What makes a SWOT analysis effort successful?

You must start with your Vision, Mission and Values statement. You must objectively prepare your businesses internal and external status. You must be realistic and forthright in preparing the businesses, and your, strengths and

weaknessesBe specific but keep it short and simple, don’t over analyze.

Developing strategies and tactics that match the SWOT analysis results. Writing an operating plan based on your SWOT Analysis, strategies and tactics. Implementation of a resulting operating plan.

EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS

efficiency is (“doing the thing right“)

effectiveness is (“doing the right thing“)

It is useful to identify efficiency and effectiveness measures separately, since online marketing and web analytics often tend to focus on efficiency. Hasan and Tibbits (2000) note that the internal process

measures in particular are concerned with the efficiency and the customer and business value perspectives are indicated with effectiveness, but these measures can be applied across all four areas as we have shown.

Efficiency is all about saving time, money or effort. Effectiveness is all about getting the job done.  Efficiency is doing things right, and effectiveness is doing the right things. 

Efficiency is a measure of speed and cost. For example: Efficiency says "Getting someone in here right away is more important than getting the right person later." Effectiveness is a measure of quality. Effectiveness says the opposite: "Hiring the right person is more important than hiring someone right away."

_________________________________________________________________________

Most climate scientists agree the main cause of the current global warming trend is human expansion of the "greenhouse effect"1 -- warming that results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward space.

Certain gases in the atmosphere block heat from escaping. Long-lived gases, remaining semi-permanently in the atmosphere, which do not respond physically or chemically to changes in temperature are described as "forcing" climate change whereas gases, such as water, which respond physically or chemically to changes in temperature are seen as "feedbacks."

A layer of greenhouse gases – primarily water vapor, and including much smaller amounts of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide – act as a thermal blanket for the Earth, absorbing heat and warming the surface to a life-supporting average of 59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius).

We live in a greenhouse

Life on Earth depends on energy coming from the sun. About half the light reaching Earth's atmosphere passes through the air and clouds to the surface, where it is absorbed and then radiated upward in the form of infrared heat. About 90 percent of this heat is then absorbed by the greenhouse gases and radiated back toward the surface, which is warmed to a life-supporting average of 59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius).

Is the Sun to Blame?

How do we know that changes in the sun aren’t to blame for current global warming trends?

Since 1978, a series of satellite instruments have measured the energy output of the sun directly. The satellite data show a very slight drop in solar irradiance (which is a measure of the amount of energy the sun gives off) over this time period. So the sun doesn't appear to be responsible for the warming trend observed over the past 30 years.

Longer-term estimates of solar irradiance have been made using sunspot records and other so-called “proxy indicators,” such as the amount of carbon in tree rings. The most recent analyses of these proxies indicate that solar irradiance changes cannot plausibly account for more than 10 percent of the 20th century’s warming.2

If the warming were caused by a more active sun, then scientists would expect to see warmer temperatures in all layers of the atmosphere. Instead, they have observed a cooling in the upper atmosphere, and a warming at the surface and in the lower parts of the atmosphere. That's because greenhouse gasses are trapping heat in the lower atmosphere.

One degree may sound like a small amount, but it's an unusual event in our planet's recent history. Earth's climate record, preserved in tree rings, ice cores, and coral reefs, shows that the global average temperature is stable over long periods of time. Furthermore, small changes in temperature correspond to enormous changes in the environment.

Global Climate Change: Recent Impacts7

Phenomena Likelihood that trend occurred in late 20th century

Cold days, cold nights and frost less frequent over land areas

Very likely

More frequent hot days and nights Very likely

Heat waves more frequent over most land areas Likely

Increased incidence of extreme high sea level* Likely

Global area affected by drought has increased (since 1970s)

Likely in some regions

Increase in intense tropical cyclone activity in North Atlantic (since 1970)

Likely in some regions

* Excluding tsunamis, which are not due to climate change.

Agriculture as a Contributor to the Causes of Climate Change

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the three main causes of the increase in greenhouse gases observed over the past 250 years have been fossil fuels, land use, and agriculture.

