were required to identify the place that the symbol indicates on the map. The symbol indicated the correct given place in the choices attached to the items within a number of other places symbolised on the map.

Audio Matrices This section consisted of four items; each item has a series of sounds presented in a progressive form. Sounds were manipulated professionally using computer sounds application (Sound Forge V.8) to be varied in their pitch. Respondents were asked to choose from the given options the correct sound that should be added to complete the matrix.

Audio-LogicThe audio-logic items require the use of the deductive logic which involves drawing conclusions based on sets of premises that are assumed to be true. Deductive reasoning involves the use of two or more premises, which may be rules, laws, principles, or generalizations, and forms a conclusion based upon them. In order to be valid, a deductive argument must have premises that are true and a conclusion that logically follows from those premises, without trying to go beyond them. When individuals understand how these arguments work, they will know how to construct their own strong arguments. This section consisted of five items, each item introduced premises represented by sounds, respondents are asked to draw a correct conclusion by getting use of the provided premises from the sounds, and the correct conclusion (answer) was given in item answer options. The following is an example of audio-logic items:

Premise (1): If North-East is represented by the sound (A)Premise (2): North-West is represented by the sound (B)Premise (3): South-East is represented by the sound (C)What sound could indicate to South-West?

Sound A in the first premise consisted of two distinct musical notes (X: indicates North, Y: indicates East). In the second premise, sound B also is composed of two distinct musical notes, namely, X that indicates North, and a new note Z that indicates West. In the third premise, sound C is composed of another pair of notes, i.e., W that indicates to South and Y that indicates East). Thus the sound which indicates South-West must be W & Z the pair of notes. In order to solve such a problem, a high level of sound recognition, an ability to keep holding the various notes for a long time in the working memory, and the abilities to build logical linkages and connections among the premises to draw the conclusion are required.

Artificial Language This section consisted of six items. It was developed to measure the qualitative reasoning into two different levels (average and advanced). The average level includes two logical introductions (premises) require from respondents to find out the result (conclusion) following the logical indicators of the premises. The advanced level involves three logical premises require from the respondent to find out the possible conclusion from the given six multiple choices attached to each item.

Environment questionnaire A number of 36 items were developed and validated in form of self rating scale to identify students’ environment status using Likert scale (1-5) ranging from very frequent to never. The items were distributed on eight factors encompass the environmental status perceived by the gifted students. All the items were structured of informative sentences aim at measuring the amount or strength of value that the respondents have regarding their environment elements (family, peers, teachers, school, society, and resources). Items were built through exhibiting the conduct related to the findings of the gifted and talented as in several studies (e.g. Bloom, 1985; Csikzentmihalyi et al., 1993; Winner, 1996; Feldman, 1986). The internal consistency measuring the reliability of the environment factors using Cronbach’s Alpha was ranging from 0.71 to 0.83 and the overall coefficient for the questionnaire was 0.89. These values had shown high reliability indices which support the appropriateness of the instrument as shown in Table 2.

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Table 2 Summary of Internal Consistency Indices for the Six Factors of the Environment Questionnaire

Factor Valid Items Chronbach’s AlphaResources 6 0.71Family 6 0.83Peers 6 0.74School 6 0.75Society 6 0.75Teachers 6 0.79Total 36 0.89

Results Evaluation of SEM AssumptionsMulticollinearity refers to a high correlation among a set of variables within a specific construct. Hair et al. (2006) suggest that the value greater than 0.9 of correlation coefficient creates multicollinearity problem. Although some of the variables for this research are highly correlated, they fell within the acceptable range (< 0.9) suggested by Hair et al. (2006) as shown in Table 3. There was no evidence of multicollinearity of the variables so all these variables were used for further analysis. Prior to the SEM analysis, the assumptions for SEM were evaluated. Reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) were computed to access the reliability of the indicators for all observed variables. The results showed that the measures used for the current study had adequate to excellent internal reliability. The sample covariance matrix value was evaluated to confirm multicollinearity and to determine if singularity problems existed. A high value of determinant on the sample covariance matrix (1.567) was found in the Sample Moments section and it was larger than zero. Therefore, there was no singularity problem among the tested variables. No further rescaling was required for the current data. A skewness range from -0.268 to 0.467 was well below the suggested level of the absolute value of 3.0. In addition, a kurtosis range from -0.322 to.945 revealed that the variables are not overly peaked and well below the absolute value of 10.0 as suggested by Chan (2003). Thus the presented values reveal that the variables are normally distributed and have met the criteria for the SEM analysis.

Evaluation of the Measurement Model: Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)Confirmatory Factor Analysis CFA was carried out to determine the adequacy of the factor loadings and the standardized residuals and explained variances for the measurement variables. Figure 1 presents the measurement model for the variables. For this constructed measurement model, all factor loadings are freed (i.e., estimated); items are allowed to load on only one construct (i.e., no cross loading); and latent constructs are allowed to correlate (equivalent to oblique rotation in exploratory factor analysis EFA).

Figure 1: The Measurement Model with the Factor Loadings

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Table 3 shows the elaborated evaluation of the measurement model parameters. All standardized regression weights were significant with CR > ± 1.96, p < 0.05 and all the error variance were < 1.0 indicating that there was no violation of estimates revealed. The standardized regression weights range from 0.278 to 0.770. These values indicate that the 15 measurement variables are significantly represented by their respective latent constructs. The explained variances for the 15 measurement variables are represented by their squared multiple correlations (SMC), the higher the value of the squared multiple correlation, the greater the explanatory power of the regression model. The percentage of variance explained range from 0.129 or 12.9 % (Artificial language) to 0.593 or 59.3 % (Pattern Recognition) as shown in Table 3. SMC results indicate a strong relationship between the constructs and their factors and demonstrate the greater explanatory power of these factors in predicting these compounds.

Parameters Estimate S.E. C.R. SMC

Teachers 0.657 - - 0.432

Society 0.743 0.130 7.292 0.552

School 0.665 0.154 6.325 0.442

Peers 0.664 0.138 6.619 0.441

Family 0.533 0.146 5.548 0.284

Resources 0.475 0.178 4.746 0.226

CCFT Series 0.452 - - 0.205

CCFT Classification 0.535 0.326 3.784 0.287

CCFT Matrices 0.278 0.298 2.323 0.177

CCFT Topology 0.657 0.401 3.681 0.431

Problem Solving 0.547 - - 0.299

Pattern Recognition 0.770 0.216 5.906 0.593

Audio logic 0.489 0.130 4.668 0.239

Audio matrix 0.763 0.206 5.968 0.582

Artificial language 0.359 0.115 3.602 0.129

Covariances

Environment <--> g 0.754 0.243 3.107

g <--> Analytical 0.308 0.102 3.010

Environment <--> Analytical 1.135 0.285 3.990

Correlations

Environment <--> g 0.530

g <--> Analytical 0.544

Environment <--> Analytical 0.639

Table 3Maximum Likelihood Parameter Estimates of the Standardized Factor Loadings, Standard

Error, Critical Ratio, and Squared Multiple Correlation for Measurement Model

Examination of the Modification indices MI did not give any suggestions to modify the measurement model. As the adequacy of the measurement model was supported by parameters estimates, the directions of the estimates were theoretically justifiable. In other words, the three latent variables in the measurement model, namely, g, analytical, and environment are theoretically represented by their constructs. Many scholars such as Cattell and Cattell (1960) identify the components of the fluid intelligence as the ability of classification, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, and manipulate conditions (topology). Further, Carroll’s (1993) conception of high order intellectual abilities (stratum II) are consisted of the sequential reasoning (premises or conditions to conduct one or more steps of

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reasoning to draw a conclusion), induction (to find out the rules that direct the similarities or contrasts), quantitative reasoning (using concepts including mathematical relations to reach a correct conclusion), Piagetian reasoning (abstraction), visualisation (to manipulate visual patterns), and originality/creativity (original verbal/ ideational responses). And for the environment latent variable, numerous scholars (e.g. Bloom, 1985; Csikzentmihalyi et al., 1993; Winner, 1996; Feldman, 1986) present gifted’ environment in terms of family, peers, teachers, school, society, and resources which were confirmed in the measurement model as one latent variable named environment.

Assessment of Model Adequacy for the Competing ModelThe competing model has been analyzed using Amos V.16 with Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) as shown in Figure 2. Table 4 shows the results for Goodness-of-Fit Indices (GFI) for the competing model.

Table 4 Results of Goodness-of-fit Indices of the Competing Model

Goodness of fit indexes df /df (CMIN/df) P CFI GFI TLI RMSEARecommended value - - < 3.0 >.05 > .90 > .90 > .90 < .08

Model 118.819 87 1.366 .063 .936 .906 .923 .050

The model adequacy has indicated that a statistically fit structured model with root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .050 (<.08), comparative fit index (CFI) = .936 (> .90), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = .923 (> .90) and the overall good fit index (GFI) = .906. Moreover, the chi-square statistics of ( = 118.819, df = 87, P = .063) and relative chi-square (CMIN/df = 1.366) which fell below the

threshold point of 3.000 as suggested by Kline

(2005).

Figure 2: The

Competing Model with the Factor Loadings

Table 5 shows the elaborated evaluation of the competing model parameters. All factor loadings were significant with CR > ± 1.96 and all the error variance were < 1.0 indicating that there was no violation of estimates revealed. The direct effect of environment on g was 0.530, environment on analytical abilities was 0.488, and g on analytical abilities was 0.285. All direct effect were significant paths (CR > ± 1.96).

As the paths coefficients > 0.20, the effects of the environment are considered important to the analytical abilities. Further, the direct relationship between the environment and the analytical abilities was significant (CR > ± 1.96, p < 0.05) with path coefficient of 0.448. As the path coefficient > 0.20, the effect of the environment is considered important to the analytical abilities. On the other hand, the indirect effect of environment on the analytical abilities through the g was 0.151. The total standardized effects for environment on the analytical abilities was 0.639 and on g was 0.530, the total standardized effects for g on the analytical abilities was 0.285. These results indicated that the external nurturing factors embodied in Environment had strong effects on the analytical elements of the intellectual giftedness.

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Table 5 Summary of the Direct and Indirect Effects, Total Effects, Standardized Error, and Critical

Ratio of the Competing Model

Standardized Direct Effects Estimate S.E. C.R.

Environment g 0.530 0.050 3.374

Environment Analytical 0.488 0.056 3.466

g Analytical 0.285 0.189 1.886

Standardized Indirect Effects

Environment Analytical 0.151

Standardized Total Effects (Direct Effects + Indirect Effects)

Environment g 0.530

Environment Analytical 0.639

g Analytical 0.285

The percentage of variance (SMC) explained range from 0.129 or 12.9 % (Artificial language) to 0.593 or 59.3 % (Pattern Recognition). The amount of variance associated with g accounted for 0.281 or 28.1 % by its predictors, namely, CCFT series, CCFT matrices, and CCFT topology. The amount of variance associated with the analytical abilities accounted for 0.467 or 46.7 % by its predictors, namely, problem solving, pattern recognition, audio-logic, artificial language, and audio-matrices as shown in Table 6. SMC results indicated a strong relationship between the variables’ constructs and their factors and demonstrate the greater explanatory power of these factors in predicting the intellectual giftedness. Examination of the modification indices (MI) did not give any suggestions to modify the competing model. As the adequacy of the competing model was supported by parameters estimates, the directions of the estimates were theoretically justifiable.

Table 6 Maximum Likelihood Parameter Estimates of the Standardized Factor Loadings,

Standard Error, Critical Ratio, and Squared Multiple Correlation for Measurement Model

Factor Loadings S.E. C.R. SMCTeachers 0.657 - - 0.432Society 0.743 0.130 7.292 0.552School 0.665 0.154 6.325 0.442Peers 0.664 0.138 6.619 0.441Family 0.533 0.146 5.548 0.284Resources 0.475 0.178 4.746 0.226CCFT Series 0.452 - - 0.205CCFT Classification 0.535 0.326 3.784 0.287CCFT Matrices 0.278 0.298 2.323 0.177CCFT Topology 0.657 0.401 3.681 0.431Problem solving 0.547 - - 0.299Pattern Recognition 0.770 0.216 5.906 0.593Audio logic 0.489 0.130 4.668 0.239Audio matrix 0.763 0.206 5.968 0.582Artificial language 0.359 0.115 3.602 0.129g 0.530 0.050 3.374 0.281Analytical 0.285 0.189 1.886 0.467

By examining paths coefficients among the latent variables in the competing model, one latent variable revealed a strong bond among them, namely, environment, g, and analytical abilities. This bond was supported by calculating the direct and indirect effects among these variables. The direct effects were: environment to g = 0.53, environment to analytical abilities = 0.49 and g to analytical abilities = 0.29.

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The indirect effects were: environment to analytical abilities = 0.488 as shown in Table 3. This bond was named analytical giftedness; the existence of this bond was due to the crucial roles played by environment to crystallize these compounds (g and analytical abilities). This role is mediating by g platform which supports the analytical abilities to be maximized.

Discussion and Conclusion The findings of this study are consistent with Gagne’s (1985) DMGT model, Tanenbuam’s (1991) Star model, and Sternberg’s (1985) Triarchic model. The beauty of the current findings stand on counting the contribution of environment factors (family, peers, teachers, school, society, and resources) to the development of the intellectual giftedness. No study utilized multivariate analysis using SEM to investigate the interrelationships of the environment factors, the fluid intelligence, and intellectual giftedness. Further, the concept of giftedness and talent is now varied based on the incubating environments of the intellectual giftedness. However, the previous models of giftedness and talent (e.g. Gagne’s (1985) model) describe giftedness in terms of high ability and talent as high performance, while it can be redefined by prescribing these concepts in depth showing how a specific series of aptitudes combined in a certain way to establish g , analytical abilities, or any other areas of giftedness and talent. Further, the foundation of talent can be redefined by having these compounds connected to internal and external factors, namely motivation and environment to establish the bonds as talent foundation. This conceptualization is consistent with Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model (McGrew, 1997) as crystallized intelligence extends the fluid intelligence capabilities by having a context, which encompasses motivation and environment factors.

Environment as a nurturing tool plays a crucial role in the development of giftedness to become a distinguished talent. The evaluation of the competing model parameters in terms of the direct, indirect, and total standardized effects gave a significant direct effect of environment on g and analytical abilities. These results are consistent with Bloom (1985) and Carlson (1993), in which talent development is supported by several factors such as good teachers, potential support, sport clubs, socialization, playful activities with guidance, support from parents, and stimulation of interest. Environment gives the gifted opportunities to manifest gifted potentials and to supports individuals’ aptitudes to be nurtured through various interfaces. Additionally, giftedness requires social context that allows individuals’ abilities to be flourished. The analytical abilities are affected by the environment factors, which is consistent with Tannenbaum (1991) that child’s environments such as family, peers, school, and community, beside the social, economical, and political institutions can help to determine the field of talent.

The family factor loading in the structural model was significant (CR > ± 1.96, p < 0.05), and this highlights the important role of parents as emphasized by Bloom (1985) in his studies as the role of families is vital in nurturing individuals’ talents and parents offer efforts to support their talent development. The Environment’ items developed in this study followed the theoretical foundations of the role of parents proposed in the literature. For example, Winner (1996) suggests that parents tend to set high standards for their talented children rather than their emotional and financial support, while Bloom (1985) emphasized that parents support their children to challenge, to strive for increasingly higher levels of achievement and to evaluate the success of their performances. Zimmerman and Ringle (1981) demonstrate that talented children's levels of achievement and personal ambitions are affected by the goals parents set for them. According to Csikzentmihalyi et al. (1993), the best environment for cultivating talent challenging is provided by supportive families. Bloom (1985) and Winner (1996) reported that the behaviours parents’ model influences children's talent development which is consistent with results of this study.

The peer factor loadings in the structural model were significant (CR > ± 1.96, p < 0.05) and this indicates that the important role of the peers in giftedness development. This result is consistent with Ryan (2001) in which the competitive and supportive peer groups can serve to promote the intrinsic value of school and the educational process in its members. Also it is consistent with Bloom (1985) and Guimond (1999) as children's peers support the development of talent and have an influential effect on attitudes and concepts. Sichivitsa (2004) found peers to play a significant role in shaping students’ values and attitudes toward music. The teachers factor loading in the structural model was significant (CR > ± 1.96, p < 0.05), and this indicates the important role of teachers play in the development of giftedness, which in turn consistent with Bloom (1985), Csikzentmihalyi et al. (1993), and Sichivitsa (2004) who found that teachers play a crucial role in improving both academic and social integration of

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their students, parental support of music and the amount of previous musical experience had a significant positive impact on college students’ self-concepts in music.

A multivariate analysis employing the structural equation modelling (SEM) to explore the simultaneous interconnections and relationships between fluid intelligence, analytical abilities, and environmental factors was used in this study. The main focus of this study was to investigate how these factors interacted so that the administration of the gifted and talented education and the role of parents and other environmental factors can be enhanced. The findings of this study indicated that the availability of supportive environments promoted higher analytical abilities and suggested that environmental factors were integral and significant variables in the further development of gifts and talent. Thus, these findings provide support for the belief that with proper environmental scaffolding “everyone can be talented” and these findings can be helpful for planning and conducting the identification and nurturing processes of gifted and talented individuals. However, more studies that explore the characteristics of the environmental factors in promoting other intellectual, emotional, and psychomotor intelligences are recommended.

References Al-Shabatat, A., Ismail, H., & Abbas, M. (2008). Giftedness and Talent: Definitions and Conceptions Perspectives. Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities 2008 (Icossh’08), 18th-20th June 2008. Universiti Sains Malaysia.Amabile, T. M. (1983). The social psychology of creativity. New York: Springer-Verlag New York Incorporated. Bloom, B. S. (1985). Developing talent in young people. New York, Ballantine. Carlson, R. (1993). The path to the national level in sports in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 3, 170 - 177. Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Cattel, R. B., & Cattell, A. K. S. (1960). Handbook for the individual or group Culture Fair Intelligence Test - Scale II. Champaign, IL: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing.Chan, Y. H. (2003). Biostatistics 101: Data Presentation. Singapore Med J, 44(6): 280-285.Csikzentmihalyi, M., & Rathunde, K. (1998). The development of the person: An experiential perspective on the ontogenesis of psychological complexity. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology. Vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., 635-684). New York: Wiley.Csikzentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S. (1993). Talented teenagers: The roots of success and failure. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Delisle, J. R. (2002a). Barefoot irreverence: A guide to critical issues in gifted child education. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., & Schiefele, U. (1998). Motivation to succeed. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology, (5th ed.), 3, 1017-1095. New York, NY: Wiley.Feldman, D. H. (1986). Nature's gambit: Child prodigies and the development of human potential . New York: Basic.Gagne, F. (1985). Giftedness and talent: Reexamining a reexamination of the definitions. Gifted Child Quarterly, 29, 103–112.Gottfried, A. E., Fleming, J. S., & Gottfried, A. W. (1998). Role of cognitive stimulating home environment in children's academic intrinsic motivation: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 69, 1448-1460.Guimond, S. (1999). Attitude change during college: normative or informational social influence, Social Psychology of Education, 2, 237 - 261.Haensly, P. (2004). Parenting gifted children. Gifted Child Today, 27, 1, 31.Hair, J. F., William, C. B., Barry, B., J., Rolph, E. A., & Ronald, L. T. (2006). Multivariate Data Analysis (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J. Pearson Education Inc.Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.Li, J. (1997). Creativity in horizontal and vertical domains. Creativity Research Journal, 10, 107-132.McGrew, K. S. (1997). Analysis of the major intelligence batteries according to a proposed comprehensive Gf-Gc framework. In D. P. Flanagan, J. L. Genshaft, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (131-150). New York: Guilford.Nunnaly, J. C. (1967). Psychometric Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.Ryan, A. (2001). The peer group as a context for the development of young adolescent motivation and achievement. Child Development, 72, 1135-1150.

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Sichivitsa, V. (2004). Music motivation: A study of fourth, fifth and sixth graders’ intentions to persist in music. Contributions to Music Education, 31(2), 27-41.Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press.Tannenbaum, A. J. (1991). The social psychology of giftedness. In N. Colangelo & G. A. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of gifted education (27-44). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Wachs, T. D. (1992). The nature of nurture. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Webb, J. T., & DeVries, A. R. (1998). Gifted parent groups: The SENG Model. Scottsdale, AZ: Gifted Psychology Press.Winner, E. (1996). Gifted children: Myths and realities. New York: Basic Books. Zimmerman, B., & Ringle, J. (1981). Effects of model persistence and statement of confidence on children's self-efficacy and problem-solving. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 485- 93.

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SPECIAL EDUCATION PRACTICES IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES: WHAT IS TO COME NEXT?

Jamie L. WorrellMary Taber

Florida Atlantic University

In the global arena, governments and educational professionals struggle with issues such as providing educational opportunities for all students, including identification and placement of students with disabilities. In spite of eligibility and placement issues, and a tremendous population of school aged children the Chinese have made inroads in terms of including students with disabilities in regular classrooms. In addition, The United States has made an effort to revamp education by developing models of Response to Intervention (RTI) to target and provide appropriate educational interventions to struggling learners who may or may not have a disability. RTI requires screening of every student to see what students may need extra help or remediation. RTI requires the use of scientifically validated instructional strategies and progress monitoring to ensure that each child is responding appropriately to the instruction provided. This article describes efforts made by the Chinese and the United States to provide educational opportunities for all students including those with disabilities. The authors describes both countries special education laws, definition of disabilities, present day special education practices and finally discusses the future of special education in both China and the United States.

Special Education Law in ChinaSpecial education as we know it began with the Foundation of the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949 under Mao Zedong. A state school system was established and special schools for the blind and deaf were founded. In addition, a series of five-year plans was enacted for policy development (Deng et al. 2001; Lewis, Chong, Lao, & Lo, 1997). Mao’s egalitarian philosophies regarded all children with and without disabilities as being equal and having equal abilities to contribute to the work of the socialist society (Deng et al. 2001). Although special education grew slowly under Mao, education in general suffered greatly during the Cultural Revolution (Lewis, et al. 1997). Service delivery was relegated to separate schools only and it was not until the 1980s that special education began to grow again.

According to Ellsworth and Chang (2007) there were sincere efforts to provide special education to students with disabilities when China opened its doors to the world in 1979. Having contact with western countries led to major social and economic reforms and special education was redefined so that all children including those with disabilities were to receive nine years of free education (Chen, 1996). However, a firm legal foundation for the provision of education for all students did not come until 1986, when the National People’s Congress promulgated the Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Republic of China (Pang & Richey, 2006).

The Compulsory Education Law was perhaps the most important piece of legislation in terms of the provision of a basic education for all students of school age. This law required that schools accept students with special needs and it required that all students attend school for nine years entering school by the age of six. In addition, provisions shall be made for special schools for the education of the deaf, blind, or retarded as well (Deng et al. 2001; Ministry of Education [MOE] of the People’s Republic of China, 2004).

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The Compulsory Education Law was just the beginning of real education reform in China. The law provided extensive guidelines for parents, teachers, and facilities as well as established requirements and deadlines for attaining universal education (MOE of the People’s Republic of China, 2004). By November, 1985 the larger urban and suburban areas had achieved universal year education, while the rural areas were able to manage only four to six years. The local people’s congresses were encouraged to bring the outlying rural areas in line with the urban areas.

With approval of the Chinese Government, the China Disabled Persons Federation was established in 1988 to serve the needs of the disabled. The federation was instrumental in the passage of the first law in China to directly address the needs of the disabled, the Law on the Protection of Disabled Persons (Zhang Liu, 2001). The Law on the Protection of the Disabled Persons (1990) emphasized that families, work units and community organizations must share the responsibility for caring for the disabled. Action to develop early intervention program was emphasized as well (Chen, 1996).

Special Education Law in the United StatesSeveral federal legislation acts have helped shape what has now become known as RtI The first law was the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1997, this set in motion fundamental, conceptual, and practice changes in special education (CEN, 2006, p.2). The law now defined special education as a continuum of services and not just a place. The law called for early intervention practices to take place before children were labeled as having a disability and there was a tremendous shift in the focus accountability: from procedures to student performance and outcomes. The reauthorization of IDEA pushed for more inclusive schooling, higher academic expectations for students with disabilities, more intensive early and pre-referral intervention procedures, and more flexibility in the use of funds and assessment practices. Changes in assessment requirements now encouraged: a variety of assessment tools and strategies to gather relevant functional and developmental information, including information provided by a parent, that may assist in determining whether the child is a child with a disability and the content of the child’s individualized education program, including information related to enabling the child to be involved in and progress in the general education curriculum (20 U.S.C. 1414 (a) (2) (A)).

The focus on gathering assessment information permitted the use of existing data, which included existing evaluation data, current classroom-based assessments and observations, teacher and related service providers’ observations. All these assessment procedures and techniques are now part of the data collection and monitoring piece of RTI, which was documented in IDEA 2004. IDEA 1997 paved the way for response to intervention language to be used in IDEA 2004. The use of the actual language stemmed from the lack of widespread use of assessment practices that were encouraged in IDEA 1997. IDEA 2004 stated that states cannot require districts to use IQ tests to determine LD eligibility; instead the law permits districts to use RTI. Additionally, the law stated that children can not be made eligible for ESE if their low achievement was due to lack of appropriate instruction in math, reading or LEP. In 2004, Congress also worked to align IDEA and No Child Left Behind. The major statements that helped link the two laws together are: Use of scientifically-based instruction, frequent progress in monitoring with changes in programs as needed, stronger intervention in general education, student outcomes drive decisions, and reducing over-identification in special education. Still, IDEA 2004 does not require states to use RTI; it only prevents states from mandating the use of the discrepancy model when identifying students for learning disabilities if local educational agencies desire to adopt RTI methodology (20 U.S.C. 1414 (b) (6) (B)).

Response to Intervention is not new to the field of special education and has had significant impact on raising student achievement in Reading, using the Three Tiered Reading Model (Vaughn Gross Center for Reading and Language Arts at the University of Texas at Austin, 2005), in providing Early Intervention Services (Grimes & Kurns, 2003) and in improving overall student behavior with school-wide behavior management techniques (Sugai, et al, 2000).

Definition of Disabilities in ChinaChina recognizes six categories of disability visual, hearing, intellectual, physical, psychiatric disabilities, and multiple impairments (Clark & Zhou, 2005; Hampton, 2001). There are currently 60 million people with disabilities in China, with about 25% of these people living in urban areas and 75% in rural areas (Hampton, 2001). The legal definition of disability as put forth by the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Disabled Persons is as follows Zhang, 2007, Chapter 1, and Article 2:

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A disabled person refers to one who suffers from abnormalities or loss of a certain organ or function, psychologically or physiologically, or in anatomical structure and has lost wholly or in part the ability to perform an activity in the way to be considered normal. The term “disabled persons” refers to those with visual, hearing, speech or physical disabilities, mental retardation, mental disorder, multiple disabilities and/or other disabilities. (p. 1) Definition of Disabilities in United StatesUnder the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disability Education Act in 2004, the following disability categories are acknowledge for receiving special education services: autism spectrum disorder, deaf-blindness, deafness, emotional disturbance, hearing impairment, intellectual disability, multiple disabilities, orthopedic impairment, other health impairment (e.g., asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia and Tourette syndrome), specific learning disability (e.g. dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, auditory and visual processing deficits), speech or language impairment, traumatic brain injury, visual impairment (including blindness), and developmental delay.

Current Diagnosis and Eligibility Issues in ChinaEvidence can be found of efforts at psychological testing throughout Chinese history but it was not until the 20th Century that the first standardized test was developed in the Western world (Zhang, 1988). Such tests as the Binet-Simon Scales, the Merrill Palmer Scale, and the Draw-A-Man test were translated and adopted for use by the Chinese. The Society of Psychological Testing was founded in 1931 when testing became popular in China (Zhang, 1988). However, with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 individual psychological testing came under fire and was largely abandoned (Zhou & Peverly, 2003). Under Marxist philosophy, people were seen as social beings and their thoughts and personality characteristics were seen as reflections of an individual’s social class. There was no room for psychological testing that was based on individual differences (Zhang, 1988).

In 1962 the CPA initiated educational psychology which established psychological research in the schools (Zhou, Bray, Kehle, & Xin, 2001). Eligibility determinations in China can be problematical as well. Frequently, there are inaccurate translations of commonly given Western instruments such as the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale IV, or the Draw a Person Test, which are usually administered to determine whether a child has mental retardation; No attention is paid to adaptive behavior. These tests have cultural bias as well. In addition, in rural areas, vision and hearing screenings are often given improperly resulting in highly suspect eligibility claims (Liang, 1993b cited in Deng, et al., 2001).

Diagnosis and eligibility issues emanate from two drastically different definitions: the former Soviet Union definition and the prevailing definition used in the United States (McLoughlin, Zhou, & Clark, 2005). Many professionals in China adhere to the Soviet definition, which places responsibility for eligibility determination on the medical field. Believing that mental retardation is caused by neurological problems, these professionals use the Chinese Category of Mental Disorders, the equivalent of the DSM IV that is used in the United States (McLoughlin, et al., 2005). Diagnosis is based on observation, interviews and psychological assessment performed by psychiatrists with little to no knowledge of psychometrics (McLoughlin, et al. 2005).

Other professionals feel that the environment plays a significant role in determining disability and thus look for ways to change the environment surrounding the child. However, the system of identifying students who have disabilities is fraught with the potential for inaccuracies. After the teacher refers a child, appropriate observations and paper work are completed (Cheng, 1994 cited in Deng & Manset, 2000). With permission of the local education authorities, special teachers are called in to test the student. In many cases these professionals use translated versions of standardized tests commonly used in the West; e.g. the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale IV (Thorndike, Hagen, & Sattler, 1985). It is very difficult to accommodate the child’s culture using western instruments. Moreover, many of these instruments are only available in large cities (Deng & Manset, 2000).

In fact, there is a shortage of school psychologists in China who are trained specifically to give these instruments. Moreover, the roles of school psychologists are unclear at best, and at worst, lack scientific foundation (Fen, 1996). However, that appears to be changing due to the fact that while psychology had been considered a pseudoscience 25 years ago, it is now a fast growing respected field (Martin, 1998). Chinese universities are being asked to establish scientist/practitioner programs that are

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designed for students interested in doctoral, master’s, baccalaureate, or in service training in order to help alleviate this shortage. In addition, Chinese universities are reaching out to other universities in Taiwan and even the United States to assist in their development of a school psychology program (Zhou, et al. 2007).

It is interesting to note that there does not appear to be a great deal of concern in China about the use of Western methods for determining the eligibility for special education (Lewis, et al., 1997). This may be due to an eagerness to identify and provide for persons with disabilities quickly. However, in light of the potential inaccuracies that exist with the use of these instruments, it may require a second look at the whole issue of testing and assessment. These diagnostic measures provide a stark contrast to the Response to Intervention paradigm that American schools are gradually adopting.

Current Diagnosis and Eligibility Issues in United StatesCurrently, IDEA 2004 does not require states to use RTI; it only prevents states from mandating the use of the discrepancy model when identifying students for learning disabilities if local educational agencies desire to adopt RtI methodology (20 U.S.C. 1414 (b) (6) (B)). The discrepancy model compares a student’s current level of academic performance with their intelligence quotient (IQ). The discrepancy model also examines whether or not a student has any processing deficits. The school psychologist will administer specific tests to the student, depending on the student’s ethnic and economic background, to limit test basis, and type up a narrative report of the testing results. This report is most commonly known as the Psycho-educational report. If there is a significant difference between the student’s IQ score and academic achievement score and processing deficit(s), the child may qualify for special education services. The majority of public school districts in the United States are using Response to Intervention as a means to identify students with emotional, language, and learning disabilities instead of the discrepancy model.

According to the National Association of State Directors of Special Education, the term Response to Intervention is defined as the practice of providing high-quality instruction and intervention matched to student need, monitoring progress frequently to make decisions about change in instruction and goals, applying the child’s response data to important educational decisions (Batsche, Elliot, Graden, Grimes, Kovaleski, Prasse, Reschly, Schrag, & Tilly, 2005, p.1). High quality instruction is defined as using scientifically research-based interventions that are matched to the needs of the student(s) in the classroom, to produce increase academic success. Through using high quality instruction, the classroom teacher is able to meet each student at his/her point of need. Monitoring the level of academic progress for each student is a vital component of RTI, because the academic data collected through the monitoring component, allows the educator to make critical educational decisions. During the monitoring stage, the classroom teacher is using curriculum-based assessments to determine student’s academic performance relative to their peers in the classroom. Norm-referenced tests are also used to compare students in the class to students of the same age and grade across the nation. The data from these tests will assist the classroom teacher in determining to lessen or increase the intensity of interventions.

If a student is unresponsive to the research-based intervention(s) that the RTI team has identified and the student has progressed through the three tiers of intervention, then the student would become eligible for special education services. There is no need for Psycho-educational testing as a means to qualify the student for special education services, however psycho-educational testing can be done in addition to the RTI data to give the team a better overall picture of the student’s current level of performance and if the student displays any processing deficits.

Present Day Special Education in China China has made tremendous strides in terms of educating students with disabilities over the past 30 years. Of particular note, is the emphasis on inclusionary practices for students with visual impairments, hearing impairments, and students with mental retardation.

While the People’s Republic of China has been committed to providing special education services in special schools, the thinking began to change with the realization that services could not possibly be provided to all students with disabilities utilizing the special school model. Since the passage of the Compulsory Education Act of 1986 China has made efforts to universalize compulsory special education to meet the needs of a model for special education with Chinese characteristics (Fei, 2007). At the 1988 National Conference on Special Education in Beijing, it was decided that placing students

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in special classes attached to regular schools or in mainstream settings would provide for greater enrollment of students with disabilities (Lewis, et al., 1997). Thus the initial impetus for including students with disabilities was for economic expediency rather than the rights of students with disabilities.

However, once the Learning in a Regular Classroom (LRC) policy was initiated, inclusion was seen as a way to better meet the needs of all students, both those with disabilities and those without. Begun in 1987 as an experiment by the Chinese government, the hope was that this would provide greater access to the educational experience for students with disabilities than they previously had had. These experiments focused on three parameters: eligibility conditions, teacher training, and instructional modifications (Fei, 2007). In fact, LRC was the main method of universalizing compulsory education among children with disabilities (Meng & Zhiyong, 2007). Enrollment numbers have gone up significantly so that Chinese students with disabilities are receiving some services (Ellsworth & Chang, 2007).

In an effort to determine the prevalence of people with disabilities, the Committee of National Sampling Survey of the Handicapped did a survey in 1987. This survey revealed that China had approximately 5.164 million people with disabilities out of a total population of 1.1 billion (Zhang, 2007). Surprisingly, the prevalence of people with disabilities appears to be lower in China than in other countries. However, according to Deng and colleagues (2001) this difference may be due to the fact that China does not recognize all of the categories of disability that other countries do. In addition, China is an agriculturally based culture with the majority of people lives in rural areas with unfavorable economies. Physical labor is the primary work in these rural areas where people can live normal lives even if they cannot read or write. Therefore, many people with disabilities (e.g. autism, learning disabilities, and mental retardation) may not be served in rural and remote areas (Deng, et al., 2001).

Interestingly, the LRC policy bears some resemblance to the Regular Education Initiative (REI) proposed by Madeline Will in 1986 (Will, 1986). The REI was designed so that all students are educated in the general education setting, regardless of disability so that we could achieve equality and social justice in our educational system. However, the LRC policy was implemented not to provide equality and social justice for students with disabilities; rather it was established pragmatically in order to enroll as many students with disabilities as possible (Meng & Zhiyong, 2007).

In contrast to the REI which provided that all students regardless of disability be educated in the general education setting, Evelyn Deno (1970) proposed that the United States provide a Cascade of Services in terms of its educational offerings so that all students could profit from educational experiences according to their need. China appears to favor this kind of a model in that they now offer a continuum of service from separate schools, special classes attached to regular schools, to the LRC policy (Meng & Zhiyong, 2007).

Therefore, western influence in terms of inclusive education is evident. Western influences are also manifested in terms of educational practices within the classroom. Chinese educators have concluded for example that a combination of whole group instruction, cooperative learning, and individual tutoring would be appropriate for use in inclusive classrooms (Chen, 1997; Deng, Poon-McBrayer, Farnsworth, & McCabe, 2001). However, the influence of the USSR can be seen as well, in that the LRC policy stresses remedying the deficiencies of the student rather than identifying and developing the students’ potential (Meng & Zhiyong, 2007).

The LRC policy is not without its difficulties however. While this policy is a definite improvement over the previous pattern of social education, which simply placed children with disabilities in separate schools, regular schools cannot always provide for the special needs of their students (Jianghua & Meng, 2007). In many cases, teachers are not properly trained to assist students with disabilities and professional standards for teachers are too low (Fei, 2007). When these teachers encounter difficulties there are too few specialists such as experts in language and vocational therapy to assist (Fei, 2007). Typical class size in regular schools is much larger than in special schools and frequently the regular school teachers do not have special education training (Jianghua & Meng, 2007). In addition, when examined closely many students with disabilities are placed in regular education classes in name only. That is these students are not truly being educated and are just drifting in regular education (Jianghua & Meng, 2007).

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Eligibility for the LRC placements consists of those students who can adapt to studies and life at ordinary schools. At present, three categories of disability are being served in the regular education setting: visually impaired, hearing impaired, and mentally retardation (Fei, 2007). The most notable achievement made by China’s LRC programs is the significant increase in numbers of enrolled children (Deng & Manset, 2000).

Cultural InfluencesChina is a country with an extensive history and a rich culture. Influences in the field of special education and indeed of all of society stem from Confucianism which stressed harmonious relations and a hierarchical society. The influences of political and economic conditions, foreign influences, and Chinese Socialist ideology have impacted special education as well (Deng, et al., 2001). The education system in China remains focused on preparing the top students in the country to compete for admission to the best universities. This practice emanates from the Confucian tradition of maintaining the social hierarchical order with education seen as a privilege for the few (Ellsworth & Zhang, 2007). Unfortunately this means that the unique needs of the majority of students are often ignored or neglected (McLoughlin, et al., 2005). LRC therefore has been practiced in a vastly different social and cultural context from that of the West, where the inclusive education initiative is developing (Deng & Guo, 2002).

According to Deng, et al., (2001) China must fashion inclusion and other educational concepts to meet its unique needs in terms of its culture, economic outlook, and belief system. In order to develop the concept of LRC more fully for example, China needs to look to other countries for support and advanced theories (Deng & Manset, 2000). Ellsworth & Chang (2007) reflected on observations made of classrooms in Beijing and Shanghai. Interviews were conducted with special education professors at Beijing Normal University and East China University in Shanghai as well. While they recognize what great strides China has made in terms of developing their special education system they see teacher education and training as being tantamount. Development and expansion of early intervention programs as well as public awareness and education about disabilities and special education are also seen as essential (Ellsworth & Chang, 2001). The shift from paying attention to enrollment to the quality of education needs to take place before advances in special education can take place (Fei, 2007).

Present Day Special Education in the United StatesComponents of Response to Intervention The RTI model is defined as A multi-tiered approach to providing services and interventions to students at increasing levels of intensity based on progress monitoring and data-analysis (Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services, 2006, p.1). RTI serves two purposes: to provide struggling students with early, effective instruction, and to provide a valid means of assessing learner needs. The assessment component in RTI serves these two purposes; in all actually the intervention becomes the test stimulus. The two main components of RTI are identifying at-risk students and monitoring those students progress through dynamic assessment. To identify at-risk students in the classroom (which is done during the 1st two months of the new school year), a school can decide on one of two ways: One way is to look at their students’ performance on the pervious year’s high stake test and choose a criterion such as scores below the 25th percentile to designate the at-risk label, the second way is to administer a standardized assessment to all students within the first month of school and designate those scoring below a specific percentile as at-risk. After at-risk students are identified at a school, the general educators now must monitor the students’ responsiveness to classroom instruction. After a certain number of weeks of classroom instruction, the at-risk students are given an assessment in the area of risk to see if improvements have been made (Fuchs, 2003).

Response to Intervention uses a variety of academic assessments. In tier I, benchmark assessments are most commonly used. Benchmark assessments, often referred to as universal screening tools, are commonly used in classrooms. They are used to provide a clear and detailed picture of student learning. The term benchmark is defined as a standard by which others can be measured. Moreover, benchmarks allow educators to determine students’ strengths and weaknesses against set criteria or against the performance of other students in the classroom, school, district, or state (Shores & Chester, 2009). These benchmark assessments are usually administered at least three times a year and data is collected to ensure students are making adequate progress.

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Besides the universal screening assessments, progress monitoring is used throughout the school year, usually in the form of curriculum-based measurements (CBM). Progress monitoring is a researched based practice used to assess students’ academic performance and assess the effectiveness of instruction. Progress monitoring can be implemented with individual students or an entire class (Shores & Chester, 2009). Curriculum- based measurements allow the teacher to examine an academic competence, track academic development, and use the data to screen, monitor, and diagnosis academic deficits. Students whose teachers implemented the ongoing measurement and evaluation achieved better than students whose teachers used conventional monitoring methods, such as periodic teacher-made tests, informal observations, and printed work samples (Fuchs, Deno, & Mirkin, 1984).