Agriculture has been shown to produce significant effects on climate change, primarily through the production and release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.

Another contributing cause of climate change is when agriculture alters the Earth's land cover, which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light. Land use change such as deforestation and desertification, together with use of fossil fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide.

Deforestation as a contributor to the Causes of Climate change

It is important, first to understand what a precious resource rainforests play in our world. They form part of a delicate ecosystem that has taken millions of years to evolve.

Rainforests every year help to absorb almost 20% of man made CO2 emissions therefore deforestation can be classed as a major contributor to the causes of climate change. Cutting down rainforests faster than they can be replaced has a devastating effect on the carbon emission cycle producing an extra 17% of greenhouse gases. Remember trees absorb CO2. More deforestation means more CO2 build up in the atmosphere.

Deforestation by means of cutting down and burning these tropical rainforests usually pave the way for agriculture and industry which often produce even more CO2.

PHILIPPINE FOOD SECURITY POLICY AND STRATEGY IN FLUX: SOME RECOMMENDATIONS

In may be said that the agriculture, rural development and natural resources management sectors of the Philippine economy and government has been in transition since 1986. This is true particularly in reference to the very frequent changes in sector leadership and governance that have been made in the Departments of Agriculture, Agrarian Reform and Environment and Natural Resources since 1986. Since 1986 all Secretaries of the DA, DAR and DENR have, with only a single exception, been unable to serve their full six-year terms as provided by law. Yet prior to 1986 the ministers/secretaries of agriculture and agrarian reform served for 13 to 20 years—in the process learning from both their mistakes and victories.

TOLENTINO : The Globalization of Food Security 57At the very least, the frequent changes have caused the programs and projects in each department to be halted then re-started with each episode of replacement of the secretary and other senior officials. There have been at least six periods of transition between outgoing and incoming secretaries of agriculture since 1986. These transition periods have each lasted, nominally, at least a few months. Yet the task of agriculture sector management must go with the seasons. Crops cannot be hurried through their growth cycles. Yet the sector grows all the more complex and long-term in nature with rapid population growth, increased food requirements, intensified domestic resource scarcity and global openness. Given that the DA is a very complex organization and the task

of governance for agricultural growth is by itself a complex undertaking, the period of administrative transition is merely a sub-period of the overall learning period required to achieve a level of

understanding and expertise sufficient for effective sector governance.

FOOD SECURITY

Attainment of food security is an important goal for the Philippines as well as the rest of the Asia-Pacific region. Substantial resources have been channeled toward attainment of this goal. In the Philippines, food security and agricultural efficiency had always been a priority program of every administration. However, there are still a number of existing policy and institutional constraints that block the realization of a “food-secure” country. Food security can only be achieved if certain conditions in the economy are met. To a large extent, it is dependent on the rate of economic growth and distribution of incomes in a country. Since the Philippines and other developing economies are basically agricultural economies, where a large

portion of its population, especially the poor, depend on food or food-related activities, the need to ensure sustainable agricultural growth and development becomes an imperative. One immutable fact about development is the eventual decline of the share of agriculture in a country’s economic output and total employment. This occurs not through the instruments of policymakers but by economic forces that, together, in the long term, transform a country’s economic structure and allow the non agriculture sector to lead. The nature and timing of policy intervention, however, determine to a large extent whether or not the outcome of this transformation process is beneficial to society—commonly referred to in general terms as higher economic well-being. For ease of measurement, higher economic growth and better income distribution are some of the common proxies used to gauge well-being, albeit the fact that divergent views have been proffered on the issue.

The concept of food security has likewise become a fashionable topic of debate since the food crisis of the mid-70s. Food policy analysts and government policymakers have different interpretations about the matter. The predominant view among those that decide for agriculture in less developed countries is to equate food security with self-sufficiency for the reason that food, particularly food grains, are political commodities. Food policy analysts, on the other hand, put premium on income in gauging food security based on the claim that poverty is the main cause of food insecurity. Thus, both on historical and analytical grounds, it is clear that policy should do for agriculture what is appropriate for the whole economy, not for the sector alone because agriculture is not the end but rather a means to an end. Food self-sufficiency through high food price policy, for example, would be counterproductive because its wage effect is a drag to growth with dire consequences on employment. It also penalizes poor consumers including food-deficit farmers.