Types of Response to Intervention Models in the United States There are now four different types of approaches when implementing RTI model into schools: the Standards Protocol Approach, the Problem Solving Approach, the Mixed Model, and the Behavioral Model. The problem solving approach is the approach that is most widely used by practitioners whereas the Standard Treatment Protocol is mainly preferred by researchers. The Mixed Model is when Standard Treatment Protocol model is used for academics and the Problem-solving model is used for behavior. The Standard Treatment Protocol model is mostly used for common academic deficiencies based on assessment results, then a schedule for implementing the needs based interventions are decided upon. The Problem Solving Approach is used for less common academic/behavior issues (Fuchs & Deshler, 2007). The Behavioral Model, known most commonly as Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support, can be used at the school-wide and classroom level or used as an individual support. It focuses on establishing consistent expectations and uses data throughout the process with ongoing assessment for instructional decision making and establishing a system of rewards and consequences.

The Standard Treatment Protocol is an alternative to the problem solving approach when implementing RTI. The Standard Treatment Protocol is a two-tier system. The first tier is the initial implementation of the 1st intervention. All teachers are trained on how to administer the intervention and the intervention is given in small groups or individually in a general education classroom for a fixed duration of time (usually 10-15 weeks). If students’ respond to the treatment trail, they are viewed as remediated and non-disabled. If students are unresponsive in the first tier, they are moved to a more intensive (tier two) standard treatment protocol where the intervention is not given within the general education classroom. During tier two, if students demonstrate adequate progress, they are returned to the general education classroom. If students in tier two demonstrate non-adequate progress, a disability is suspected and further evaluation is permitted.

Both approaches have a conceptually different meaning for the term non-responsiveness. Standard Treatment Protocol may be viewed as a pretty rigorous test for non-responsiveness. When students fail in tier two, their non-responsiveness appears much more likely to be caused by a disability than the absence of good teaching. However in tier two, some students may actually make adequate progress with the intervention, but still not be able to survive effectively in the general education classroom. With the Problem-Solving Approach, the term non-responsiveness is viewed less intensely and less systematic instruction takes place with the implementation of the interventions since the classroom teachers are not explicitly trained on the interventions. The Problem-Solving Approach would more likely produce false positives, whereas the Standard Treatment Protocol Approach would more likely produce true positives, but may overlook students with mild disabilities (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006).

Whatever approach or model of response to intervention is decided on by a district, the schools in that particular district must first ensure that at least eighty percent of their students are making adequate progress in the general education classroom. If less than eighty percent of a school’s student population is not making adequate progress in the general education classroom, the school along with assistance from the district must first begin by analyzing current teaching practices that are being implemented in the classrooms and using that data, begin to make modifications or adaptations to teaching expectations and the use of instructional strategies in the classroom; only then can the school begin the daunting task of implement response to intervention strategies within their classrooms.

Along with the push to implement response to intervention models in schools, researchers in the field of special education are calling for the principals of the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) to be implemented in inclusive classrooms. UDL is a new approach to curriculum (goals, materials, methods, and assessment) that is firmly based upon the belief that every learner’s needs are unique and each

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learner brings in different strengths and weaknesses to the general education classroom (Rose & Meyer, 2002). These learners enter the classroom with very different levels of: background knowledge, reading and math ability, emotional needs, and family involvement; therefore a traditional curriculum of one-size-fits-all is unrealistic in meeting these students’ needs. In order for educators to be successful in teaching their students, they must strive to meet each student at his/her point of need.

The Universal Design for learning redesigns the curriculum by addressing students’ individual needs front and center. The UDL framework provides accessibility which supports the development of materials that can be adjusted by the classroom teacher, varied instructional approaches, and relevant and reliable assessment methods. It requires teachers to recognize impending barriers to learning and in turn create solutions to all students’ equal access to learning (Rose & Meyer, 2002).

Another reason for the push for UDL classroom is that the Universal Design for Learning is embedded in neuroscience. Neuroscience research suggests the existence of three broad neural networks in the brain that oversee three fundamental facets of learning like the recognition, planning, and selecting of patterns (Cytowic, 1996). UDL identifies these three learning substrates as recognition, strategic, and affective networks (Cytowic, 1996; & Rose & Meyer, 2002). The three UDL principles guide the design of flexible curricula by calling for the embedding of options that support differences in recognition, strategic, and affective networks: to support recognition learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of presentation; to support strategic learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of expression and apprenticeship; to support effective learning, provide multiple, flexible options for engagement (Rose & Meyer, 2002). Using these three principles, each aspect of the curriculum is made flexible.

It is important to note that Response to Intervention and the Universal Design for Learning are different from one another. RTI is a process for making educational decisions based on an at-risk student's success or failure during specialized intervention, while UDL is a process for making curriculum design decisions to maximize success in the general curriculum (Strangman, Hitchcock, Hall, Meo, & Coyne, 2006, p.8). However, they both share the objective of improving educational outcomes for students with and without disabilities. The FutureAlthough there are differences in the timeline of the development of Special Education in China and America, there are many similarities. It appears that our concerns are similar in that we would like to provide education for all children and we would like to prepare our students for the work force. In addition, there are compulsory education laws in both countries and both governments make an effort to see that these laws are enforced. In China, however, 80% of children with disabilities live in rural areas and many of them are prevented from attending school. In fact full enrollment has not been achieved for students without disabilities in these areas either. This is due to an unfavorable economy, a lack of transportation and resources, and a lack of awareness of disability related issues (Deng, 2008).

Both countries recognize the importance of parent involvement. In the United States, parent advocacy in large part was what brought about changes in the law so that a free and appropriate public education is available for all students. While the Compulsory Education Laws in China apply to children with visual or hearing impairment, or mental retardation, they do not include students with severe disabilities or autism. Parents of students with disabilities in China are beginning to address such issues so that all students have access to an education (McCabe, 2003).

The goal of Response to Intervention is not only to identify students with disabilities more quickly in the general education classroom, but to also provide the much needed services for at risk students who may or may not have qualified under the IQ-Discrepancy model with early intervention services. Response to Intervention, if implemented appropriately, ensures that the general education classroom teachers are providing students with research-based interventions that are directly matched to the students’ needs as soon as a need is identified. The majority school districts across the United States have committed to implement response to intervention within their schools. Some states are still in the beginning stages of disseminating all the information regarding response-to-intervention, other states have began pilot RTI programs at specific school sites, while some states and their school districts have gone full speed ahead and established an RTI model that is implemented in the majority of their schools.

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It is important to note there is no one size fits all approach when implementing a response to intervention model; local school districts must analyze each of their schools, which include but is not limited to, the school’s leadership style, faculty, student population, academic and behavior data trends, and school climate. The school district then must individualize their district level response to intervention plan to meet the needs of each individual school site. One key to ensure a successful implementation of an RTI model at a school site is ensuring that teachers are adequately trained on implementing research based intervention, collecting data on the intervention, and effectively monitoring student progress. Teachers must effectively make informed instructional decision regarding the data they collected in their classroom and truly understand the response to intervention model and each of its components that are being used at their school site. In addition to implementing a Response to Intervention model, schools must also utilize the Universal Design for Learning framework to provide accessibility which supports the development of materials that can be adjusted by the classroom teacher, varied instructional approaches, and relevant and reliable assessment methods. Schools need the teacher buy-in factor and a commitment to learning and implementation of the model itself. This is a process that is years in the making and is consistently being monitored and tweaked.

China’s initiative, Learning in a Regular Classroom has enjoyed great success both in terms of increasing enrollment of school aged children and in developing its inclusion policies. However, China has several major hurdles to overcome. First is the reality of large class sizes. Typically classes have between 40 and 75 students thus making it extremely difficult to individualize instruction for those students who need it (Jianghua & Meng, 2007; McCabe, 2003). Special schools on the other hand typically have about ten students ( Jianghua & Meng). Additionally, teacher training is problematical as well. Many teachers in ordinary schools have never had training in special education (Lei, 2004).

While the US is beginning its journey toward RTI, China is refining its version of inclusion. China’s educators have been undergoing a change in paradigm in terms of acceptance of students with disabilities. It was found in a qualitative study that rural area teachers had a more positive attitude toward inclusion than did urban teachers (Deng, 2008). The urban teachers were more prone to choose segregated education if conditions permitted it even though they looked positively on the notion of inclusion. In the rural areas not only are resources less plentiful but special schools are almost nonexistent (Deng, 2008).

China is at the threshold for making the leap to implementing effective components of response to intervention and the universal design for learning. Educators and researchers need to continue seeking assistance globally in order to create an education system that serves every student appropriately while accommodating its unique culture and diverse population.

If China implements UDL, teachers would be able to recognize impending barriers to learning and in turn create solutions so that all students can obtain equal access to learning (Rose & Meyer, 2002). Additionally, if China applies the principals of Response to Intervention in its schools, teachers would be able to meet their students’ needs more effectively and better prepare them for the work force or college. Each child deserves the opportunity to perform up to his/her fullest potential and implementing the Universal Design for Learning and Response to Intervention framework is a starting point for China to ensure that this happens.

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www.ed.gov/policy/speced/guid/idea/idea2004.html.Vaughn Gross Center for Reading and Language Arts at the University of Texas at Austin. (2005). Introduction to the 3-Tier Reading Model: Reducing reading difficulties for kindergarten through third grade students (4th ed.). Austin, TX: Author.Vaughn, S. (2003) How many tiers are needed for response to intervention to achieve acceptable prevention outcomes. Presented at National Research Center on Learning Disabilities RTI Symposium, Kansas City, Mo, December 5, 2003.Wedl, R. J. (2005). Response to intervention: An alternative to traditional eligibility criteria for students with disabilities. Minnesota: Education Evolving.Will, M. (1986). Educating children with learning problems. Exceptional Children, 53, 411-415.Yang, H. & Wang, H. (1994). Special education in China. Journal of Special Education, 28 (1), 93-105. Zhang, E. (2008, January). The protection of rights of people with disabilities in China. Disability World, 28. Retrieved January 16, 2009, from http://www.disabilityworld.org/01_07/china.shtml#2 Zhang, H. (1988). Psychological measurement in China. International Journal of Psychology, 23, 101-117.Zhang Liu, G. (2001). Chinese culture and disability: Information for U.S. service providers. Retrieved December 28, 2008 from Center for International Rehabilitation Research Information and Exchange Web Site: http://cirrie.buffalo.edu/china.htmlZhou, Z. & Peverley, S. T. (2003). Foreword to the special issue: Psychoeducational and psychosocial functioning of Chinese children. Psychology in Schools, 40 (1), 1-4.

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TEACHING SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Rita Coombs RichardsonUniversity of St. Thomas

Steve P. MyranSteve Tonelson

Old Dominion University

This study evaluated the impact of a social skills curriculum on the social behaviors of students in two pre-kindergarten classrooms. Participating were 30 students in a program based at a university child study center. The average age of the participants was four years ten months. The income levels of the families varied from low social economic status to high middle economic status. Two examiners independently completed the Social Skills and Attitude Scale (SSAS) for each child. The examiners observed the children and recorded children’s pre and post intervention behaviors on a checklist. The study yielded positive evidence that the social skills instruction and activities in the Connecting with Others: Lessons for Teaching Social and Emotional Competence did make a meaningful difference. Paired sample t-tests were run on all Pre:/Post: test pairs in order to measure significant change in social skills behaviors over the course of the intervention. With the exception of Shares ideas, t-test results indicate significant change in social skills on all but one of the pretest/posttest pairs.

Teaching effective academic content is essential; however, teaching social skills is equally important because children’s performance in school is related to their ability to get along with peers and adults and to follow the rules of their environment. Students who display poor social skills are more likely to get rejected by others and are frequently punished because of their inability to abide by school policies and procedures (Lovitt, 2007). Healthy social development of children depends upon their learning and internalizing standards of social conduct as well as transferring and applying these standards in directing their behavior in various environments and situations. Social competence is linked to peer acceptance, teacher acceptance, and post school success. Besides the family, schools exert a dominant influence in the lives of children as they develop socially and emotionally (Cartledge & Kiarie, 2001).

Research has supported significant correlations between affective instruction and a decline in discipline problems as well as improvements in academic performance (Roeser, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2000). The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) has fostered research to show a connection between Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) programs and academic success. It was found that where SEL competencies were implemented, students demonstrated appropriate behaviors and were more motivated to learn (CASEL, 2003). The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 strongly emphasizes scientifically based practices in evaluating instruction. The U.S. Department of Education requires that all instruction, cognitive as well as physical and affective, should be guided by theory and carefully assessed so that they actually do what they intend to do. Measurement of effectiveness is critical to the validity of a social skills program. Such programs should be replicable and validated and supported by researchers in the field (Report of the Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy, 2002). This study was implemented to measure the efficacy of a social skills program, The Connecting with Others: Lessons for Teaching Social and Emotional Competence.

Program DescriptionThe Connecting with Others; Lessons for Teaching Social and Emotional Competence series was included in CASEL’s Safe and Sound list of SEL recommended programs. This guide provides a road map for schools and districts that are launching or adding social, emotional, and academic learning programs. The program was partially developed by teachers within the region of Lafayette, Louisiana and consists of four volumes to foster heightened social competence in students in grades K-two, three-

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five (Richardson, 1996) grades six-eight (Richardson & Evans, 1997) and grades nine-twelve (Coombs-Richardson & Meisgeier, 2001). Although the program was initially developed to help educators assist students with special needs to develop pro-social skills in a general education classroom setting, the activities are appropriate for all students. The skills in each of these dimensions are not exclusive and may overlap. The curriculum is meant to be flexible and teachers are encouraged to be creative and include activities relevant to their own situations and to their students’ experiences. Six dimensions, Concept of Self and Others, Conflict Resolution, Communication, Socialization, Sharing, and Empathy/Caring are included along with songs, poems and play activities.

The Connecting with Others program focuses on students’ active involvement and generalization of the social skills outside the classroom. The teacher directly teaches and demonstrates the concepts while looking for opportunities to model behavior and reinforce pro-social skills as they occur. The dimensions are not sequential, but teachers are advised to introduce the lessons in the Concept of Self and Others dimension first in order to foster awareness and motivation for the subsequent skills. Suggested activities are included in the program, however it is permissible to use different activities as long as they are aligned with the goals and objectives of the lesson. The program is intended to be progressive and teachers can expand and keep it current by supplementing each lesson with up to date films, music or videos/DVD’s. Newsletters are developed to encourage family participation and transfer of skills taught in the classroom to the home. The teacher sends home a newsletter describing the target social skills and suggests an activity the parents can implement at home. Effective social skills instruction is comprised of two essential elements: a teaching process that uses a behavioral/social learning approach and motivating strategies and activities to involve and empower the participants.

The program includes 30 lessons, five in each of the six dimensions. Each lesson focuses on one major goal and four objectives. The lesson is presented within the context of a specific lesson cycle. However, the prepared scripts were created as guides and not intended to be read verbatim. The lessons include components derived from effective teaching practices, and follow a continuous cycle in which each learning concept builds on the previous one (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2006). In addition to directly teaching the skill, teachers are encouraged to use guided questioning to involve the students as active program participants.

Theoretical FrameworkThe lessons in the Connecting with Others program are based on three theoretical frameworks, Transactional Analysis (TA) (Freed, 1991) Positive Assertion Training (PAT), (Alberti & Emmons, 2001) and Cognitive Behavior Modification (CBM)(Meichenbaum, 1977) A Getting Started section describes each theoretical concept in a concrete, practical and comprehensible manner to give students a context for subsequent skills lessons. The program features a cartoon character, KT, Cockatiel, who appears periodically to explain the concepts and provide examples.

The basic principles of Transactional Analysis (TA) are taught prior to introducing the first dimension. Lessons frequently refer to the different ego states. Berne (1964) examined man's multiple egos and observed that behavioral changes occur in people as they interact with others. Positive interactions occur when one is aware of self and others. Gardner (1999) refers to this concept as interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences. Interpersonal Intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Intrapersonal Intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. It involves having an effective working model of us, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives

As early as the second year, children’s me-self begins to emerge. Toddlers begin to develop a sense of self as an object of knowledge and evaluation. This stage consists of all qualities that distinguish the self from others. It includes physical characteristics, possessions, and personality traits. As children grow older, they develop attitudes, beliefs, self awareness and awareness of others (Berk, 2006) The Connecting with Others program addresses this concept through examination of the different Me's. The program's character is depicted in various ego states. The ADULT mode is referred to as the Thinking Me. The PARENT mode is given two natures: Caring Me and Bossy Me. The CHILD is also given two natures: Impulsive Me and Enthusiastic Me. The Thinking Me intervenes in a problem-solving situation, and uses cognitive strategies to solve the problem.

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Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is dependent on social interactions and is a life long process from birth to death. Social learning actually leads to cognitive development. Vygotskian theory of cognitive development proposes that assisted discovery as well as constructive discovery and peer interactions guide children’s learning in their zone of proximal development (Wink & Putney, 2001). There is emerging research suggesting that cognitive behavioral intervention can be used to teach pro-social behaviors as well as to decrease disruptive behaviors. Cognitive Behavior Modification (CBM) provides children with tools to manage their own behaviors. It involves teaching the use of inner speech to acquire self-awareness and self-monitoring (Smith, 2002). Strategies in The Connecting with Others program incorporate a how to think rather than a what to think approach, thus empowering individuals to become self-sufficient. The children are taught to use the Thinking Steps, Stop, Think, Plan and Check to reach solutions and to evaluate their decisions.

Assertiveness training focuses on cognitive, affective and behavioral procedures to increase self-advocacy and interpersonal communication. Alberti and Emmons (2001) define assertive behavior as effective, whereas aggressive and non-assertive behaviors are ineffective. An assertive belief system values personal rights as well as the rights of others. Assertiveness training involves learning the basic social skills that deal with clearly expressing oneself to others, persisting with goals in spite of opposition, and appropriately standing up for rights when faced with conflict. Assertive individuals are able to deal with criticism without damage to their self-esteem. They are able to refrain from becoming intimidated, defensive or angry. They can express their rights and opinions with respect for the rights of others. Assertiveness training is effective with shy and withdrawn children, as well as with aggressive and obnoxious youngsters. Children learn that they can reach their goal without submissiveness or aggression. Various activities in the program, such as role-playing, help the children to stand their ground in hypothetical situations, while sharpening their communication skills and good judgment.

Character education involves teaching children basic human values. The Connecting with Others program addresses character development as well as social skills. Students are taught pro-social skills necessary to accept themselves and others, and to be accepted by others by developing an interest in social awareness. Schools have typically relied on traditional reactive behavior management techniques to attempt to decrease students’ inappropriate and disruptive behaviors and increase desirable behaviors. Rather than waiting for the manifestation of problem behaviors, proactive techniques such as teaching appropriate behaviors can successfully decrease the likelihood of problem behaviors.

Purpose of the Study The present investigation evaluated the effectiveness of a social skills program, utilizing the curriculum from the Connecting with Others: Lessons for Teaching Social and Emotional Competence for grades K-two in building social skills and decreasing anti-social behaviors. This research was implemented in two early childhood classrooms setting in a child study center at a University. The adult participants reviewed the curriculum and agreed that many of the activities were appropriate for the pre-K children in the study. The research question addressed the students’ acquisition of social skills as a result of the training. Did the targeted students show growth in the targeted skills categories as a result of social skills instruction? The identified skills categories were: Concept of Self and Others, Socialization, Conflict Resolution, Sharing, and Empathy/Caring. It was predicted that growth in these skills would lead to gains in social competencies.

MethodSetting and ParticipantsThe study’s population consisted of 30 children participating in an early childhood program at a regional university. The average age of the participants was 4 four years, ten months. The income levels of the families varied from low social economic status to high middle economic status. Approximately two-thirds of the homes were in the middle-class bracket, and one-third in the upper-middle class bracket. Two students were considered coming from low-income homes. Eighteen children were Caucasian, five children’s ethnicity was described as Asian, two children were from Hispanic origin and five children were African American. Four of the students were identified as having special needs. The teacher-reported behaviors included defiance, off-task, and difficulty in making friends, resistant to classroom rules, low attention span, and non-compliant behaviors. Two classrooms participated in the studyOne classroom and two student teachers that were completing their undergraduate degree in early childhood, managed each classroom. Put the other pages together???

Instrumentation

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The Social Skills and Attitude Scale (SSAS) was used prior to, and at the end of the intervention period. The items were based on the Connecting with Others curriculum. Five items were developed in the six basic areas: Concept of Self and Others, Socialization, Problem Solving/Conflict Resolution, Communication, Sharing, and Empathy/Caring. The instrument uses a five point Likert scale to measure the level to which the children demonstrate the skill or trait identified in the statement. Responses to the 30 items described the degree to which class participants used appropriate social skills in the classroom, prior to the implementation of the social skills curriculum and eight weeks after initial implementation. The analysis was made by total category and reported by mean differences between pretest and post-test. The data analysis compared gains by the students as perceived by the two observers to determine if the Connecting with Others program had an impact on the children’s social skills.

Data CollectionTwo examiners independently completed the SSAS instrument for each child. The examiners observed the children and recorded children’s behaviors on a checklist. They completed the instrument based on their pre-observations at the end of a three-day observation period. Every effort was made by the observers to remain unobtrusive while conducting the observations in the classroom. The social skills instruction was implemented for six weeks using activities and strategies from the Connecting with Others program. At the end of the six-week intervention period, examiners completed the SSAS instrument again for each child based on a three-day observation.

ResultsInter-observer agreement checks were conducted and no significant differences were found between the observations of the two independent observers. In order to assess inter-rater reliability a multivariate

Table 1Descriptive Statistics

Mean S.D. Mean S.D.Pre: Confident tasks 3.40 .894 Pre: Waits for need to be met 3.30 1.179Post: Confident tasks 4.43 .898 Post: Waits for need to be met 4.40 .968Pre: Get along with different 3.63 1.189 Pre: Initiates conversation 3.77 1.006Post: Get along with different 4.47 .819 Post: Initiates conversation 4.77 .430Pre: Does not project blame 3.57 1.135 Pre: Communicates needs/wants 3.27 .583Post: Does not project blame 4.50 .820 Post: Communicates needs/wants 4.63 .615Pre: Cope with criticism 3.50 1.196 Pre: Does not interrupt 3.30 1.119Post: Cope with criticism 4.40 .894 Post: does not interrupt 4.47 .730Pre: Self esteem is high 4.03 .850 Pre: Listens attentively 3.57 1.073Post: Self esteem is high 4.77 .430 Post: Listens attentively 4.43 .728Pre: Behaves app. places 3.43 1.040 Pre: Shares ideas 4.00 .983Post: Behaves app. places 4.80 .551 Post: Shares ideas 4.43 .728Pre: Social amenities 3.80 .887 Pre: Shares materials 3.47 .900Post: Social amenities 4.40 .724 Post: Shares materials 4.33 1.028Pre: Work/Play cooper. 3.40 1.003 Pre: Appreciates peer sharing 3.93 .785Post: Work/Play cooper. 4.47 .900 Post: Appreciates peer sharing 4.77 .568Pre: Interest social activities 3.87 .629 Pre: Shares knowledge 3.50 1.075Post: Interest social activities 4.73 .583 Post: Shares knowledge 4.47 .629Pre: Gives compliments 3.53 .819 Pre: Uses compromise 3.03 .890Post: Gives compliments 4.60 .621 Post: Uses compromise 4.53 .860Pre: Responds tease, hits 3.20 .997 Pre: Helpful to others 3.57 .858Post: Responds tease hits 4.20 .847 Post: Helpful to others 4.70 .651Pre: Ignores distractions 3.10 1.062 Pre: Understands feelings 3.43 1.040Post: Ignores distractions 4.47 .819 Post: Understands feelings 4.40 1.037Pre: Aware of consequences 3.83 .648 Pre: Shows sympathy 3.93 .785Post: Aware of consequences 4.67 .606 Post: Shows sympathy 4.67 .547Pre: Settle problems adult inter 3.00 1.287 Pre: Demonstrates kindness 3.73 .785Post: Settle problems adult inter. 4.40 1.102 Post: Demonstrates kindness 4.70 .651Pre: Feelings related to problem 3.23 1.104 Pre: Shows caring 3.67 .802Post: feelings related to problems 4.50 .630 Post: Shows Caring 4.63 .718

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analysis of variance was computed to determine if there were any significant differences between the two groups on the 30 pre or 30 post dependent variables. None significant p values across all items indicate that the instrument is reliable as an observation tool.

Statistical analyses were conducted to measure possible differences between the variables prior to the social skills curriculum and six weeks after the implementation. Descriptive analysis of Pre/Post test scores indicates a large (nearly one full standard deviation) increase in social skills behaviors across all variables as measured by the trained observers (see Table 1 above). Observed differences between Pre and Post scores suggest potential statistically significant differences. In addition, standard deviations for post test scores were generally smaller, and in all pairs minimum ratings increased from pre to post measures, indicated a narrower and more positive range of observed behaviors after the intervention. Similarly, frequency distributions across all pairs indicate generally more normal distributions of ratings on pretest scores and negatively (large percentages of ratings at the top of the scale) on posttest scores.

Paired sample t-tests were run on all Pre:/Post: test pairs in order to measure significant change in social skills behaviors over the course of the intervention (see Table 2 ). With the exception of Shares ideas, t-test results indicate significant change in social skills on all but one of the pretest/posttest pairs (p<0.05).

Table 2Paired Samples Test

T statisticPre: Confident tasks - Post: Confident tasks 6.998*Pre: Get along with different - Post: Get along with different 6.113*Pre: Does not project blame - Post: Does not project blame 6.513*Pre: Cope with criticism - Post: Cope with criticism 6.496*Pre: Self esteem is high - Post: Self esteem is high 5.117*Pre: Behaves app. places - Post: Behaves app. Places 10.420*Pre: Social amenities - Post: Social amenities 5.835*Pre: Work/Play cooper. - Post: Work/Play cooper. 7.443*Pre: Interest social activities - Post: Interest social activities 7.549*Pre: Gives compliments - Post: Gives compliments 7.443*Pre: Responds tease, hits - Post: Responds tease hits 6.595*Pre: Ignores distractions - Post: Ignores distractions 9.786*Pre: Aware of consequences - Post: Aware of consequences 9.898*Pre: Settle problems adult inter - Post: Settle problems adult inter. 8.573*Pre: Feelings related to problem - Post: feelings related to problems 10.033*Pre: Waits for need to be met - Post: Waits for need to be met 4.853*Pre: Initiates conversation - Post: Initiates conversation 5.214*Pre: Communicates needs/wants - Post: Communicates needs/wants 8.411*Pre: Does not interrupt - Post: does not interrupt 7.309*Pre: Listens attentively - Post: Listens attentively 6.966*Pre: Shares ideas - Post: Shares ideas 1.857Pre: Shares materials - Post: Shares materials 5.277*Pre: Appreciates peer sharing - Post: Appreciates peer sharing 6.530*Pre: Shares knowledge - Post: Shares knowledge 6.547*Pre: Uses compromise - Post: Uses compromise 12.042*Pre: Helpful to others - Post: Helpful to others 7.999*Pre: Understands feelings - Post: Understands feelings 4.822*Pre: Shows sympathy - Post: Shows sympathy 4.853*Pre: Demonstrates kindness - Post: Demonstrates kindness 6.227*Pre: Shows caring - Post: Shows Caring 5.950*

*Variable is significant (p<.05)

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DiscussionImportance of the StudyThe study yielded positive evidence that the social skills instruction and activities in the Connecting with Others program can make a meaningful difference in early childhood programs. Coping with criticism and sharing ideas were the two items that did not show any significant improvement. Although the children’s positive self-concepts were exhibited in their eagerness to tackle new tasks, they were not inclined to share their ideas with their peers. Preschoolers are beginning to acquire knowledge and to clarify ideas. They are still in the parallel stage of social development, however, where a child may appear to play with others, but does not attempt to influence peer behaviors through their ideas. As children are exposed to other children, they become increasingly more aware and introspective and are able to express their ideas and understand the thoughts and feelings of others. Their self-consciousness frequently leads to feelings of embarrassment and inability to cope with criticism. Preschoolers’ understanding of social categories is evolving and as this knowledge expands they are able to organize their behavior and develop their character (Berk, 2006). Improvement was notably noticed in socialization skills and problem resolution. Although no sustainability data were collected, informal conversations with parents did indicate that the children transferred many of the social skills to the home.

Research from Michigan State University (2007) indicates that young children’s social skills frequently predict their future academic and social performances. Important social skills in early childhood include their emerging abilities to regulate their feelings and behaviors recognize social cues from others and engage in positive interactions with peers and adults. The present study indicated the importance of a social skills program to aid in implementing affective instruction.

Limitations of the StudyIt was necessary to measure student growth in terms of pre and post observations. A problem in the assessment of social skills training is that the rating scale frequently contributes to the effects of the intervention. The items on the rating scale may have led the teacher to teach the test (Gresham, Sugai, & Horner, 2001). Additionally, these measures may only detect short-term effects on social competence. No control group was available. Without a control group it is difficult to ascertain how the training impacted the classroom. The background of the sample was limited in socio-economic status and ethnic and racial distribution. Findings were restricted mostly to children from white families in the high middle socio-economic bracket who were willing to pay tuition for their children’s instruction at the university child study center. Whether the results were caused by the implementation of the Connecting with Others activities or were due to other extraneous variables is not clear. Issues in treatment integrity create doubts to drawing inferences in social skills research. Treatment integrity is concerned with the accuracy and consistency with which interventions are implemented (Graham, Sugai, & Horner, 2001). Nevertheless, the results did show growth in social skills in this group of children.

ReferencesAlberti, M., & Emmons, M. (2001) Your perfect right: Assertiveness and equality in your life and relationships (8th Ed.) Atascadero, CA: Impact Publishers.Berne, E. (1964). Games people play. New York, Grove Publishers.Berk, L. (2006). Development through the lifespan (4th ed.). New York, Pearson, Allyn Bacon Publishers.CASEL (2003). Collaborative for academic, social, and emotional learning: An educational leader guide to evidence-based social and emotional learning programs. Chicago: CASELCartledge, G., & Kiarie, M.W. (2001). Learning social skills through literature for children and adolescents. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(2), 40-47.Coombs-Richardson, R. & Meisgeier, C. H. (2001) Connecting with Others: Lessons for teaching social and emotional competence, Grades 9-12. Champaign, IL Research PressFreed, A.M. (1991). T.A. for tots. Rolling Hills Estates, CA: Jalmar Press...Gardner, H. (1999) Intelligence Reframed. Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, New York: Basic Books.Gresham, F., Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2001). Interpreting outcomes of social skills training for students with high-incidence disabilities. Exceptional Children, 67(3), 331-344.Lovitt, T.C. (2007). Preventing school failure: Tactics for teaching adolescents. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed Publisher

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Mastropieri, M., & Scruggs, T. (2006). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective instruction (3rd

ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Meichenbaum D. (1977). Cognitive behavior modification: An integrative approach.New York: Springer Publishers.Michigan State University (2007, June 21). Childhood Social Skills Linked To Learning Abilities. ScienceDaily. Retrieved August 2, 2008 from:

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/06/070620154915.htmRoeser, R., Eccles, J., & Sameroff, A. (2000). School as a context of early adolescents’ social-emotional development: A summary of research findings. The Elementary School Journal, 100(5). 443-471.Report of the Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy. (2002). Bringing evidence-driven progress to education. Strategic plan 2002-2004. The Council for Excellence in Government. Washington, D.C. Retrieved October 22, 2005 from:

http://excelgov.org/usermedia/images/uploads/PDFs/web_strategic_plan.pdf Richardson, R.C. (1996).Connecting with Others: Lessons for teaching social and emotional competence, Grades K-2. Champaign, IL: Research Press.Richardson, R.C. (1996).Connecting with Others: Lessons for teaching social and emotional competence, Grades 3-5. Champaign, IL: Research PressRichardson, R.C., & Evans, E. (1997).Connecting with Others: Lessons for teaching social and emotional competence, Grades 6-8. Champaign, IL: Research PressSmith, S.W. (2002). Applying cognitive-behavioral techniques to social skills instruction. East Lansing, MI: Educational Resources Information Center. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 469 2790)Wink, J, & Putney, L.A. (2001). A vision of Vygotsky. Boston, MA: Allyn Bacon

Appendix The Social Skills and Attitude Scale (SSAS) Directions: Please read the following statements carefully. Circle the number that most closely matches your agreement to each statement. Use the following scale to score your responses; 1=Strongly Disagree (SD), 2=Disagree (D), 3= Undecided (U) 4=Agree (A), 5=Strongly Agree (SA)

. The student: SD D U A SA1. Is confident at attempting new tasks. 1 2 3 4 52. Can get along with others who are different. 1 2 3 4 53. Does not project blame on others. 1 2 3 4 54. Can cope with criticism or direction from adults. 1 2 3 4 55. Acts as if self-esteem is high. 1 2 3 4 56. Behaves appropriately in different places and situations. 1 2 3 4 57. Can use social amenities (Please, Thank You, etc.). 1 2 3 4 58. Can work/play cooperatively in a group. 1 2 3 4 59. Shows an interest in social activities. 1 2 3 4 510. Can give compliments appropriately. 1 2 3 4 511. Responds appropriately when peers tease, push or hit. 1 2 3 4 512. Ignores distractions from peers when doing class work. 1 2 3 4 513. Is aware of the consequences of inappropriate behaviors. 1 2 3 4 514. Can settle problems with peers without adult intervention. 1 2 3 4 515. Can identify his/her feelings related to problems. 1 2 3 4 516. Can wait for needs to be met. 1 2 3 4 517. Can initiate conversation with peers and adults. 1 2 3 4 518. Can communicate needs and wants appropriately. 1 2 3 4 519. Does not interrupt conversations. 1 2 3 4 520. Listens attentively. 1 2 3 4 521. Shares ideas with peers on class activities without direction. 1 2 3 4 522. Shares materials with peers. 1 2 3 4 523. Appreciates when a peer shares with him/her. 1 2 3 4 524. Shares knowledge with peers. 1 2 3 4 525. Uses compromise to share toys. 1 2 3 4 526. Is helpful to others. 1 2 3 4 527. Is good at understanding others’ feelings. 1 2 3 4 528. Shows sympathy to peers when they are hurting. or sad. 1 2 3 4 529. Demonstrates kindness to peers and adults. 1 2 3 4 530. Shows caring through words and actions. 1 2 3 4 5

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NARRATIVE VOICES OF EARLY ADOLESCENTS: INFLUENCES OF LEARNING DISABILITY AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND

Dorota K. CelinskaRoosevelt University

This study analyzed personal and fictional narratives of culturally/ethnically diverse students with and without learning disabilities. The participants were 82 fourth to seventh graders from urban and suburban schools located in a Midwest metropolitan area. Narratives were elicited in the context of naturalistic conversation and analyzed using High Point Analysis and Episodic Analysis. The significant effects of student ethnic/cultural background, learning disability and the interaction of the two factors were found on several narrative facets in both personal and fictional genres. The findings are interpreted beyond the traditional deficit-based approach, pointing out to possible influences of student ethnic/cultural background. Educational implications for assessment and narrative-based instruction for diverse narrators are discussed.

For nearly four decades, ethnically and linguistically diverse students have been disproportionally represented in special education high incidence categories, with substantial proportions of them classified as having a learning disability (LD) and placed in programs for language-based reading difficulties (Artiles, 2002; Hosp & Reschly, 2004). National data across all high incidence disability categories shows disproportionate representation as particularly evident among African Americans (Donovan & Cross, 2002; Klingner at al., 2005) and related it to the child’s characteristics such as socioeconomic status, race, and academic achievement (Hosp & Reschly, 2004; Oswald et al., 1999). In contrast, research indicated that this process is also impacted by sociocultural and contextual factors, including special education referral and placement decision-making (Kea & Utley, 1998; Klingner, et al., 2005).

However, research in special education has either not attended to these factors in the process of identifying and servicing students with disabilities or viewed cultural differences from a deficit perspective as a barrier to school success (Artiles, 2002; Gutierrez & Rogoff, 2003). In classrooms, predominantly mainstream educators typically evaluate performance of culturally diverse students against White middle-class standards and interpret performance as deficient whenever it does not align with such standards (Gay, 2000; Heath, 1982, 1983; Klingner et al., 2005). This interpretation is often accompanied by teacher perceptions of these students as less capable of learning and, consequently, lowered teacher expectations for achievement (Garcia & Ortiz, 1988; Kea & Utley, 1998; Labov, 1982). In this study, interpretation of performance of ethnically/culturally diverse students with and without LD is expanded beyond the deficit perspective by utilizing sociocultural views that consider variations in performance as expressions of culture-based style differences (Gutierrez & Rogoff, 2003).

Among various socio-cultural correlates of school success, research has supported the importance of classroom discourse participation for school task engagement, literacy development, and socio-emotional development (Cazden, 1988, 1999; Heath, 1983). Cazden (1999) argued that classroom discourse has become more than the group context for individual student learning; it has become an essential and dynamic social process for accomplishing complex conceptual and communication goals (p. 31). Because culture provides the tools to pursue the search for meaning and to convey our understanding to others, student participation in discursive learning is significantly impacted by his/her cultural and language background (Gay, 2000, p. 77). Thus, culturally and linguistically diverse students who use discursive styles incongruent with school and mainstream cultural norms may encounter more obstacles to school achievement than peers who use styles that approximate such norms (Gay, 2000; Nieto, 1999). The absence of shared communicative frames of reference (…) and

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discourse systems make it difficult for culturally diverse students and teachers to genuinely understand each other and for students to fully convey their intellectual abilities (Gay, 2000, p. 81). Culturally-based language differences in African American students have been shown to impact their participation in classroom discursive learning activities (Lue, et. al, 2002). For example, participatory-interactive discursive style preferred by some African-American students may be perceived by teachers as not conducive to intellectual learning and lead to misdiagnosing academic performance and potential of these students as deficient (Gay, 2000; Labov, 1972; Wiley, 2005). In the special education referral and placement decision making, educators’ failure to distinguish between child intrinsic deficits and characteristics related to cultural/linguistic background have contributed to the disproportionate representation of culturally diverse students within the category of LD and in remedial reading programs (Garcia & Ortiz, 1988; Massey, 1996).

This study focuses on one prominent type of classroom discourse, namely narrating about personal and fictional content. A common mode of classroom learning, narrative activities are used in various instructional activities, core readings, and standardized reading tests (Flood, et al., 1991; Gay, 2000; Hicks, 1993). In all these learning contexts, narrative provides the symbolic means through which children give shape to their experience and conversely through which teachers and texts shape children’s experiencing of events and characters (Hicks, 1993, p. 137). Classroom use of narratives effectively mediates and expands children’s conceptual understandings by providing contextualized application of abstract concepts that would otherwise be cognitively inaccessible to them (Bruner, 1990; Hicks, 1993). By participating in narrative discourse, students also engage in specific identities, attitudes, and social interactions (Gee, 1991; Miller & Legge, 1999). Further, narrative discourse activities significantly contribute to various aspects of literacy development (Roth at al., 1996; Zigo, 1998). Children’s facility with specific oral narrative forms has been linked to their reading achievement and other school outcomes (Roth et al., 1996; Zevenberger, 1997). In particular, struggling readers with LD demonstrated significant improvements in conceptual reasoning (Dolyniuk, 1999), reading comprehension, and written expression (Williams, 2000) in response to direct instruction in narrative organization and/or narrative-based literacy instruction. Urban minority, low income students exposed to narrative-based literacy instruction that incorporated their preferred narrative styles showed significant improvements in academic performance and task engagement across a wide range of grades and curricula (Gay, 2000; Miller & Legge, 1999; Zigo, 2001).

In urban public schools, narrative discourse is expected to adhere to the narrowly-defined concept of narrative, referred to as essayist or topic-centered, in which discrete parts are related to a cumulative element with a distinctive closure (thus, resembling an expository, descriptive writing style) (Gay, 2000; Gee, 1991; Heath, 1983; Hicks, 1993; Michaels, 1991). Because the purpose of narrative this style is to convey information (i.e., report a chronology of events), teachers discourage personal or cultural interpretation of the events while they value clarity of descriptive detail, clear focus on the essential features, and concise organization (Gee, 1991; Heath, 1983; Hicks, 1991; Michaels 1991). The school-based narrative performance expectations are consistent with narrative forms practiced in White middle-class families and communities Gee, 1991; (Heath, 1983; Hicks, 1983). In contrast, low-income African American children, among a variety of narrative styles in their repertoire, may prefer to use episodic or topic-associating narrative forms (Champion, 2003; Gee, 1991; Heath, 1983; Hicks, 1991, 1993; Michaels, 1991). A distinguished feature of this narrative style – frequent shifts in time, place, and characters marked through lexical and intonation patterns result in implicit relationships among narrative components to be inferred by the listener (Bidell, et. al., 1997; Gay, 2000). In a sharp contrast to a clear problem-solving sequences involving goals, obstacles, attempts to overcome objects, or resolutions, typical of Western story schemata (Bidell, et. al., 1997, p. 4), this narrative structure introduces a theme with a strong emotional content (…), expands on this same theme, then closes with a final repetition of the theme (Bidell, et. al., 1997; p. 5). Topic-associating narratives may be perceived by teachers unfamiliar with them as disorganized and pointless despite the narrator’s use of sophisticated syntactic, semantic, and prosodic devices to achieve narrative overall coherence (Michaels, 1991). As result, teachers may not engage in a dialog to elaborate on these narratives and appreciate the child’s narrative expressions. The mismatch between the child’s narrative style and teacher expectations may also lead to a misevaluation of the child’s competencies, lowering achievement expectations, changing attitudes toward the child as a learner, and/or to an increased chance of being classified as having a learning disability (Gay, 2000; Michaels, 1991; Roth, 1986).