ECONOMY

The AQUINO administration has vowed to focus on improving tax collection efficiency - rather than imposing new taxes - as a part of its good governance platform. The economy still faces several long-term challenges, including reliance on energy imports and foreign demand for overseas Filipino workers. Philippine GDP grew 7.3% in 2010, spurred by consumer demand, a rebound in exports and investments, and election-related spending. The economy weathered the 2008-09 global recession better than its regional peers due to minimal exposure to troubled international securities, lower dependence on exports, relatively resilient domestic consumption, large remittances from four- to five-million overseas Filipino workers, and a growing business process outsourcing industry. 

Labor force - by occupation

agriculture: 33% industry: 15% services: 52% (2010 est.)

2012 Outlook

 

Expect acceleration of public expenditures to continue well into 2012 and beyond, as well as

substantial acceleration of disbursements, including those for infrastructure and capital outlay, in the

coming months. 

Investment is expected to post a strong growth in 2012 despite the global economic

uncertainties, as we anticipate strong investments from both public and private sectors.  The

construction sector will get a boost from public construction in 2012 due to continued spending for

the government’s Disbursement Acceleration Program’s projects that were carried over from the

previous year, and from the faster budget execution process of government. Construction will also

get a boost from the acceleration of the implementation of the Private-Public Partnership program

this year.

In addition, expect that private construction will remain robust, particularly in the property sector,

given the upward momentum in the office sector, and the relatively high BPO office demand in

strategic areas across the country.  Also expect the residential sector to remain supported by the

demand from families of overseas Filipinos.  

There is likewise an expected expansion of investments in energy; mining; low-cost housing

and office buildings; and the industries in the priority areas – agribusiness, consumer

durables, information technology (IT), health and wellness, transport,

telecommunications, and especially tourism to contribute positively to the country’s economic

growth in 2012.

While NEDA is optimistic that 2012 will be substantially better than 2011, it remains vigilant and

continues toclosely monitor external developments that continue to pose significant risk to the

country’s growth.   As many analysts expect, global economic recovery might stall in

2012 mainly due to the growing concerns over Europe. The International Monetary Fund

projects the Euro area will suffer a mild recession due to lingering concerns on how to appropriately

and quickly restore confidence in the economy in order to support growth while at the same time

addressing fiscal imbalance and providing more liquidity and monetary accommodation. Similarly,

the government is also watching closely developments in the U.S. economy, whether the

recovery will gain momentum or will remain fragile. Likewise, the government recognizes the risk

that China could slow down or even experience a “hard landing.”  

 ASPECTS OF AGRI ED NEEDING IMPROVEMENTWhat are the effects of rural to urban migration?