Thus, the congruence between a child’s culturally-based narrative style and school’s narrative expectations may impact the likelihood of his/her academic success and social engagement. S tudents

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with LD may also have limited access to the intellectual and social benefits of classroom narrative discourse since they often demonstrate specific difficulties in comprehending, recalling, and producing narratives even when their socio-cultural background supports their fulfillment of school-based narrative expectations. Generally, these students demonstrate difficulty with formulating more complex narrative structures and connecting multiple components into a coherent unit. Across narrative tasks, they tend to produce less developmentally advanced narrative patterns, compared to same-age, typically achieving peers.

When asked to answer narrative comprehension questions, children with LD often have difficulty drawing inferences about the relationships among various narrative components and tend to rely on idiosyncratic responses rather than narrative-based information (Crais & Chapman, 1987; Williams, 1993). Although children with LD are typically able to accurately recall the temporal sequence of events and include all story grammar categories (Copmann & Griffith, 1994; Williams, 1993), they recall less narrative information, especially about characters’ internal responses and goal-directed behavior (regardless of age, the listener’s status, and type of narrative measure). Self-generated narratives of children with LD tend to be shorter than those of same-age, typically achieving peers since they contain less information about the context of the narrative events and the characters’ thoughts and feelings (Klecan-Aker, 1985; Roth & Spekman, 1986). For example, make-believe stories generated by 8 to 13-year-old students with LD, compared to stories of peers matched on age, vocabulary level, and socioeconomic status, were overall shorter, contained fewer complete episodes, fewer statements describing story characters/objects and the characters’ thoughts, emotions, and goals, and fewer inter-episodic connections (Roth & Spekman, 1986). In a study comparing stories told about a picture by 8 to 15-year-old students with LD, typically achieving, and low achieving peers matched on grade and socio-economic status (Newcomer et. al., 1988). Children with LD produced fewer stories that included both a setting and a conflict-resolution pair and fewer action sequences that recounted temporally linked non-goal-directed events. A comparison of personal narratives generated by students with and without LD matched on gender and grade (Celinska, 2004) indicated that girls with LD produced fewer narratives with a central crisis, resulting in difficulty with communicating to the audience their own perspective on the recounted events.

In conclusion, both students from diverse ethnic/cultural backgrounds and students with LD may have specific difficulties with fulfilling school narrative discourse expectations. Although the impact of ethnic/cultural background and learning disabilities on narrative performance has been well documented in literature, research on the possible interactive effects of the two factors is nonexistent. This study addresses this important gap in research in an attempt to provide additional insights into the unique educational needs of diverse students with LD that may guide culturally-responsive, narrative-based interventions. In particular, this study analyzes the length, structural organization and coherence of personal and fictional narratives produced by Caucasian and African American early adolescents with and without LD.

The Study Narrative Analysis Framework This study used two distinct and complimentary narrative approaches. These included High Point Analysis (HPA) and Episodic Analysis (EA), to compare the length, and structural organization, as well as overall coherence of the participants’ personal and fictional narratives. Both HPA and EA are among the most commonly used frameworks for analyzing children’s narratives, and have proved useful in examining narratives of Caucasian and African American children (Champion, 2003; Labov, 1972; Peterson & McCabe, 1983). Although the two approaches investigate narrative structure and coherence, each illuminates a distinct aspect of children’s narrative organization and recognizes a specific narrative form (genre) as prototypic narrative structure.

From the sociolinguistic perspective of HPA, narrative is a linguistic tool of sense-making and self-representation defined as one method of recapitulating past experience by matching a verbal sequence of clauses to the sequence of events that actually occurred (Labov & Waletzky, 1967, p. 20). The basic underlying assertion of HPA distinguishes the two interwoven functions of narratives: referential and evaluative (Labov, 1972; Labov & Waletzky, 1967). The referential aspect of a narrative orients the listener to the temporal and spatial circumstances of reported events, introduces characters, and presents the temporal sequence of events. The evaluative aspect of a narrative expresses the narrator’s attitude toward reported events, reveals the meaning of events to the narrator, and describes the narrator him or herself. Although the evaluative function may permeate the entire narrative, it is likely to be particularly concentrated at a high point, a climactic moment of the account that assumes the role of the

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central organizing element. By analyzing both the narrative events and their personal significance, HPA is uniquely suited to reveal personal meaning that narrators impose on the recounted events and capture the overall narrative coherence emerging from organizing narrative events around a single event of particular significance to the narrator.

HPA postulates that a prototypical narrative, called classic narrative, is composed of seven discrete structural elements (Labov & Waletzky, 1967; Labov, 1972). Abstracts and Introducers that occur at the beginning mark the onset of the narrative, summarize it, or/and summon the listener’s attention. Orientations provide background information about the people and objects involved, and orient the listener to temporal and spatial context of events. Complicating actions recount actions leading up to and including a high point. The high point is marked by Evaluations that convey the importance and meaning of the recounted events through explicit statements and/or implicit linguistic devices (e.g., repetition of words). The high point is followed by a Resolution that resolves any complication included in the narrative. A Coda can be added at the end to close the narrative and to relate it to the present communicative context.

Developmental studies (e.g., Peterson and McCabe, 1983) revealed five patterns of narrative coherence in addition to classical narrative pattern. The least developed narrative structures, Leap-frog narratives, are composed of events that are incomplete and unsystematically organized, resulting in difficulties in reconstructing the original events. Impoverished narratives include insufficient number of events or statements to form a recognizable pattern, and usually are restricted to orientation, evaluation, and repetition of narrative components. Disoriented narratives are usually contradictory, and seem to reflect the child’s confusion about the narrated events or the child’s difficulty with language. Chronological narratives consist of a temporally organized sequence of discrete, independent events that occur within a specific time period, or a list of events without recognizing any particular one as a high point. Ending-at-the-High-Point narratives provide successive complicating actions until the high point is reached without resolving the central conflict of a narrative. HPA has been widely applied to explore various aspects of narratives produced by children across a wide age range in different communicative contexts (Celinska, 2004; Champion, 2003). Some examples of the use of HPA in school-age children include conversational personal experience narratives (Peterson & McCabe, 1983), personal narratives of students with LD (Celinska, 2004), and communicative functions of narrative performance in both African-American and Caucasian children (Champion, 2003; Labov, 1972).

Episodic Analysis (EA) is one of the story grammar frameworks that seek to identify the basic underlying story schemas or story grammars (Stein & Albro, 1997). Asserting that narratives reveal underlying cognitive representations of human intentional behavior, EA explores children’s mastery of the basic unit of narrative organization, called episode. An episode describes a sequence of goal-directed actions in which the character’s thoughts and feelings are causally related to his/her problem-solving behavior. By focusing on episodically organized goal-directed actions, EA is particularly appropriate to evaluate the child’s knowledge of human intentionality and causally organized problem-solving behavior (Stein & Albro, 1997).

EA purports that stories are composed of two discrete types of structural categories: setting and a system of one or more episodes. Setting statements introduce the characters and describe the spatial and temporal context of a story. Episode, a primary unit of story internal organization, is composed of the following discrete categories: (1) Initiating Event that presents a change in the environment, motivating the response of the protagonist, (2) Internal Responses that are goals, thoughts, and feelings of the protagonist, (3) Attempts that indicate the protagonist’s goal-oriented actions, (4) Direct Consequences that refer to the attainment of goal(s) and the changes that resulted from the attempt, and (5) Reactions that include the protagonist’s thoughts and feelings related to the outcomes of his/her actions.

EA applied to the analysis of children’s stories has revealed seven developmental patterns of the story episodic organization that reflects the growing complexity of goal-directed action sequences (Stein, 1988; Stein & Albro, 1997). A Descriptive Sequence, consists of descriptions of characters, actions, and settings that are temporally or causally unrelated. When children begin to connect story events, two possible story structures appear: an Action Sequence in which actions are temporally related, or a Reactive Sequence containing a chain of changes that are linked both temporally and causally, but are not goal-directed behaviors. In contrast, an Abbreviated Episode includes events that are causally

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structured into episodes and a goal of the protagonist can be inferred, whenever not stated explicitly. Although this level of stories contains an intact episode with a goal, attempt, and outcome, two components of the complete episode are missing: an obstacle to goal attainment and an ending. When an entire goal-oriented sequence is present, story structure is called a Complete Episode. Using various story grammar frameworks, developmental researchers have generated extensive data on Caucasian children’s comprehension, memory, and production of fictional narratives (Stein & Albro, 1997). EA has also been successfully applied to analyzing narratives produced by low-income African American students (Champion, 2003) and to examine a variety of narrative skills in children with language/learning disabilities across a wide range of ages.

Research questions This study was design to answer the following research questions: (1) Do personal and fictional narratives produced by Caucasian and African American participants differ in terms of length, structural organization, and global coherence (Ethnicity factor); (2) Do personal and fictional narratives produced by typically achieving participants and participants with learning disabilities differ in terms of length, structural organization, and global coherence (Learning Disability factor); and (3) Are there any interactive effects of the participants’ ethnicity (Caucasian vs. African American) and learning disability status (learning disability vs. typical achievement) in terms of length, structural organization, and global coherence?

MethodParticipantsThe participants were 48 Caucasian (C group) and 34 African- American (AA group) students who attended four urban (N=28) and 11 suburban (N=54) schools within a large Midwest metropolitan area. All Caucasian participants attended suburban schools, whereas 28 African-American participants attended urban schools and six African-American students attended suburban schools. The participants included 41 boys and 41 girls enrolled in grades four (N=17), five (N= 46), six (N=17), and seven (N=2), with the equal number of boys and girls at each grade level. Twenty-six African-American students from urban schools and three Caucasian students from suburban schools were eligible for free or reduced lunch (35% of the sample). All participants were native English language speakers. Forty-one participants had an identified learning disability (LD group, N=41) and were matched individually with the typically achieving peers (NA group, N= 41) for chronological age (within six months), grade, and gender.

The mean chronological age of the participants was 136.0 months (SD = 11.20), and ranged from 115 to 159 months. An Ethnicity by Disability ANOVA on chronological age revealed a significant main effect for ethnicity [F(1,74)= 44.56, p=.000], with Caucasian participants being younger (M=130.50, SD=8.82) than African-American peers (M=143.91, SD= 9.42). The main effect for disability [F(1,74)= 1.11, p=.295] and the interaction between group and gender [F(1,74)= .016, p=.899] were nonsignificant.

The participants with LD (24 Caucasian and 17 African-American) were selected from students identified as having LD by their schools (based on the IDEA’97 criteria) who also met the research selection criterion of an absence of a diagnosis of an emotional disturbance as a primary or secondary disability on the participant’s most recent case study evaluation or IEP. Academic achievement and cognitive abilities of all participants with LD were evaluated based on a review conducted by the author of the student’s most recent case study evaluation and/or IEP. Achievement data indicated that 36 students (83% of Caucasian and 94% of African-American) exhibited learning difficulties with reading, 38 in writing (88% of Caucasian and 100% of African-American), and 28 in mathematics (54% of Caucasian and 88% of African-American). Data on cognitive skills were available for 40 participants and revealed that 37 of them (61% of Caucasian and 76% of African-American) demonstrated weaknesses in auditory processing; 36 in visual processing (91% of Caucasian and 76% of African-American); 15 in concept formation, abstract thinking, and/or reasoning (35% of Caucasian and 41% of African-American); 9 in planning and organization of independent work (35% of Caucasian and 33% of African-American); and 20 in attention, monitoring, and/or following directions (30% of Caucasian and 76% of African-American). Data on educational placement indicated that 32 students (24 Caucasian and 8 African-American) received more than 50% of instruction in general education settings, whereas 9 (all African-American) received less than 50% of instruction in this setting.

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The typically achieving participants (NA group) were selected from students who never received or were referred to remedial services of any kind. Student achievement was based on the scores on a state standardized achievement test. All 24 Caucasian NA students were given the Illinois Standards Achievement Test and data was available for 22 of them. Twenty students met or exceeded standards in reading, writing, and mathematics. Data on group standardized achievement test scores were available for 15 out of 17 NA African-American participants. Two of them were given the ISAT and met standards in reading and writing (but not in mathematics). Out of 13 African American students who were given the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, nine showed at least moderate achievements in reading and mathematics (no scores in writing were available).

The participants’ oral language skills were assessed to control for a possible impact of these skills on their narrative performance (Copmann & Griffith, 1994; Crais & Chapman, 1987). Select subtests of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Third Revision (CELF-3) (Semel, Wiig & Secord, 1995) were used: the Listening to Paragraphs subtest to evaluate listening comprehension skills, whereas the Formulated Sentences subtest and the Sentence Assembly subtest to assess expressive syntactic abilities. An Ethnicity by Disability MANOVA revealed significant main effects for ethnicity [F(3,76)= 14.04, p=.000] and disability [F(3,76)= 10.88, p=.000] on the composite of the three oral language scores. The interaction between ethnicity and disability was nonsignificant [F(3,76)= 1.92, p=.134]. Follow-up Ethnicity by Disability univariate ANOVAs revealed a significant main effect for ethnicity and for disability (see Table 1). African-American participants displayed less advanced listening comprehension and expressive syntactic skills than did their Caucasian counterparts. Participants with LD demonstrated weaker expressive syntactic abilities than their NA peers.

Table 1.Comparison of LD and NA Groups (Disability - Factor A) and AA and C Groups (Ethnicity - Factor B)

on the standardized structural language test scores.

Disability (A) . LD NA Total

M SD M SD M SD F(1, 78) p Ethnicity (B) . Listening to Paragraphs

African American 6.8 2.8 8.8 3.2 7.8 3.1 Caucasian 10.3 2.7 9.8 1.9 10.1 2.3Total 8.8 3.2 9.4 2.5

1.72 (A) .000* 15.28 (B) .000*

4.37 (AxB) .040 Sentence Assembly


19.02 (A) .000* 8.08 (B) .006*

.03 (AxB) .869 Formulated Sentences


22.97 (A) .000* 36.44 (B) .000*

1.50 (AxB) .224 * Significant differences. The level of significance adjusted to .0166.

ProcedureThe procedure for collecting narratives was an adaptation of the conversational map, a protocol for naturalistic elicitation of personal narratives in the context of conversation (McCabe & Rollins, 1994; Peterson & McCabe, 1983). The interviewer was a Caucasian female graduate student in special education. In a separate room in the school the interviewer initiated a casual conversation and later encouraged narrating on self-selected topics with an open-ended question about the child’s recent experiences. Following the initial elicitation prompt, the interviewer assumed the role of a narrator, providing short narratives about common experiences of potential interest to children (e.g., pet adventures) and immediately prompted the child to narrate about similar events. Throughout the 20- to

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30- minute interview, the interviewer encouraged (without leading) the children to narrate personal experiences meaningful to them while demonstrating an interest in the child’s narration regardless of its thematic and structural features. Narrating personal experiences was followed by the interviewer’s explicit prompt that asked the child to tell a fictional (make-believe) story of his/her choice. Following an interview, the child was administered the standardized oral language tests. All conversations between the interviewer and participants were audiotape and later transcribed verbatim.

Data Coding and Reliability Transcripts were masked so that raters were not aware of the participants’ ethnicity, gender, age, grade, school attended, and LD status. First, transcripts were analyzed to identify personal narratives, using Labov’s definition of a minimal narrative as a sequence of two clauses which are temporally ordered; that is, a change in their order will result in a change in the temporal sequence of the original semantic interpretation (Labov, 1972, p. 360). Because the length of personal narrative was found to be a good predictor of its complexity (McCabe & Rollins, 1994), the three longest of each child’s personal narratives (in clauses) were selected for all subsequent analysis (with the exception of six African-American participants who produced only two narratives). The total of 240 personal narratives was analyzed: 144 from Caucasian and 96 from African-American participants. Fictional narratives were those produced in response to a specific prompt to tell a fictional (make-believe) story (see Procedure section). The total of 82 fictional narratives was analyzed, with each participant producing one narrative.

Coding Using High Point AnalysisFirst, audiotapes were coded in terms of the inclusion of the following types of HPA Evaluation structural components: Onomatopoeia (an imitation of an environmental sound or an animated object), Stress (a marked emphasis in voice), Elongating (marked drawing out of some words/sounds), Exclamation (an increase in voice loudness), and Imitation of human voice (a change in the narrator’s speech characteristics to imitate the narrative characters’ speech qualities) (Peterson & McCabe, 1983). Inter-rater agreement about these codes was established for 20% of randomly selected transcripts, resulting in a 91% agreement for number of components, and a 98% agreement for type of component.

Then, the child’s three longest personal narratives and the fictional narrative were broken into syntactic clauses, that are logical sequences of words containing a subject and a verb (Friend, 1976, p. 31). Clauses were further classified into two types: independent clauses (i.e., clauses that express a complete thought) and dependent clauses (i.e., clauses that have incomplete meaning) (Friend, 1976). The inter-rater agreement was established for 18% of randomly selected transcripts, and resulted in a 95% agreement for number of clauses and a 97% agreement for type of clause. Independent clauses, called narrative clauses, were coded as one of the five components: Orientation, Evaluation, Complicating action, Resolution, and Appendage (this category includes Abstracts, Introducers, and Codas). Narrative clauses coded as either Orientation, Complicating action, Resolution, or Appendages could also be classified as Evaluations to capture the evaluative narrative function that may permeate the entire narrative. Dependent clauses were coded as either Orientation or Evaluation category, and might be subordinate to any of the five types of independent clauses. The inter-rater agreement was established for 18% of randomly selected transcripts and resulted in an 87% agreement for the type of structural component. Further, each personal and fictional narrative was categorized into one of the six patterns of narrative coherence: Leap-frogging, Impoverished, Disoriented, Chronological, Ending-at-the-high-point, and Classic. The inter-rater agreement was established for 18% of randomly selected transcripts, and resulted in an 86% agreement for the type of pattern.

Coding Using Episodic Analysis All personal and fictional narratives were divided into propositions that consist of a predicator or relational word (usually the verb) and one or more arguments which stand in some specific relation to the predicator (Fillmore, 1968). The inter-rater agreement was established for 15% of randomly selected transcripts, and resulted in a 96% agreement for number of propositions. Each proposition was then classified into one of the EA structural components: Setting, Initiating Event, Internal Response, Attempt, Direct Consequence, and Reaction. The inter-rater agreement was established for 15% of randomly selected transcripts and resulted in an 85% agreement for the type of component. Next, all personal and fictional narratives were classified into one of the coherence patterns: Descriptive, Action Sequence, Reactive Sequence, Abbreviated Episode, and Complete Episode. The inter-rater agreement was established for 15% of randomly selected transcripts and resulted in an 88% agreement for type of pattern.

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Design The following dependent measures were used to compare narratives across Caucasian (C group) and African-American (AA group) participants (Ethnicity factor), and across students with LD (LD group) and typically achieving participants (NA group) (Disability factor): 1. Length, as measured by the mean number of: (a) clauses per narrative, (b) propositions per

narrative, (c) propositions per episode, and (d) episodes per narrative. 2. Structural organization, as measured by the mean proportion of: (a) clauses per narrative classified

into each of the HPA five structural components and (b) propositions per narrative classified into each of the EA six structural components.

3. Global coherence, as measured by the mean proportion of narratives classified into: (a) one of the HPA five patterns of narrative global coherence and (b) one of the EA five patterns of narrative global coherence.

ResultsA series of Ethnicity by Disability MANOVAs and/or ANOVAs were conducted to analyze group differences on the dependent measures. To control for Type I error, the level of significance for all analysis was adjusted by dividing .05 by the number of F tests, if appropriate (see the results tables for the specific levels of significance used for each series of F tests).

Length of NarrativesPersonal and fictional narratives Ethnicity by Disability ANOVAs revealed significant main effects for disability on the mean number of propositions per narrative, indicating that students with LD produced significantly longer personal narratives than their NA peers (see Table 2). Main effects for ethnicity indicated that African-American students’ personal narratives were shorter than the personal narratives produced by their Caucasian peers in terms of the number of propositions per narrative and the number of propositions per episode, while containing more episodes per narrative (see Table 2).

Table 2.Comparison of LD and NA Groups (Disability - Factor A) and AA and C Groups (Ethnicity -

Factor B) on the dependent measures of length of personal narratives (High Point Analysis and Episodic Analysis).

Disability (A) LD NA Total

M SD M SD M SD F(1, 78) p Ethnicity (B) . Clauses per narrative


2.31 (A) .133 .20 (B) .657

.46 (AxB) .501 Propositions per narrative


19.02 (A) .000* 8.08 (B) .006*

.03 (AxB) .869 Propositions per episode


1.98 (A) .163 6.99 (B) .010*

.21 (AxB) .650 Episodes per narrative

African American 2.5 3.2 1.7 1.4 2.1 2.5 Caucasian 1.4 .5 2.3 1.7 1.9 1.3Total 1.9 2.1 2.1 1.6

.46 (A) .498 36.44 (B) .000*

* Significant differences. The level of significance adjusted to .0126. 4.42 (AxB) .039

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Ethnicity by Disability ANOVAs revealed a significant main effect for ethnicity on the mean number of episodes per narrative, indicating that African-American students produced more episodes per narrative than their Caucasian counterparts (see Table 3).

Table 3.Comparison of LD and NA Groups (Disability - Factor A) and AA and C Groups (Ethnicity -

Factor B) on the dependent measures of length of fictional narratives (High Point Analysis and Episodic Analysis).

Disability (A) LD NA Total

M SD M SD M SD F(1, 78) p Ethnicity (B) . Clauses per narrative


.10 (A) .753 3.65 (B) .060

.01 (AxB) .922 Propositions per narrative


.06 (A) .806 4.48 (B) .037

.05 (AxB) .833 Propositions per episode


.84 (A) .364 .28 (B) .600

6.42 (AxB) .013 Episodes per narrative


.13 (A) .717 6.87 (B) .011*


Structural Organization Personal narratives An Ethnicity by Disability MANOVA on the mean proportion of clauses per narrative classified into

each of the five structural components of HPA indicated no significant main effect for ethnicity (F(5,74)= 1.02, p=.415) and disability (F(5,74)=2.27, p=.056) but a significant ethnicity by disability interaction (F(5,74)= 4.43, p=.001). Follow-up Ethnicity by Disability univariate ANOVAs revealed

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significant ethnicity by disability interaction effects the Complicating Action and Orientation categories (see Table 4).

Table 4.Comparison of LD and NA Groups (Disability - Factor A) and AA and C Groups (Ethnicity - Factor B)

on the dependent measures of structural organization of personal narratives (High Point Analysis). Disability (A) LD NA Total

M SD M SD M SD F(1, 78) p Ethnicity (B) Complicating Action

African American .34 .11 .45 .14 .40 .14 Caucasian .42 .11 .35 .11 .38 .11Total .39 .11 .39 .13

.61 (A) .438 .23 (B) .634

12.07 (AxB) .001* Resolution


1.02 (A) .316 .66 (B) .420

1.97 (AxB) .165 Appendages


6.59 (A) .012 .18 (B) .673

2.34 (AxB) .130 Orientation


6.33 (A) .014 .53 (B) .469

11.22 (AxB) .001* Evaluation


.38 (A) .540 3.29 (B) .074

.26 (AxB) .611 * Significant differences. The level of significance adjusted to .010. Simple effects analysis for disability on the proportion of Complicating Action revealed that the African-American students with LD produced this category significantly less frequently (M=.34, SD=.11) than African-American NA students (M=.45, SD=.14) (F(1,78)=7.72, p=.007), whereas the difference between Caucasian students with LD (M=.42, SD=.11) and Caucasian NA students (M=.35, SD=.11) was nonsignificant (F(1,78)=4.38, p=.040).(see Graph 1 above) Simple effects analysis for ethnicity on the proportion of Complicating Action revealed that African-American NA students produced Complicating action category significantly more frequently (M=.45, SD=.14) than Caucasian NA students (M=.35, SD=.11) (F(1,78)=7.40, p=.008), whereas the difference between African-American students with LD (M=.34, SD=.11) and Caucasian students with LD (M=.42, SD=.11) was nonsignificant (F(1,78)=4.16, p=.045).

Simple effects analysis for disability on the proportion of Orientation revealed that the African-American students with LD produced this category significantly more frequently (M=.40, SD=.10) than African-American NA students (M=.24, SD=.10) (F(1,78)=7.72, p=.007), whereas the difference between Caucasian NA students (M=.35, SD=.15) and Caucasian students with LD (M=.33, SD=.12) was nonsignificant (F(1,78)=4.38, p=.040). (see Graph 2 below) Simple effects analysis for ethnicity

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on the proportion of Orientation revealed that African-American NA students produced Orientation category significantly less frequently (M=.24, SD=.10) than Caucasian NA students (M=.35, SD=.15) (F(1,78)=7.40, p=.008), whereas the difference between African-American students with LD (M=.40, SD=.10) and Caucasian students with LD (M=.33, SD=.12) was nonsignificant (F(1,78)=4.16, p=.045).An Ethnicity by Disability MANOVA on the mean proportion of propositions per narrative classified into each of the six structural components of EA indicated nonsignificant main effect for disability (F(7,72)=1.79, p=.102) and significant main effects for ethnicity (F(7,72)= 2.46, p=.025) and for ethnicity by disability interaction (F(7,72)= 2.69, p=.016). Follow-up Ethnicity by Disability univariate ANOVAs revealed a significant main effect for ethnicity on Internal Response category, indicating that African-American participants included a higher proportion of this category than their Caucasian peers (see Table 5 Next page). In addition, a significant ethnicity by disability interaction was revealed on Direct Consequence category. Simple effects analyses for disability on Direct Consequence revealed that the African-American students with LD produced this category significantly less frequently (M=.17, SD=.09) than African-American NA students (M=.28, SD=.11) (F(1,78)=9.95, p=.002), whereas the difference between Caucasian students with LD (M=.25, SD=.10) and Caucasian NA students (M=.24, SD=.09) was nonsignificant (F(1,78)=.36, p=.548). Simple effects analysis for ethnicity on the proportion of Direct Consequences revealed no significant differences between African-American NA students (M=.28, SD=.11) than Caucasian NA students (M=.24, SD=.09) (F(1,78)=1.18, p=.280), and between African-American students with LD (M=.17, SD=.09) and Caucasian students with LD (M=.25, SD=.10) (F(1,78)=5.82, p=.018).

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Table 5.Comparison of LD and NA Groups (Disability - Factor A) and AA and C Groups (Ethnicity - Factor B) on the

dependent measures of structural organization of personal narratives (Episodic Analysis). Disability (A) LD NA Total

M SD M SD M SD F(1, 78) p

Ethnicity (B) SettingAfrican America .34 .16 .24 .09 .29 .13 Caucasian .34 .10 .34 .11 .34 .10Total .34 .13 .30 .11

3.82 (A) .054 4.40 (B) .039

3.77 (AxB) .056 Initiating EventAfrican American .23 .10 .22 .10 .22 .10 Caucasian .19 .08 .20 .08 .19 .08Total .21 .09 .21 .09

.00 (A) .948 1.95 (B) .166

.28 (AxB) .598 Internal ResponseAfrican American .10 .05 .10 .12 .10 .09 Caucasian .05 .07 .05 .04 .05 .06Total .07 .07 .07 .08

.01 (A) .933 8.40 (B) .005*

.00 (AxB) .953 AttemptAfrican American .10 .11 .11 .10 .10 .10 Caucasian .07 .06 .09 .09 .08 .08Total .08 .08 .10 .09

.31 (A) .578 1.37 (B) .245

.04 (AxB) .841 Direct ConsequenceAfrican American .17 .09 .28 .11 .23 .11 Caucasian .25 .10 .24 .09 .25 .09Total .22 .10 .25 .10

4.10 (A) 046 .87 (B) .355

7.85 (AxB) .006* ReactionAfrican American .05 .05 .04 .09 .04 .07 Caucasian .08 .06 .06 .07 .07 .07Total .06 .06 .06 .08

.19 (A) .661 2.67 (B) .106

.06 (AxB) .802 * Significant differences. The level of significance adjusted to .008.Fictional narratives An Ethnicity by Disability MANOVA on the mean proportion of clauses per narrative classified into each of the components of HPA indicated no significant main effects for ethnicity (F(5,74)= .92, p=.471), disability (F(5,74)=1.63, p=.162), or ethnicity by disability interaction (F(5,74)= 1.55, p=.186). Follow-up Ethnicity by Disability univariate ANOVAs revealed no significant main effects (see Table 6 next page).

An Ethnicity by Disability MANOVA on the mean proportion of propositions per narrative classified into each of the six structural components of EA indicated nonsignificant main effect for ethnicity (F(7,72)= 2.28, p=.038) and disability (F(7,72)=.46, p=.860) and a significant main effect for ethnicity by disability interaction (F(7,72)= 4.62, p=.000). Follow-up Ethnicity by Disability univariate ANOVAs revealed a significant main effect for ethnicity by disability interaction on the Reaction category (see Table 7).

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Table 6.Comparison of LD and NA Groups (Disability - Factor A) and AA and C Groups (Ethnicity - Factor B) on

the dependent measures of structural organization of fictional narratives (High Point Analysis). Disability (A) LD NA Total


Ethnicity (B) Complicating ActionAfrican American .41 .17 .42 .17 .41 .16 Caucasian .44 .15 .34 .15 .39 .17Total .42 .16 .37 .16

1.49 (A) .226 .57 (B) .451

2.58 (AxB) .112 ResolutionAfrican American .02 .03 .03 .03 .03 .04 Caucasian .03 .04 .03 .04 .04 .07Total .03 .04 .03 .04

.10 (A) .755 1.43 (B) .236

.17 (AxB) .678 AppendagesAfrican American .02 .03 .02 .03 .02 .03 Caucasian .01 .02 .02 .04 .01 .03Total .01 .02 .02 .03

.55 (A) .460 .64 (B) .425

.09 (AxB) .760 OrientationAfrican American .37 .20 .32 .16 .34 .18 Caucasian .33 .10 .44 .17 .39 .15Total .35 .15 .39 .18

.77 (A) .383 1.47 (B) .230

5.21 (AxB) .025 EvaluationAfrican American .23 .13 .36 .24 .30 .20 Caucasian .30 .18 .34 .16 .32 .17Total .27 .16 .35 .20

4.55 (A) .036 .21 (B) .651

1.26 (AxB) .265 * Significant difference. The level of significance adjusted to .010.

Simple effects analysis for disability on the proportion of Reactions revealed that the African-American students with LD produced this category less frequently than African-American NA students, whereas Caucasian students with LD produced it more frequently than Caucasian NA students (see Graph 4). Simple effects analysis for ethnicity on the proportion of Reactions revealed that African-American NA students produced this category more frequently than Caucasian NA students, while African-American students with LD produced Reactions less frequently than Caucasian students with LD (see Graph 4).

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the dependent measures structural organization of fictional narratives (Episodic Analysis). Disability (A)

LD NA Total


Ethnicity (B) SettingAfrican American .35 .12 .30 .15 .33 .14 Caucasian .30 .14 .30 .16 .30 .15Total .32 .14 .30 .16

.53 (A) .468 .72 (B) .398

.71 (AxB) .401 Initiating EventAfrican American .15 .07 .14 .09 .15 .08 Caucasian .19 .11 .23 .20 .21 .16Total .17 .10 .19 .17

.37 (A) .544 4.19 (B) .044

. 81(AxB) .371 Internal ResponseAfrican American .10 .09 .06 .07 .08 .08 Caucasian .10 .10 .09 .12 .09 .11Total .10 .10 .07 .10

1.76 (A) .189 .70 (B) .404

.24 (AxB) .627 AttemptAfrican American .14 .14 .14 .17 .14 .14 Caucasian .15 .14 .13 .15 .14 .15Total .15 .14 .14 .16

.12 (A) .727 .01 (B) .935

.07 (AxB) .793 Direct ConsequenceAfrican American .22 .15 .28 .12 .25 .13 Caucasian .17 .12 .20 .13 .18 .12Total .19 .13 .23 .13

2.46 (A) .121 4 .82 (B) .031

.44 (AxB) .510 ReactionAfrican American .01 .03 .09 .09 .05 .07 Caucasian .09 .08 .01 .03 .05 .07Total .06 .07 .04 .07

.02 (A) .904 .04 (B) .836

29.23 (AxB) .000* Significant differences. The level of significance adjusted to .008.

Global Coherence Personal narrativesA series of Ethnicity by Disability ANOVAs (see Table 8) was conducted to analyze group differences on the mean proportion of narratives classified into one of the five distinct patterns of narrative global coherence of High Point Analysis. These analyses revealed no significant main effects for ethnicity, disability, or ethnicity by disability interaction on any of the coherence patterns.

Ethnicity by Disability ANOVAs on the mean proportion of narratives classified into one of the five EA narrative coherence patterns revealed no significant main effects for ethnicity and significant main effects for disability and ethnicity by disability interaction (see Table 9). Significant main effects for disability indicated that participants with LD produced a higher proportion of Action Sequences and

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lower proportion of Abbreviated Episodes than did their NA peers. A significant main effect for ethnicity by disability interaction was revealed on the Descriptive Sequence pattern.

Table 8. Comparison of LD and NA Groups (Disability - Factor A) and AA and C Groups (Ethnicity - Factor B) on

the dependent measures of global coherence of personal narratives (High Point Analysis). Disability (A) LD NA Total


Ethnicity (B) Classic African American .37 .37 .34 .28 .36 .32 Caucasian .29 .26 .39 .36 .34 .32Total .32 .31 .37 .33

.22 (A) .644 .06 (B) .805

.78 (AxB) .382 Ending-at-the-high-pointAfrican American .06 .13 .17 .22 .11 .19 Caucasian .12 .16 .19 .26 .16 .22Total .10 .15 .18 .24

3.80 (A) .055 1.06 (B) .306

.18 (AxB) .676 ChronologicalAfrican American .39 .32 .31 .32 .35 .32 Caucasian .32 .27 .22 .33 .27 .30Total .35 .29 .26 .33

1.57 (A) .214 1.38 (B) .244

.02 (AxB) .896 Leap-froggingAfrican American .04 .11 .06 .17 .05 .14 Caucasian .06 .16 .01 .07 .03 .12Total .05 .14 .03 .12

.14 (A) .714 .23 (B) .634

1.05 (AxB) .309 ImpoverishedAfrican American .14 .24 .12 .28 .13 .26 Caucasian .14 .24 .17 .28 .15 .25Total .14 .23 .15 .28

.01 (A) .936 .18 (B) .673

.16 (AxB) .693 Significant differences. The level of significance adjusted to .010.


the dependent measures of global coherence of personal narratives (Episodic Analysis). Disability (A) LD NA Total


Ethnicity (B) Descriptive Sequence African American .13 .13 .03 .10 .08 .12 Caucasian .01 .05 .10 .15 .06 .12Total .06 .11 .07 .14

.00 (A) .983 .79 (B) .377

12 .51 (AxB) .001* Action SequenceAfrican American .16 .18 .15 .25 .12 .23 Caucasian .25 .28 .00 .00 .16 .22Total .21 .24 .06 .17

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8.05 (A) .006* .54 (B) .466

6.34 (AxB) .014 Reactive SequenceAfrican American .63 .23 .68 .25 .65 .24 Caucasian .60 .32 .75 .28 .68 .28Total .61 .28 .72 .24

2.78 (A) .099 .17 (B) .679

.66 (AxB) .419 Abbreviated EpisodeAfrican American .03 .09 .09 .16 .06 .13 Caucasian .01 .07 .11 .15 .06 .13Total .02 .08 .10 .16

7.03 (A) .010* .01 (B) .946

.68 (AxB) .412 Complete EpisodeAfrican American .04 .10 .05 .12 .05 .11 Caucasian .12 .24 .03 .08 .08 .19Total .09 .20 .04 .10

1.36 (A) .246 .81 (B) .372


Simple effects analyses were conducted to account for the significant interaction effect on the Descriptive Sequence pattern. Simple effects analysis for disability revealed that Caucasian students with LD (M=.01, SD=.05) produced this pattern less frequently than Caucasian NA students (M=.10, SD=.15) (F(1,78)=7.45, p=.008), whereas the difference between African-American students with LD (M=.13, SD=.13) and African-American NA students (M=.03, SD=.10) was nonsignificant (F(1,78)=5.41, p=.023). Simple effects analysis for ethnicity on the proportion of Descriptive Sequence revealed that African-American students with LD produced this pattern significantly more frequently (M=.13, SD=.13) than did Caucasian students with LD (M=.01, SD=.05) (F(1,78)=9.93, p=.002), whereas African-American NA students (M=.03, SD=.10) and Caucasian NA students (M=.10, SD=.15) did not differ significantly on this measure (F(1,78)=3.55, p=.063).

Fictional narrativesA series of Ethnicity by Disability ANOVAs (see Table 10 next page) were conducted to analyze group differences on the mean proportion of narratives classified into one of the five distinct patterns of narrative global coherence of High Point Analysis. These analyses revealed no significant main effects for ethnicity, disability, or ethnicity by disability interaction on any of the coherence patterns. Ethnicity by Disability ANOVAs on the mean proportion of narratives classified into one of the five EA narrative coherence patterns revealed a significant main effect for ethnicity on the Complete Episode pattern, pointing that Caucasian participants produced this pattern more frequently than did their African-American peers. A significant main effect for disability was found on the Complete

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Episode pattern, indicating that participants with LD produced this pattern more frequently than their typically achieving counterparts (see Table 11 next page).


the dependent measures of global coherence of fictional narratives (High Point Analysis). Disability (A) LD NA Total


Ethnicity (B) Classic African American .35 .49 .59 .51 .47 .51 Caucasian .58 .50 .54 .51 .56 .50Total .49 .51 .56 .50

.73 (A) .394 .66 (B) .418

1.50 (AxB) .224 Ending-at-the-high-pointAfrican American .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Caucasian .08 .28 .00 .00 .04 .20Total .05 .22 .00 .00

1.47 (A) .229 1.47 (B) .229

1.47 (AxB) .229 ChronologicalAfrican American .47 .51 .24 .44 .35 .49 Caucasian .29 .46 .25 .44 .27 .44Total .37 .49 .24 .44

1.77 (A) .186 .63 (B) .432

.87 (AxB) .354 Leap-froggingAfrican American .06 .24 .18 .39 .12 .33 Caucasian .00 .00 .04 .20 .02 .14Total .02 .16 .10 .30

2.25 (A) .137 3.33 (B) .072

.51 (AxB) .476 ImpoverishedAfrican American .06 .25 .00 .00 .03 .17 Caucasian .04 .20 .13 .34 .08 .28Total .05 .22 .07 .26

.05 (A) .821 .99 (B) .321



the dependent measures of global coherence of fictional narratives (Episodic Analysis). Disability (A) LD NA Total


Ethnicity (B) Descriptive Sequence African American .02 .08 .04 .10 .03 .09 Caucasian .00 .00 .14 .26 .07 .19Total .01 .05 .10 .21

5.52 (A) .021 1.12 (B) .294

3.14 (AxB) .080 Action SequenceAfrican American .23 .28 .14 .21 .18 .25

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Caucasian .04 .14 .09 .24 .07 .20Total .12 .23 .11 .23

.10 (A) .751 5.52 (B) .021

1.89 (AxB) .173 Reactive SequenceAfrican American .41 .34 .56 .38 .49 .36 Caucasian .47 .48 .48 .32 .48 .40Total .45 .42 .51 .34

.76 (A) .386 .01 (B) .910

.61 (AxB) .437 Abbreviated EpisodeAfrican American .21 .34 .18 .30 .19 .31 Caucasian .01 .07 .16 .27 .09 .21Total .09 .24 .17 .28

.99 (A) .324 3.40 (B) .069

2.50 (AxB) .118 Complete EpisodeAfrican American .12 .28 .08 .18 .10 .23 Caucasian .47 .44 .13 .30 .30 .42Total .32 .42 .11 .26

7.02 (A) .010* 7.26 (B) .009*


DiscussionGenerally, African-American and Caucasian participants with and without learning disabilities produced personal and fictional narratives that were comparable on most measures of narrative length, structural organization, and coherence. First, the participants produced fictional narratives that were of similar overall length and composed of comparable length episodes. Second, they used the majority of structural organization components with a similar relative frequency to represent narrative events, convey the personal meaning and significance of the recounted events, and summon the listener’s attention to introduce and later close their narratives within the communicative context of conversation. Third, the participants were equally competent in their use of a variety of coherence patterns to produce personal and fictional narratives in the form of either a chronological recount or a hierarchical structure with a high point as a central organizing element (i.e., a central crisis or a cumulative event of a particular personal significance).

In the context of multifaceted similarities across the groups in producing personal and fictional narratives, the study revealed several specific features of narrative performance associated with participants’ learning disabilities and/or ethnic background. Despite less developed expressive syntactic and listening comprehension skills, students with LD regardless of ethnicity produced fictional and personal narratives generally equivalent to narratives of their typically achieving peers. However, the two groups differed with respect to their use of goal-directed episodic structures. Specifically, students with LD tended to recount events from personal experience in the form of action sequences rather than goal-directed episodic structures. In contrast, in their fictional narratives, these students produced more goal-directed episodes than their typically achieving peers. Perhaps, participants with LD had difficulty with applying their knowledge of narrative goal-directed structures to recounts of personal experience. The pattern of narrating about personal and fictional content demonstrated by ethnically/culturally diverse students with LD in this study is inconsistent with developmental trends documented in typically achieving Caucasian children and previous research on fictional narrative skills of Caucasian students with LD. For example, in a developmental study of narrative episodic structures, Peterson and McCabe (1983) documented that personal narratives of children across different age groups included more goal-directed episodic structures than their fictional stories. Previous research has shown that students with LD have difficulty with generating goal-directed narrative structures in fictional narratives (Copmann & Griffith, 1994; Roth & Spekman, 1986). In the context of school-based expectations to produce goal-directed, problem-solving narratives, diverse students with LD who focus on a chronology of personal events without linking them to their goals, thoughts, and feelings may be perceived as less competent narrators and, consequently, have less access to classroom narrative activities.