As countries pursue development and industrialization drives, the need to build urban centres become certain. It is in this pursuance that leads to somewhat neglect of the no urban centres. This calls for people in the rural areas desiring to move to the urban centres. Every man wants a standard of living better than where he is now thus; the drive to move to the urban centres becomes obvious. In the developing countries, this passion becomes so great that the movement becomes rampant. The purpose of this piece is to reflect on the serious problem of excessive rural-urban migration and rising urban unemployment and underemployment in developing countries and how to restore a proper balance between rural economic and social opportunities to curb rural-urban migration. Rural areas are isolated areas of an open country with low population density. Occupation by the rural folks is mostly primary in nature. For instance, farming, lumbering, fishing, quarrying etc. are the major activities offered by the rural people. Most of the industries are being concentrated in the urban centres. It becomes relatively hard for the rural folks to make ends meet. Since the available occupations in the rural areas are mostly primary, they offer a low profit capital and the few elite are not motivated because of the primary nature, and fewer wage offered by the jobs in the rural areas, not much to be desired. The seasonality of the primary job or the agricultural activity which they are engaged in results to seasonal unemployment and the small scale business industries are been wiped off by the demand for the technological products from the urban centres thus causing structural unemployment. This leaves much people in the rural areas unemployed in most part of the year. Rural areas are characterized with chronic food insecurity widespread and livelihoods are more vulnerable. Rural folks have limited access to basic social services, safe water, roads that are accessible year round, and electricity and telephone services. Poverty is most severe among rural farmers, who are mainly traditional small-scale producers. About six in ten small-scale rural farmers are poor, and many are women. Women bear heavy workload in addition to their domestic chores, they are responsible for about 60 per cent of agricultural production. More than half the women who head households in rural areas are among the poorest 20 per cent of the population. The fate of the youth and students in rural area is not promising. They are mostly at disadvantage to their counterparts at urban areas who have easy access to quality education, internet facilities, employment opportunities, better health care and opportunities for advancement. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, the rural folks are facing, they enjoy certain advantages. For instance, living in a rural area allows residents to enjoy the natural environment instead of having to go to recreational sites. In addition, rural people do not have to struggle with the daily stresses of urban life such as being stuck in traffic, dealing with higher rates of crime, and in many cases, paying higher taxes. These absences of stressors can have a great effect on the overall quality of life and as one researcher notes, "People living in rural and sparsely populated areas are less likely to have mental health problems than those living in urban areas and may also be less likely to relapse into depression or mental illness once they have recovered from these in more densely populated areas" (J. W. Combs 1960). The big question is, are these advantages

much enough than the disadvantages to motivate those there (rural folks) to stay there? The big response to the big the question is "NO" since its disadvantages outweigh that of the advantages. These phenomena is the main push factor causing the rural folks to move to areas (urban areas) having comparative advantage than the rural areas (thus from the rural areas to the urban centers) (Samkof, 2002). Urban area is an area with relatively high population density that contains a set of closely related activities. Urban areas are endowed with free-standing built-up area with a service core with a sufficient number and variety of shops and services, equipped with better administrative, commercial, education, entertainment and other social and civic functions. Urban areas generally have advanced systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, and transportation. Parents in the urban areas have a number of choices available for the education of their children and can often select from a long list of both public and private school districts, which leads to the potential for better education. It is also worth noting that urban areas offer residents the possibility to choose from a range of employment opportunities at any number of companies or organizations. Aside from this, urbanites have better access to choices in healthcare as well and if they suffer from diseases they have a number of specialists to choose from in their area. Development is mostly concentrated in the urban areas which intend to facilitate interaction between people and businesses, benefiting both parties in the process. There is a widely availability of modern amenities like the internet, telephone and satellite communication facilities in the urban areas. Majority of the households in urban areas are blessed with technological advancement or products which lead to effective and efficient work done since most of the jobs are done technologically instead of man power. Urban folks are at an advantage of using these technological amenities (internet facilities and computer) to broaden the scope of their knowledge compared to their counterparts at the rural area where these products (technological products) are limited, and in most cases lacking. Again there is unlimited access to financial opportunities to the urban producer. His rural colleague being poor in nature has limited access to financial institutions. The presence of credit available to the urban producers to expand their business and engage in other ventures is one of the advantages the urban folks have over the rural folks who although have the available raw materials, lack the capital and technological expertise which can be provided by the financial sectors. As stated earlier these advantages compel most of the rural folks to move to the urban centers to have access to the numerous advantages endowed in those areas. The act of moving from the rural area to the urban centers for economic and social opportunities is term as rural-urban migration. Rural-urban migration has led to urban areas in developing countries to witness a rapid increase in urban population concentration within the past decades. In Ghana, for example, the urban population in1960 was 23 percent of the total population. The proportion increased by almost10 percent to 32 percent in 1984 (Statistical Service of Ghana, 1988). This has engendered both scholarly and policy interests and concerns. The concerns have emanated from the fact that the bulk of the urban population is constituted of migrants from rural areas and other small towns. The causes of this The loss of rural population to urban centers is often bemoaned for its implied adverse effect on rural development. The empirical data have revealed that migration is generally selective of the young, versatile, and/or better educated members of the community (Ritchey, 1976; Browning Ritchey, 1976; Browning & Feindt, 1969). This creates a form of "brain drain" on the rural populations. The deleterious consequences of rural-urban migration has led to the demand for urban socioeconomic amenities exceeding their supply, the urban areas often become spectacles of multifarious problems such as overcrowding, congestion, inadequate housing, high rates of unemployment and underemployment, crime and other forms of delinquency. The quality of life at both the areas of origin and destination are, therefore, significantly affected. The repercussion of the ongoing analysis is being discussed below; 

Unemployment in the rural areas:in the developing world, there are limited job opportunities available, so the influx of people from the rural areas to the urban who are mainly unskilled in profession causes them not fit for the available jobs in the urban which are mainly skilled in nature. Thus there will be a rise in the unemployment and the underemployment rate in the urban areas as well as the rural areas. As the migration happens, the labour force in the rural areas is being reduced and this will go a long way to affect the output that can be produced in the long run. 

The key to solving this problem of excessive rural urban migration in restoring a proper balance between rural economic and social opportunities are; 

Improvement in the quality of education: in an attempt to reduce congestion in urban school as well as some fortunate rural areas, there should be a policy that will lead to the improvement in the quality of education in the rural areas. This should not just be the number of school built but also the quality of teachers, the resources in the school like library, playing field, serene environment and even better structure of the school as far as building is concerned. Well trained teachers must be posted into the rural areas and adequately motivated; teachers bungalows; rural teachers allowances, teachers that will teach what they have to teach and inculcate in their student the passion to believe in themselves. The school

should be of the same standard as the ones in the urban centres; a building and not just a structure. The resources available should be made ease to the student so that they can increase their innermost endowments. There have to be changes in the curriculum, teaching learning materials and the teaching strategy, a total revamping of the educational sector and changes in the attitude and the mindset of every member of the community: the learners, the educated, parents and society at large. This policy will affect the learned and later impact on the farmers and the rural community at large. 

ACHIEVEMENTS AND INNOVATIONS IN AGRICULTURE

Growth in agriculture. 

The agriculture and fisheries sector has proven its resilience in the face of severe natural disasters. Recovering from the long dry spell in 2010, both palay and corn recorded 15.9% growth in volume at production levels of 10.75 million metric tons of rice and 5.49 million metric tons of corn. 

Agricultural production volume grew by 4.28 percent in the first nine months of 2011, a marked improvement over the 2.81 percent decline during the same period in 2010.

It is worth noting that the growth achieved in rice production is the highest in the last 10 years. 

Boosted by the increase in production of other crops like sugarcane, coconut and others, the crops subsector contributed 50.07 percent to total agricultural production while the shares of other subsectors were as follows: fisheries - 20 percent, livestock-16 percent and poultry- 14 percent. 

Making farmers believe in government means showing them that the DA serves their interests. We have lowered rice importation for this year from 2.4 million metric tons in 2010 to 860,000 metric tons. Of the total volume imported, 600,000 metric tons were imported by the private sector and farmers' groups, while 200,000 metric tons are NFA imports. These resulted in savings for government and served the interest of Filipino farmers. 

The Food Staples Sufficiency Program (FSSP) is at the heart of our food security policy. The FSSP includes a set of interventions to improve productivity, increase farmers' incomes and ensure the country's food supply. For 2012 and 2013, while we will continue to import, the NFA Council is considering allowing the private sector to handle bigger portions of imports.

SPECIFIC INNOVATIONS

Engaging landless rural workers as service providers

On 12 December, the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Social Work and Development launched the Agrikulturang Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino in Las Navas, Northern Samar. The national launch comes after a partnership between the two agencies that started in August 2011 to engage landless farmers under the DSWD's Cash-for-Work Program in paddy diking (the building of "pilapil" around farms) to allow these farms to benefit from the Catubig irrigation project. 