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Generally, African-American and Caucasian students, regardless of their learning disability status, produced comparable personal and fictional narratives despite the fact that African-American participants demonstrated less developed expressive syntactic and listening comprehension skills than their Caucasian peers (as measured by standardized language tests). Personal narratives of African-American students were shorter in total length and composed of shorter episodes. These students also included more episodes per narrative in both fictional and personal narratives. Their tendency to narrate about fictional and personal content using multiple episodes resembles topic-associating style that has been well documented in some African-American communities. Characterized by frequent shifts in time, place, and characters, this style allows narrators to simultaneously accomplish the purposes of informing and persuading their audience, along with expressing personal and social identity (Bidell, et al., 1997; Champion, 2003; Hicks, 1993; Michaels, 1991). Further, while recounting personal experiences, African-American students elaborated on their internal responses to the initiating narrative event to a greater degree than did their Caucasian peers. As a result, they emphasized goals, thoughts, and feelings as motivating factors in their actions, assuring the audience’s understanding of the intentional nature of their behavior. Such emphasis may be indicative of their preference to engage in narrating as an interactional social event (i.e., produce performative narratives), a narrative style common in African-American children who may view narrative tasks as means of self-expressing and establishing social relationships with the audience (Bidell, et al., 1997; Cazden, 1999; Champion, 2003; Gee, 1991). Additional differences between the ethnicity groups pertained to the use of complete episodes in fictional narratives. Caucasian participants produced more complete episodes that included an obstacle and an ending in addition to the components of an abbreviated episode: a goal, attempt, and outcome. This pattern of differences may be accounted for by well documented cultural experiences related to children’s exposure to fictional narrative genre (make-believe stories) (Bidell et al., 1997; Gee, 1991; Heath, 1983). Typically, middle-class Caucasian children are extensively exposed to literate-like, topic-centered make-believe stories that explicitly relate goals, obstacles, attempts, and outcomes (Hicks, 1991). In contrast, African-American children are often socialized into narrative styles that de-emphasize linear problem-solving sequencing in favor of thematic organization (Bidell et al., 1997; Hicks, 1991).

Besides culturally-based narrative preferences and experiences, the differences between the ethnicity groups may be accounted for by other factors that were not controlled in this study and may have impacted the patterns and/or magnitude of these group differences. First, the group differences may be related to the fact that African-American participants in this study were older than their Caucasian peers by approximately 13 months. Previous developmental research on narrative organization indicated an increased inclusion of the characters’ internal responses and use of goal-directed episodic structures in children’s narratives with age (e.g., Stein, 1988; Stein & Albro, 1997). Second, ethnicity groups differed with respect to their socio-economic status as indicated by the fact that 93% of African-American participants and 6% of Caucasian participants were eligible for free/reduced lunch. Previous research has established a link between family socio-economic background and children’s narrative experiences, preferences, and competencies (Champion, 2003; Heath, 1983; Labov, 1982). Third, the ethnicity group differences may be related to the specific features of the narrative elicitation procedure used in this study, including the ethnicity of the interviewer (Caucasian female) and the structure of narrative prompts used during the interview (short, topic-centered personal narratives). Labov (1972) has documented variability in the linguistic competence of African-American youth in response to the race of the examiner and the type of social relations established during narrative elicitation process. Similarly, Hicks’ (1991) analysis of narratives produced by low-income African-American and mainstream White children in response to changing narrative task demands evidenced ethnicity-based differences in children’s interpretation of narrative tasks and preferences for specific narrative genres.

In addition to specific features of narrative performance related to the participants’ learning disabilities or ethnicity, the interactive effects of the two factors were evident with respect to several aspects of narrative structural organization and coherence of personal narratives. Specifically, African-American students with LD, compared to their typically achieving African-American peers, provided less information about events and their outcomes and more information about the context of these events. Caucasian students with and without LD did not differ in this respect, while African-American typically achieving students outperformed their Caucasian counterparts on these measures. Similarly, African-American students with LD, in comparison to Caucasian students with LD, more frequently built coherence in personal narratives using descriptive sequence pattern in which characters, actions, and settings are described but not linked explicitly through temporal and/or causal relationships.

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Importantly, typically achieving Caucasian and African-American participants did not differ in their use of this coherence pattern, whereas Caucasian students with LD produced fewer descriptive sequences than did their Caucasian typically achieving counterparts. Developmental research on children’s narrative skills indicated that descriptive sequences are more frequently used by preschool narrators than school-age narrators who increasingly depend on chronological event sequencing and goal-directed episodic structures to generate narratives (Stein, 1988; Stein & Albro, 1997). However, an emphasis on providing elaborate contextual information at the expense of a detailed chronology of events and outcomes in personal narratives seems consistent with the topic-associating narrative style documented in some African-American children. The narrator’s elaboration of contextual information provides the means of implicitly communicating the meaning of personal and/or socio-cultural narrative experiences that support social networking function of narrating (Gee, 1991; Heath, 1983; Hicks, 1991; Michaels, 1991).

Taken together, African-American students with LD in this study displayed features of narrative performance consistent with topic-associating narrative style more frequently than both their typically achieving African-American peers and Caucasian students with LD. Consequently, they may be perceived by teachers who value episodically organized narratives as less skillful narrators who struggle with sharing personal experiences in a logical manner. In a milieu of incongruent teacher narrative expectations and student narrative performance, these students may experience more obstacles to demonstrating their language and intellectual competencies (Gay, 2000; Nieto, 1999) and/or may be misidentified as having language/learning intrinsic deficits (Garcia & Ortiz, 1988; Massey, 1996). However, the differences between this study’s African-American and Caucasian participants with LD in their use of coherence patterns in personal narratives may be accounted for by several differences between the two groups that have been related to narrative performance in previous research. First, the specificity of narrative performance in African-American participants with LD may be related to the fact that they more frequently demonstrated academic underachievement and were placed in more restrictive learning environments than their Caucasian peers with LD. Previous research has documented the relationship between the level of narrative abilities and academic achievement among students with LD (Celinska, 2004; Feagans & Applebaum, 1986; Hicks, 1991; Roth et al, 1996). Second, compared to Caucasian peers with LD, African-American participants with LD were more likely to have identified weaknesses that have been previously linked to narrative skills: concept formation/reasoning (Wright & Newhoff, 2001) and attention and self-monitoring (Snow, 1983). Previous research has shown that students with LD who demonstrate such weaknesses experience difficulty with generating coherent, hierarchically organized narratives (Celinska, 2004; Klecan-Aker, 1985; Newcomer et al., 1988). Third, the two groups differed in respect to the type of school attended, with all Caucasian students enrolled in suburban schools and 82% of African-American students in urban schools. MacMillan and Siperstein (2002) have documented significant differences in how urban and suburban schools identify students with LD, pointing that more than half of these students in urban settings showed cognitive functioning typically associated with poverty rather than intrinsic deficits.

Implications For Practice And ResearchCurrent results suggest that in order to capture the variability and complexity of narratives in diverse students, educators should apply multiple approaches to narrative analysis. For example, Episodic Analysis may be used to evaluate the narrator’s ability to episodically organize goal-directed actions to reveal his/her knowledge of human intentionality and problem-solving behavior. High Point Analysis may be utilized to examine narrative structural organization and coherence as it emerges from interweaving the recount of events and the narrator’s personal meaning of these events. As educators embrace a broader view of narrative, they gain better tools to illuminate diverse learners’ expressions of personal and cultural meanings and more fully engage them in narrative-based classroom learning. Current findings further imply that a comprehensive assessment of narrative skills in students from diverse backgrounds and with varying abilities should include narrating both personal and fictional content. This study revealed that narrative abilities may not be generalized across narrative genres and student narrative performance may vary depending on the content (personal versus fictional) and/or specific demands of narrative genres. When planning instructional interventions to enhance narrative discourse skills, specific narrative structures demonstrated in one genre may constitute an excellent basis for interventions aimed at generalizing them across different contents/genres.

The results of this study pointed out those specific features of narratives produced by early adolescents may be associated with their ethnic/cultural background and/or learning disability, evidencing the

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importance of considering these factors when assessing and planning narrative-based interventions for diverse learners. Students with LD tended to recount events from their personal experience in the form of non-goal-directed action sequences. Because of the central role of goals in building narrative coherence, listeners may perceive these personal recounts as disorganized and, consequently, feel burdened to infer the underlying causality of behavior to fully understand the narrator’s actions. Thus, some narrators with LD may need assistance with generating episodically organized personal narratives, perhaps by applying their knowledge of goal-directed behavior of fictional characters to their own experiences. By making the links between their actions, thoughts, and feelings explicit, these students may communicate the intentions and causality underlying their behavior more effectively, leading to more accurate self-representation and expanded social networks.

African-American students tended to use narrative features that differentiated them from Caucasian peers and were consistent with topic-associating narrative style. Specifically, their personal narratives were composed of multiple short episodes and included elaborate information on the narrator’s goals, thoughts, and feelings, suggesting a preference to engage in narrative activity to express personal and social meanings. In fictional narratives, they tended to use episodes that did not include obstacles and outcomes related to the attainment of the characters’ goals, although they effectively used them in personal narratives. Because some African-American children are socialized into narrative styles that de-emphasize linear problem-solving in favor of thematic organization, they may benefit from supports with generalizing their ability to produce complete episodes in personal narratives to fictional content. At the same time, their preference to use features of topic-associating style when recounting personal experiences should be recognized as an equally valuable expression of personal and cultural identities.

When narrating about personal experiences, African-American students with LD tended to emphasize narrative contextual information at the expense of a detailed chronology of events and outcomes and to provide detailed descriptions of setting, actions, and characters without linking them temporally or causally. Thus, they may be perceived as less able to fulfill teacher narrative expectations to produce coherent recounts of personal experience, resulting in more barriers to their participation in narrative-based learning activities and social communication exchanges. These students may benefit from assistance in expressing temporal and/or causal relationships among events, outcomes, and their own thoughts and feelings when narrating about personal experiences. Their fictional narratives that include these organizational components may be used as a basis for generalizing more advanced coherence patterns from fictional content to recounting personal events.

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IMPROVING CLASSROOM LEARNING:THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TIME DELAY WITHIN THE TEACCH APPROACH

Onur KurtAnadolu University

Chris ParsonsSunfield Special School for Pupils with Severe & Complex Learning Needs, UK

The present study investigated the effects of a constant time delay (CTD) strategy within a TEACCH approach and the views of the classroom teacher surrounding the teaching process. Three male students with autism participated in the study. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to collect and analyze data. Although experimental control was not built into the study, the results indicated that the CTD delivered within TEACCH frame was effective in teaching four out of the five target skills in this study. The views of the classroom teacher regarding the teaching process were positive overall. The entire acquired target skills were maintained several weeks (i.e., four to six weeks) after the intervention was terminated. Moreover, participating students performed these four skills under different conditions other than the teaching conditions. Implications for practice and directions for future research with respect to effective teaching strategies for children with autism are discussed.

As with most typically developing children, those with intellectual difficulties need to perform a variety of functional skills such as daily living, self-care, and functional academic skills. It is known that while typically developing children are able to learn these skills through their daily life experiences children with severe and complex learning difficulties, require special arrangements in their learning environment and systematic instruction strategies in order to learn skills which contribute to their independence (Jordan, 2001).

The quest for appropriate teaching strategies which meet the complex learning needs of children with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) remains a major challenge for teachers in all educational settings (Dunlap, Iovannone, & Kincaid, 2008; Jordan & Powell, 1995). In order to fulfill these requirements, educators and teachers working in special education have been looking for evidence-based practices (Perry & Condillac, 2003; Reichow, Volkmar, & Cicchetti, 2008; Simpson, 2005); and effective and efficient teaching strategies validated by experimental research and achieved through developing or modifying teaching strategies (Tekin-Iftar & Kircaali-Iftar, 2004).

One of the most effective teaching methods, widely used by practitioners working alongside students with special needs, is errorless teaching (or near errorless teaching). Errorless teaching procedures were developed from the assumption that the best learning takes its source from positive practices and responses instead of errors made during instruction (Wolery, Bailey, & Sugai, 1988). In this research study constant time delay (CTD), one of the errorless teaching methods was used to teach some skills to children with autism.

CTD is a response prompting procedure that has been successfully used in teaching students with special needs. It requires the fading of a controlling prompt, which the assistance is given by a teacher, but in a time lagged fashion that enables the learner to perform a correct response. During the first stage of the CTD, zero second time delay prompts are provided; in other words, immediately after presenting a task direction, the teacher provides the controlling prompt, which ensures the learner does the task correctly. After a specified number of zero s delay trials, the teacher introduces a certain amount of time (four or five seconds) between the task direction and the controlling prompt. That is to say, after giving a task direction the teacher waits for the correct response from the student for a

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predetermined period. If the student does not initiate the correct response, the teacher presents the controlling prompt (Schuster, Griffen, & Wolery, 1992; Tekin & Kircaali-Iftar, 2002).Research has shown that CTD has been effectively used for teaching students with various disabilities such as learning disabilities, mental retardation, multiple disabilities, developmental disabilities, and autism (Ault, Wolery, Gast, Doyle, & Eizenstat, 1988; Daugherty, Grisham-Brown, & Hemmeter, 2001; Yilmaz, Birkan, Konukman, & Erkan, 2005). Furthermore, the literature shows that it is possible to use this procedure for teaching discrete behaviors such as sight word reading, naming the values of coin combinations, identifying animals as well as chained behaviors such as snack and drink preparation, purchasing skills, various leisure skills (Bozkurt & Gursel, 2005; DiPipi-Hoy & Jitendra, 2004; Kurt & Tekin-Iftar, 2008; Ledford, Gast, Luscre, & Ayres, 2008; Tekin & Kircaali-Iftar, 2002; Werts, Venn, Demblowski, Wolery, & Doren, 1996).

As with Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) based errorless teaching methods, TEACCH (Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communication Handicapped Children) is another approach with reported successful outcomes in the literature (Jordan, 2001; Schopler & Olley, 1982; Simpson, 2005). TEACCH is an intervention approach, which has been developed at the University of North Carolina in order to meet the needs of people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and their families. Co-founded by Eric Schopler in the 1970s Division TEACCH now offers support to organizations across the United States and worldwide (Schopler & Mesibov, 1995).

Central to the TEACCH philosophy is the concept of Structured Teaching (Mesibov, 1997). This includes the physical structure of the classroom which may be divided up to provide students with clear unambiguous areas in which they are taught to conduct specific activities, for example an independent working area or an area where they may make choices from preferred activities (Davies, 1997). A daily schedule, which is organized and meaningful, is used to provide predictability and clarity; and it informs the student about forthcoming events. The daily schedule may be full day, half-day or consist of a limited number of activities depending on the ability of individual students to comprehend its meaning. Likewise, a work system is used to organize individual activities and inform students what work they are required to do, how much work they are expected to do, when it will be finished and what they should do next. Each individual work task should also be structured and visually organized in its own right in order to achieve understanding, clarity and motivation and thereby reduce anxiety (Mesibov & Howley, 2003). It is possible to achieve this through: (a) visual clarity (for example highlighting the important facets of the task), (b) visual organization (arranging task components in separate containers) and (c) visual instruction (bold arrows or numbers may give an order in which to assemble components). In addition, it may be argued that, in order for structure to be effective as part of a successful teaching strategy it should be progressive, visually instructive and lead to greater independence.

Major components of TEACCH approach such as structured work systems and visual supports have been confirmed as evidence based practices (National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, 2008). The physical environment plays a key role in the learning needs of individuals with ASD (Myles, Hubbart, Svanson, Schelvan, & Simonelli, 2007). In structured teaching, learning environment is modified to meet the needs of individuals with ASD and utilizing students’ strengths in the area of visual processing is emphasized (Schopler, Mesibov, & Hearsey, 1995). TEACCH also includes many of the principles of ABA (shaping of appropriate behaviors, prompt fading and reinforcement). However, some practitioners assume that successful programs can only include TEACCH strategies or ABA methods such as discrete trial teaching, but not both (Webber & Scheuermann, 2008). On the other hand, it is recommended that teachers use structured teaching components and ABA based methods as a basis for effective programming (Myles, et al., 2007; Webber & Scheuermann, 2008).

Teachers provide structure and organization in the classroom or any other learning environment to help students’ function successfully in TEACCH settings. However, it might be thought that delivering instructional prompts, employed by the teacher during training, in a systematic and effective way within a TEACCH setting which is physically structured and visually organized would empower the quality of instruction and produce positive outcomes for children with ASD when teaching the skills. Also, using CTD within a TEACCH setting would transfer the potential benefits of errorless teaching methods into the educational settings employing TEACCH approach. Errorless teaching methods in educational settings have been recommended for three reasons: (a) all of the errorless teaching methods are effective; (b) because the learner gives correct responses almost every time for each trial, errorless

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teaching methods facilitate the development of positive interactions between learner and teacher; and (c) because the learner receives more reinforcements and because of the low rate of error it is argued that the opportunity to demonstrate problem behaviors during errorless teaching sessions is low (Tekin-İftar & Kırcaali-İftar, 2004; Wolery et al., 1988). Although, there have been research studies examining the effectiveness of the CTD for teaching students with various disabilities and some literature also reports successful outcomes for the TEACCH approach in this respect, no studies could be found where these two models were used in conjunction. A classroom based research study employing CTD within a TEACCH setting would show an alternative and effective way of teaching the skills to the practitioners who work in TEACCH settings. Therefore, the main objective in this study was to examine the effectiveness of both paradigms when used together. It may also be argued that, the effectiveness of any procedure should not be the only reason to use it and social validity or consumer satisfaction is another key factor when selecting a teaching procedure for students with special needs. Thus, in this study the views of the classroom teacher regarding the teaching process were also ascertained.

Consequently, the purpose of this study is three fold. It explores how: (a) to reveal the effects of a CTD when used in conjunction with the TEACCH approach on promoting the acquisition, maintenance and generalization of the skills taught in the study, (b) to elicit the views of the classroom teacher regarding the teaching process, and (c) to record and evaluate the views of classroom support staff and residential care staff (key workers) that have responsibility for participant students in their houses, regarding the applicability of the target skills.

MethodParticipants and Target SkillsThe study was conducted in a classroom at Sunfield Special School in UK. There were five male students in the classroom when the study began. While three of them were diagnosed as severely autistic, the rest of them were students with mental retardation. Therefore, all the students with ASD in the classroom participated in the study. The ages of the students ranged from 12 and 14. They were all nonverbal; however, were able to use PECS (Picture Exchange Communication System) (Bondy & Frost, 1994) to express their simple needs such as requests for food, toilet or a choice of activity. All the participating students were able to dress themselves and feed themselves, while two of them were able to use the toilet independently; the remaining student needs support with his toileting skills. The participating students understood the majority of concepts, such as colors or the meaning of numbers, at a simple matching level.

In order to choose appropriate target skills for each of the students a selection process was undertaken in which their IEP (Individual Education Plan) targets were examined as well as objectives from their SSENs (Statement of Special Education Needs). Before targets were finalized by care staff. The care staff had the responsibility for the participant students in their houses, while classroom support staff was asked for their opinions about their suitability as functional skills. Other considerations included discussions about previous learning, the performance levels of students in different developmental areas and the practical acquisition of resources or areas in which to conduct teaching. To validate the selection of target skills a questionnaire in English was developed and presented to both classroom support staff and residential care staff.

At the end of this enquiry process the following target skills were chosen for participating students (the names used are pseudonyms). Bill was taught to give the correct picture of a fruit when the teacher used a written word in addition to a verbal request; he was also taught to make a hot drink. Garry was taught to give the correct picture of a classmate when it was verbally requested and washing up was his second target skill. Ross’ target skill was to discriminate between pictures of males and females when verbally requested. The success criterion level for each student was set at 100% except for Garry whose criterion was 90% for at least three consecutive sessions.

Data Collection and Analysis ProcedureBoth qualitative and quantitative methods were used to collect and analyze data in the study. An AB design as a single-subject research was used to measure the effectiveness of a CTD as a quantitative method. The experimental conditions included baseline, instruction using a CTD within TEACCH frame. Also, generalization and skill maintenance monitoring were conducted. Generalization data were collected via pre-test and post-test measurements and occurred before training and at the end of teaching of each target skill. To collect generalization data a student’s performance levels in terms of the target skills were assessed under different conditions (e.g. in different settings or with different

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materials). To obtain qualitative data in terms of the teaching process, the classroom teacher collected observational data as a participant observer (Robert-Holmes, 2005). Furthermore, a Target Skills Evaluation Questionnaire (See Table 1) was used to determine the opinions of the classroom and care staff about the target skills employed in the study. Classroom support staff and care staff were asked to answer the questions in the questionnaire by choosing Yes or No columns for each question, but were also given the opportunity to add further comments which they thought might be relevant.