From just four hectares of farms being served, last August, by an irrigation project started 10 years ago, the service area with built up paddy dikes increased to 303 hectares within less than four months. This was the result of the work of eight batches of workers with 50 farmers per batch. Farmers are grouped into teams of 10 persons and they work for 10 days for each hectare to build some 650 meters of "pilapil." Each batch undergoes training in paddy diking. Aside from the training, the DA also provided tools that the workers use for the job. Seventeen more batches of 100 persons per batch are being prepared to work on 30 hectares per batch. The workers get paid for four days of training and for 11 days at work at P200 per day. Altogether, the project will cover some 4,000 hectares that will create jobs for the landless rural workers and produce food for the province of Northern Samar. 

The same workers who are building the paddies will be trained and organized into service provider groups that will eventually be able to contract other farm jobs from paddy diking to plowing, replanting, harvesting, irrigation canal repair and desilting and other labor-intensive farm activities. 

The poverty reduction strategy is to organize "skills-based" service provider groups who will be able to contract to do farm services that the group can guarantee in terms of quality and competitive pricing. Management and marketing will be important add-on components of the groups to enable them to solicit enough jobs for the group, sufficient income and maintain themselves in a given area because of the good job they do.

We have started the work on the service provider scheme for coconut replanting and coconut fertilization and for the repair and desilting of irrigation canals.. Farmers will be engaged to undertake the Philippine Coconut Authority's coconut planting project that targets 138,125 farmers to replant the same number of hectares of coconut farms. Other farm laborers will be tapped to do coconut fertilization while other coastal families will produce salt that will be procured by the program to fertilize the coconut trees. The program is, likewise, linked with the DSWD Cash-for-Work Program.

Philippine Shell Foundation Inc. Program

Sanayan sa Kakayahang Agrikultura

The Sanayan sa Kakayahang Agrikultura (SAKA) Program was created in 1985, two years after SKIL was launched. It is offered to sons and daughters of farming families with small land holdings. SAKA is an agricultural skills training program designed to improve farm productivity and management of either lowland or upland farming. It is also intended to help alter the stigma placed in farming and the lack of interest of young people to invest their future in the farm.

Since 1985, SAKA has undergone various modifications to fit the changing needs of young farmers through the introduction of new farming techniques and technologies.

In partnership with the Pampanga Agricultural College, Don Severino Agricultural College (now Cavite State University), and Benguet State University, SAKA began as a two-year course that trained scholars on crop and animal production, aquaculture, agro-forestry technology, farm management, farm equipment maintenance, basic accounting, and communication skills.

Scholars were lent money while enrolled in the course to jumpstart income-generating projects out of their own farm produce. Upon completing the two-year course, SAKA scholars earned a Diploma in Agriculture Technology.

Later on, SAKA was redesigned and compressed into a one-year course. This set up allowed scholars to return to their farms and practice their new skills after a year of training. Finishing the course rendered them a Certificate in Agricultural Technology and Management.

Today, SAKA is a one-year course that is not only concerned with tilling the land and improving yields. It also imparts scientific farming technologies and farm entrepreneurship skills to scholars. Upon completion of the course, SAKA graduates earn a Certificate in Farm Entrepreneurship and are given access to microcredit to enable them to implement their back-to-farm plans.

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVEOLPMENT

Darwin's Theory of Evolution Charles Darwin (1809-1882) believed that young, untrained infants share many characteristics with their nonhuman ancestors and that observing child development might provide insights into the evolutionary history of the human species. 

» Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) challenged prevailing notions of human nature and human development by proposing that we are driven by motives and emotions on which we are largely unaware and that we are shaped by our earliest experiences in life.     

» Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson (1902- ) revised Freud's theory by placing more emphasis on social influences, developing stares with a broader focus, emphasizing the ego, expressing a more positive view of human nature, and applying the theory across the entire life span.   

» Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory Jean Piaget (1896-1980) viewed intelligence as a process that helps an organism adapt to its environment and proposed four major periods of cognitive development. 

» Behaviorism John B. Watson believed that conclusions about human development and functioning should be based on observations of overt behavior rather than on speculations about unconscious motives or cognitive processes that remain unobservable.  

» Skinner's Operant Conditioning Theory B. F. Skinner belived that the essence of human development is the continual acquitsition of new habits of behavior and that these learned behaviors are controlled by external stimuli (reinforcers and unishers).     

» Bandura's Social Cognitive  Theory Albert Bandura claimed that humans are cognitive beings whose active processing of information from the environment plays a major role in learning and human develpment.    

» Vygotsky's Cognitive Theory Lev Vygotsky insisted that children's minds are shaped by the particular social and historical context in which they live and by their interactions with adults.     

» Information Processing Theory The information proccessing approach to humban development emphasizes the fundamental mental processes involved in attention, perception, memory, and decision making by using a computer analogy.     

» Biobehavioral Theories These theories look to investigate the extent to which genetic and environmental differences among people or animals are responsible for differences in their traits.     

» Bowlby's Attachment Theory John Bowlby believed that many invant behaviors that promote emotional attachments have evolved because they make it more likely that the invant will be cared for by adults and will therefore survive. 

» Cross-Cultural Theories This perspective looks to find the typical rather than the unique and look for the underlying similarities among cultures in order to define universal occurrences.    

» Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory of Development Urie Bronfenbrenner emphasized that the developing person is embedded in a series of environmental systems that interact with one another and with the individual to influence development.     

» Contextual Theories These perspectives hold that development arises from the ongoing interrelationships between the changing organism and a changing world.  Changes in the person produce changes in his or her environment, changes in the environment produce changes in the person, and this interchange goes on continuously.   

» Risk and Resiliency Theories These theories investigate the survival of individuals (resiliency) that are faced with adversity (risk).     

Theories of Cognitive Development

     There exist several theories of cognitive development, and no one theory has yet to explain all of the aspects of cognitive development. These theories are presented in the following.

1) Jean Piagets stages of Development:     Piagets theory is generally thought to be the most comprehensive theory of cognitive development. The general principles of Piaget's theory include the following. He felt that intelligence is an aid in how one adapts to the environment. Intelligence can be displayed on a continuum and is shown as one has increasingly complex responses to their environment. Equilibration refers to how development occurs through stages - a process of cognitive development in which children seek a balance between the information and experiences they encounter. Piaget considered four main stages of development. The sensorimotor stage is when an infant develops in terms of sensory input and motor output. In other words the infant responds reflexively to their environment (i.e., crying, sucking, and grasping).

     As well they begin to gain representational thought at about 18-24 months as they start to be able to think about objects and people who are not in their immediate environment. The Proeoperational stage (2-7 years) is made up of a development in how children can mentally represent things and verbally communicate. The concrete-operational stage (7-12 years) is characterized by a child's ability to mentally manipulate their thoughts about real objects. They now have thoughts and memories of objects, and can perform mental operations on these. The final stage of the formal operational stage (12 onwards) is characterized by the ability to make mental manipulations on internal and abstract symbols - they begin to see others perspectives.

2) Neo-Piagetian Theorists:     These theorists believe in Piagets idea of developmental stages but further it by building on his four stages, most often suggesting a fifth stage of development - problem finding. In this stage, an individual can figure out what problem they are facing and decide how to solve them. This fifth stage can be thought of as post-formal thinking in which an individual can recognize the unfolding of evolution and thought.

3) Lev Vygotsky's Theory:     The main difference in Vygotsky's theory is that he emphasizes the role of environemeny in children

intellectual development - that development proceeds from the outside in - through internalization. Internalization is the process by which an individual absorbs knowledge from their external environment. Therefore, it is social rather than biological factors that most affect the child. He believed that there exists a Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which is the range of ability between a persons level of abilities and their capabilities that may not be directly exposed. Therefore when observing children's abilities we need to be careful in how we measure them as we mat not be observing all that they are capable of due to environmental circumstances that prevent them from showing their fill potential.