Table 1Questions in the Target Skills Evaluation Questionnaire

1. In your opinion is this skill functional (i.e., useful) for the student to learn?

2. In your opinion will this skill contribute to the independence of the student?

3. In your opinion will the acquisition of this skill go towards improving his quality of life?

4. In your opinion is this skill appropriate for the age of this student?

5. In your opinion will this skill facilitate the later learning of some other more functional skills?

6. In your opinion will this skill be useful outside the classroom for this student?

7. In your opinion will this skill be useful in the classroom for this student?

Implementation of Constant Time Delay within the TEACCH StructureFor the length of the study the classroom and all participating students followed the TEACCH structure in terms of instructional activities and general environment. To employ the CTD within the TEACCH structure, before the teaching process began in the study, detailed plans were developed for each student and for each task which included: identity information about the student, teaching settings and times, behavioral objectives for each target skill, materials to be used both in all sessions, a description of teacher-student interactions during the teaching process, the collection of baseline, generalization and maintenance data, antecedents and consequences of student responses and a reinforcement schedule, definitions for possible student responses and a recording process for student responses.

In this study CTD was to be used together with a TEACCH approach and for the following reasons it was thought they might jointly be effective: The students in the study had been using the TEACCH approach for some time, were familiar with the process of TEACCH approach and so tasks offered within that process should be more readily learned. Tasks were designed and presented in a clear, unambiguous way, so that in some ways the task helped with the instruction and using such tasks during instruction engaged previously learned skills, for example matching. Target skills were also presented in a form which was easily recognizable to the students; for example, teaching materials were given in trays and work advanced from left to right in the instruction sessions. The one to one work station of TEACCH provided physical structure which reduced noise and visual distraction; it was also a familiar place where work was regularly conducted and therefore students knew they were expected to work in that area. In addition, a work schedule kept students informed about what to do, how much to do, when it was finished and what to do next. Also when the instruction took place out of the classroom, a transition schedule was used to direct the student to the working area.

Discrete tasks were constructed and given in a familiar way, using the TEACCH structure as a stable component and designed to reduce anxiety as described above. In the CTD sessions chained skills are normally broken down into individual steps through task analysis and this is consistent with the way in which complex activities are normally offered to these students within the TEACCH approach.

When teaching plans were completed the following elements were put into practice for teaching both discrete and chained target skills. During the experimental stage of the study students were instructed on a one to one basis. While the chained target skills were taught in a kitchen in the school, all discrete target skills were taught in one to one stations in the classroom. There were two teaching sessions each day for each skill; however, discrete skills were taught twice per session while chained skills were taught only once per session. Task analyses were developed for the chained skills. Chained skills were taught within a total task format; that is to say, instruction sessions began with the first step of the task analysis and were followed by each step in sequence irrespective of the student’s success rate. Throughout the study all correct responses given by a student were rewarded with verbal and social rewards until the student met the criterion for success. When a student achieved a target to the

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prescribed level, rewards were given only after the last step of the task analysis for chained skills and after the last trial at the end of each session for discrete skills. However, the student’s attention and cooperation were rewarded on two occasions within each session. The controlling prompts used were chosen depending on the needs of the student and target skills. For example, one student required hand over hand physical prompting while another only needed a gestured prompt (i.e., pointing to the objective).

Baseline SessionsAfter this preparation stage, the study commenced with a baseline assessment for each target skill. At least three consecutive baseline sessions were conducted in the study until stable data were obtained in terms of the performance level of each student for each target skill. In each session two trials were carried out for each picture for the discrete skills. At the beginning the teacher said, Check your schedule. When the student checked his schedule and sat on the chair in the one to one workstation the teacher said, We will start to learn the names of fruits. Are you ready to work? If the student gave a positive response, the teacher rewarded his cooperative behavior and gave the task direction, Give me pineapple. Then the teacher waited four seconds allowing the student to initiate a response. All correct responses, performed independently were rewarded verbally and socially while incorrect responses were ignored during the baseline sessions. In each baseline session for the chained target skills only one trial was carried out for each step of the task analysis. A single opportunity format was used to measure the performance level of each student during the baseline sessions. That is to say, the teacher presented the task direction and recorded the student’s response to the steps of the task analysis. When the student initiated an incorrect response the teacher interrupted the student and the student’s response was recorded as incorrect. At the beginning the teacher said, We will learn to make a hot drink. Are you ready to work? If student gave a positive response, the teacher rewarded his cooperative behavior and gave the task direction, Prepare a hot drink. Then the teacher waited four seconds for the student to initiate a response. The number of correct responses performed independently was recorded and rewarded. But, when the student initiated an incorrect response, performed an incorrect response, or did not show any response his response and the rest of the steps in the task analysis were recorded as incorrect responses during baseline sessions only.

Constant Time Delay Instructional Sessions At the beginning of the instruction sessions the teacher said, Check your schedule. When the student checked his schedule and sat on the chair in the one to one workstation or when he went to the working area for his chained skill (e.g., kitchen for making a hot drink) the instruction session started. In the instruction sessions two types of delay intervals were used: (a) zero second delay interval, and (b) four second delay interval. At the beginning of teaching, zero second delay intervals were used in all trials in the first three instruction sessions. Zero second trials were conducted as follows: The teacher had pictures ready and secured the student’s attention (We will learn the names of classmates. Are you ready to work?). After receiving an affirmative response to his question the teacher gave the task direction (Give picture of Paul) and presented the controlling prompt immediately as a physical (hand-over) prompt plus a verbal prompt, saying, This is Paul. The four-second delay interval trials were implemented in the same manner as zero second delay trials except that the teacher waited four seconds for the student to respond before providing the controlling prompt. That is to say, a task direction was given and the teacher waited the appropriate delay interval (four seconds), then he provided the controlling prompt as physical prompt plus a verbal prompt. Error correction was provided for incorrect student responses. If the student showed no response after the initial task direction, the task direction and controlling prompt were repeated until the student responded correctly, following which the teacher moved to the next picture. When the student showed an incorrect response before or after the controlling prompt, the teacher interrupted the student’s actions and provided a controlling prompt in order to obtain the correct response and moved to the next picture.

Instruction sessions for chained skills were conducted in exactly the same way as for discrete skills except that there was only one trial during each session. At the beginning of teaching the skill, a zero second delay interval was used in all trials in the first three instruction sessions and were conducted as follows: The teacher had the materials ready and secured the student’s attention (We will learn to make a hot drink. Are you ready to work?). After receiving an affirmative response, the teacher gave the task direction (Make a hot drink) and presented the controlling prompt immediately as a physical prompt. For the four-second delay interval trials the teacher provided the task direction and waited four seconds for the student to respond. If the student did not initiate a response, the teacher delivered the controlling prompt as physical assistance. When teaching chained skills, error correction was provided for

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incorrect student responses but if the student showed no response after the initial task direction and controlling prompt, the task direction and controlling prompt were repeated until the student responded correctly. The teacher then moved on to next step of task analysis. When the student showed an incorrect response before or after the controlling prompt, the teacher interrupted the student’s actions and provided a controlling prompt to obtain the correct response for that step of task analysis. The teacher then moved on to next step of the task analysis. During all teaching sessions the teacher waited behind the student to provide physical assistance.

Maintenance and Generalization Probe SessionsThe maintenance effect of the CTD within the TEACCH setting was assessed after one, two, and six weeks for Bill’s chained target skill (making a hot drink), one, two, and four weeks for Bills discrete target skill (naming fruits), one and four weeks for Garry’s chained target skill (washing-up) and one, two and five weeks for Garry’s discrete target skill (identifying classmates) following the instruction process. Maintenance and generalization sessions were conducted in an identical manner to baseline sessions except rewards were withdrawn during these sessions. In the maintenance and generalization sessions rewards were presented only after the last correct responses of students. Generalization sessions for Bill’s and Garry’s chained target skills (making a hot drink and washing up) were conducted in the kitchen of their house. Furthermore, generalization for the discrete skills (naming fruits and identifying classmates) was tested by using a variety of photographs.

ReliabilityIn order to validate the data collected in this study, inter observer agreement data were also collected from random sessions in the form of video records, which were examined by the researchers and the observer independently. Inter observer agreement data were collected during at least 27% of all experimental sessions and was calculated with a formula of the number of agreements divided by the number of agreements plus disagreements multiplied by 100 (Tekin-Iftar & Kircaali-Iftar, 2004). Reliability data indicated a 98% (range = 92-100%), 96%, (range = 80-100%), 99% (range = 97-100%), and 98% average agreement (range = 92-100%) across sessions during baseline, generalization, maintenance and instruction sessions respectively.

ResultsEffectiveness of Constant Time DelayBaseline, training, maintenance, and generalization data for Bill, Garry and Ross are shown in Figure 1 through 5 respectively. The closed circles represent the percentage of correct responding during baseline, instruction, and maintenance sessions. Open triangles the represent percentage of correct responses during generalization sessions. As seen in Figures 1 through 5, two participating students performed their four target skills at criterion level. Although the third student showed some improvement in performing his task, he did not meet the criterion. In other words, although experimental control was not built in the study the descriptive findings show that the CTD delivered within TEACCH frame was effective in teaching four out of five target skills in this study. Based on these findings, it can be said that CTD delivered within TEACCH frame was seem to be effective in teaching both discrete and chained skills to children with autism.

Figure 1

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The percentage of correct responses for naming fruits by Bill during baseline, instruction, maintenance and generalization sessions.

The instruction data for each student and for each target skill, the number of training sessions, percentages of student errors during training and amount of training time, are presented in Table 2. Bill needed six training sessions to reach the criterion for the skill of naming fruits, which took a total of nineteen minutes. Bill did not make any incorrect responses during this time. Bill required fourteen training sessions to reach the criterion level for making a hot drink while the total time spent to teach this skill was one hour and five minutes and the error rate during these sessions was 2%. Garry needed nineteen training sessions to reach the criterion for identifying his classmates. A total of 52 minutes training time was required to reach this level and Garry’s error rate was 12%.

Figure 2The percentage of correct responses for making a hot drink by Bill during baseline, instruction,

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Figure 3The percentage of correct responses for identifying classmates by Garry during baseline,

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Figure 5The percentage of correct responses for discriminating between male and female by Ross during

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Ten training sessions were required to reach the criterion level for washing up by Garry and the total time was 28 minutes whilst the error rate was 3%. Although 20 teaching sessions were conducted to teach the difference between pictures of males and females to Ross, he was unable to meet the criterion in the study. During his training sessions a total of one hour and 38 minutes were spent with an error rate of 36%.

Table 2Instruction Data for Each Student Up To Criterion Level During the Study

Students Target Skills # of Sessions Error Rates Training Time

Bill Naming Fruits 6 0% 00:19:27

Bill Making a Hot Drink 14 2% 01:05:16

Garry Identifying Classmates 19 12% 00:52:40

Garry Washing up 10 3% 00:28:20

Ross Discriminating Male/Female 20 36% 01:38:01

Maintenance and Generalization FindingsData collected in maintenance sessions showed that four target skills taught in the study were maintained at criterion level with a range of 80% and 100% accuracy and were generalized to different conditions successfully. As seen in Figure 1 through Figure 4, Bill and Garry were able to perform their chained target skills (making a hot drink and washing up) in the kitchen of the house where they live with 100% accuracy. Bill and Garry also generalized their discrete target skills (naming fruits and identifying classmates) to a variety of photos with different sizes, colors, and backgrounds with 100% success.

Views of the Classroom Teacher Surrounding the Teaching ProcessAs mentioned before, in this study it was thought that the effectiveness of any procedure should not be the only reason to use that procedure when providing instruction to students with special needs. The teacher’s opinions regarding the teaching process are also important, therefore in this study; the views concerning the teaching process were defined, based on contemporaneous notes and described under the following headings listed below.

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Advantages of the constant time delay. Based on the data gathered from observation records of the classroom teacher, it can be said that he developed quite positive opinions about the teaching process and the implementation of CTD within the TEACCH approach. The teacher expressed the opinion that the zero second prompting trials, that is, leaving no time lag between a task direction and the prompt, was very effective in the initial teaching phase and when the four second delay trials were introduced it gave the student time to process a request yet still receive support if required.

The classroom teacher reported that the CTD and the TEACCH approach are very harmonious when used together. For example, he stated, In my opinion the CTD is totally appropriate to use in conjunction with TEACCH for the following reasons: they are both highly structured, that is to say instruction is presented in a uniform, systematic way; complicated skills are broken down into small steps making it easier for students to assimilate information; it is straightforward for a teacher to identify areas of difficulty; and skills are repetitively taught which closely matches the learning style of most autistic people.

According to the teacher, one of the satisfying sides of using CTD was its flexibility which allowed the necessary modifications to be made; therefore, taking into account the individual differences of students. He said, Although this is a very systematic way of teaching skills, it is by no means rigid and on many occasions tasks were modified and teaching prompts changed in order to meet individual learning needs.

The teacher observed that CTD demanded rigorous planning and preparation and this in itself resulted in satisfaction. He also noted that teaching needed to be highly structured but once the process had been mastered the discipline, which was required, resulted in positive feelings concerning the acquisition of personal skills and abilities. The teacher thought the clear structure of the process meant that another teacher was able to take over the teaching at any point using the predetermined prompting method without jeopardizing the student’s attainment in the learning process. He also felt that this was important in a highly staffed classroom where people may be required to work with different students on different occasions.

The teacher commented that the recording sheet used provided instant and graphical feedback which indicated the progress the student had made and over what time period. Moreover, he expressed an opinion that the recording sheet clearly pointed towards where weaknesses may lie and what strategies or tactics may be employed to help the student to learn.

The teacher observed that students benefited in as much as once they had learned the process of CTD they were encouraged to slowdown and therefore they were better able to concentrate and make progress. The teacher also said that there were notable improvements from all the students in their ability to wait; a positive by-product in addition to the planned teaching objectives.

The impact of autism and external factors on learning. The teacher thought that when choosing or applying any teaching strategy it was important to consider the impact of autism. To reinforce this the teacher said It is interesting to note that even an ostensibly pleasurable experience (e.g. a visit from a family member) might cause emotions such as excitement, which a person with autism may not understand or cope with in a positive manner. The student in question, afterwards, spontaneously began to cry for no apparent reason. It was later revealed that he had been refused chocolate cake in the lunch break immediately preceding this episode . Another example was given by the teacher when he recalled, On one occasion when teaching washing up to Garry, he waited for the soapsuds to disappear before putting down the bowl to finish the task. This reminded me that autistic people often display obsessive, ritualistic or sensory behaviors which at times supersede most other behaviors or outside influences, in this case a fascination with water. Alternatively it may have been that Garry did not think the job was finished until the soapsuds had disappeared. Whatever the cause of Garry’s behavior, it resulted in him requiring extra (physical) support in order to complete the task.

Individual learning styles. The teacher thought that although CTD was very effective, in order to improve the quality of teaching it was also necessary to take into account the individual needs and learning styles of the students. For example, the teacher said, I decided to give a small, informal test to Bill after a series of unsuccessful

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sessions in which only verbal requests were given. When an additional written request was given the student’s performance immediately was improved. The teacher emphasized the impact of individual differences on the teaching process with another comment, It appears that Bill does not easily process verbal instructions but quickly learns to recognize the written names and corresponding pictures of objects when a controlling prompt is used with a visual request. Disadvantages of the constant time delay. When the teacher’s observation notes were examined it was seen that he encountered some difficulties in making the data recording during the teaching process. The teacher said, The only drawback that I discovered was that when I first began to use the CTD I found it difficult to record and concentrate on teaching at the same time. However, I gradually became more adept as time went by.

The Opinions of the Classroom and Care Staff Regarding the Target Skills Used In the StudyBased on the data gathered from the Target Skills Evaluation Questionnaire it can be said that the classroom support staff and care staff (key workers for each student) had positive opinions regarding the target skills used in this study. While the average percentage of positive answers of classroom support staff was 87% (range = 72-100%); the average percentage of positive answers of care staff regarding the target skills was 88% (range = 71-100%). Therefore, in addition to the positive comments of the teacher concerning the teaching process, it might be thought that positive opinions of the classroom support staff and care staff in terms of the skills taught to the participant students strengthen the social validity of the study.

Discussion and Future DirectionsThe main purposes of this study were to examine the effects of a CTD strategy within a TEACCH approach and to elicit the views of the classroom teacher regarding the teaching process. Additionally, maintenance and generalization data were also collected. Although experimental control was not built in the study, the descriptive results showed that the CTD delivered within TEACCH frame seemed to be effective in teaching four of the five target skills in this study. The views of the classroom teacher regarding the teaching process were positive overall. Data collected in maintenance sessions showed that all of the acquired target skills were maintained within a range from 80% to 100% accuracy over a five to six week period. In addition, participating students learned to generalize these four skills under different conditions. The literature indicates that the CTD is an effective method when used to teach both discrete and chained skills to individuals with special needs (Schuster et al., 1998; Wolery, Anthony, Caldwell, Snyder, & Morgante, 2002). As is the case with findings in the literature, this study demonstrated that CTD was effective in teaching various skills to children with autism within a TEACCH framework. Based on these findings and the positive opinions of the classroom teacher regarding to the teaching process educators might be encouraged to employ the CTD to teach both discrete and chained skills to children with autism within the TEACCH approach.

Based on the data collected and analyzed, it may be argued that some findings are worthy of discussion. First, because an AB single-subject research design was used to measure the effects of a CTD within the TEACCH frame, experimental control was not built in the study. AB design is the simplest and weakest version of the single subject designs and it cannot be used to make a confident assumption of a functional relationship between dependent and independent variables. However, if there is a change on the intervention phase compared to baseline the teacher may use this information to make inferences about the effectiveness of the intervention and think that the intervention had an effect (Alberto & Troutman, 1995). Therefore, it may be argued that the findings of this study could provide guidance to the practitioners and give them an idea about using the CTD within TEACCH frame. On the other hand, in the light of the findings of this study, the effects of CTD within a TEACCH setting might be examined with stronger single subject research designs in further research.

Second, this study has a potential limitation on the issue of generalization. Generalization data were collected via pre-test and post-test measurements and occurred before training and at the end of teaching of each target skill. In other words, generalization was tested only once in all cases immediately following the intervention sessions. Therefore, in future studies, instructional arrangements for generalization would be made in a more controlled manner. For example, generalization of the skills may be planned and implemented during instructional sessions.

It may be said that error rates were minimal except for one student in the study. The literature indicates that during CTD training sessions a low rate of error occurs (Schuster et al., 1998; Tekin et

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al., 2001). The highest error rate in this study occurred during training with Ross (i.e., 36%) and although this student made some improvement he was unable to meet the criterion level. In the light of these results, it may be argued that his target skill was too difficult a concept and was, therefore, not appropriate for his developmental level. However, this was a skill, which was derived and therefore justified because of a parental request. It may have been possible to reduce the error rate for this student by modifying the teaching materials or even adjusting the task itself. However, the end of the school term precluded this possibility.

Although the success criterion level for each student was set at 100% for at least three consecutive sessions, an adaptation was made on Garry’s success criterion level for his discrete skill (identifying classmates). In other words, because stable data occurred between 90% and 100%, intervention was terminated at this level. However, as can be seen in Figure 3, Garry performed this skill at 100% accuracy level in generalization session soon after the intervention. Garry also showed 100% performance in the last two maintenance sessions.

At the beginning of the study, the students were not accustomed to the CTD and observations given by the classroom teacher indicated that after students learned the teaching process their success level increased. This notion leads to the belief that if students had been familiar with the CTD from the start of the study they might have reached the criterion level earlier.

Although the classroom teacher had experience in teaching a variety of discrete and chained skills to children with autism, he was using the CTD for the first time in this study. Despite this, the teacher implemented the procedure easily and when his positive opinions are taken into consideration it can be suggested that CTD is a teacher friendly procedure. The teacher mentioned only one negative side of the procedure. He encountered some difficulties in the data recording whilst at the same time concentrating on the teaching process. However, it may be argued that, especially in highly staffed classrooms, support staffs are able to make the necessary recording.

The findings of this study provide several opportunities and recommendations for future research. In this study a CTD was used within a TEACCH approach. As Mesibov, Shea, and Schopler (2005) pointed out, TEACCH has its roots in behavioral approach and the compatibility and strong interface, which emerged between the two approaches, should therefore come as no surprise. In further research, the effects of different types of errorless teaching methods, for example simultaneous prompting procedure or progressive time delay procedure might be examined when used in conjunction with a TEACCH approach. In this study only the classroom teacher’s opinions regarding the CTD was obtained; henceforth, it may be beneficial to elicit the views of other practitioners such as classroom support or care staff in residential schools, defined in terms of the teaching process.

Acknowledgement: Sunfield Research Institute supported this research. The authors are grateful to Professor Barry Carpenter, the director of Sunfield Research Institute, for his insightful feedback and contributions.

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