4) Information processing Theories of Development:     This type of theorist seeks to understand cognitive development in terms of how children at different ages process information differently. The way that children and all people process information includes a variety of functions - these including perception, memory, understanding language and speaking it, understanding numbers and being able to work with them, problem solving and using reason and logic when thinking.

Cognitive Development

     There are five broad questions that cognitive psychology addresses when looking at cognitive development. These include: What kind of cognitive abilities does a newborn have? At what age do we begin to show certain cognitive abilities? Are there critical periods in development when these skills must be acquired? What causes differences in peoples cognitive skills? What is the bigger influence - environment or biological influences? Is development stagelike or smooth? Is development an all over process or do specific areas develop faster than others?

     The two main concepts in cognitive development is maturation and learning. Maturation is any permanent change in thought or behaviour that occur through the biological process of aging without regard to environmental influences. Learning is any relatively permanent change in thinking or behaviour that is a result of experience. Maturation is programmed - it will happen regardless of the environment. Things that occur through maturation include reflexes. Learning will only take place is an individual has a particular experience. The question of maturation versus learning is an age old debate - but today most psychologists believe that maturation and learning influence cognitive ability. We may be born with a particular biological capability, but the extent to which it will be brought out depends on the environmental cues we are exposed to. Certain environments may bring out different cognitive abilities.

     The next question that concerns psychologists is whether development occurs in a series of stages or whether it is a continuous progression that gradually unfolds. Stages occur in a sequence - one must happen before the other can, for example crawling before walking and language development. Each stage is associated with a specific set of abilities used in thinking. Therefore, when in a certain stage a child will think and reason differently than if they were in a different stage. Given these characteristics of stages - do children exhibit stage-like development? Different psychologists believe different things. And those that believe that stages do exist also realize that these stages are not clear cut. 

     The third controversial question addresses whether development occurs generally through out the brain or whether certain specific areas develop at different paces. For example, does a child learn how to remember the alphabet at the same time they learn to remember numbers? Since the 1970's many psychologists have come to believe that the brain develops in specific areas rather than generally.

     The next question that psychologists are concerned with is what ages do infants; children and adults demonstrate various kinds of thought and behaviours? It is important to know this as we need to know the normal stages of a child's development and what they should know when. The age that a child first acquires motor skills does not predict later intelligence; however, the one thing that does predict this is an infant's preference for novelty - stimulus that is moderately different from that that they already know. Most developmental psychologists would agree that the key to understanding cognitive development is not the identification of the specific stages that a child will acquire new skills, but rather an understanding of how there abilities progress and unfold.

How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Human Development?

How Much Do Nature And Nurture Influence Human Development Respectively?

The debate concerning "how do nature and nurture influence human development” has factors which

support both nature and nurture. Nature is responsible for the growth of a person from the fetus level till

development into a normal adult. The genetic makeup of a human being is responsible for their sex, skin

color, color of their eyes and hair as well as distinguishing features which are inherited. Nature can only

assist in the growth of a fetus into a normal well-developed adult who may have inherited some special

talents. Thus it can be concluded that nature uses the genetic coding to help in physical development and

does impart some positive or negative traits to an individual. However, it is nurture which can be utilized to

improve positive traits and diminish the effect of negative traits in a child.

It is indeed important to recognize that nature in the form of inherited traits does exist but a person’s

overall behavior is influenced a great deal by nurture or upbringing and the environmental factors involved

in this upbringing. Several recent studies carried out on infant and child behavior have shown that there is

significant evidence to support the fact that nurture strongly influences human development especially in

the early years. In traditional society most parents encourage their kids to take part in extracurricular

activities like learning music, dance or sports in accordance with the child’s talents and interests. The

talents have been given by nature but they can only be developed into skills through the hard work of

nurture.

Conclusion

Undoubtedly, nurture plays a very big role in early human development. Nurture in some way or another

speeds up an individual's capacity to study and learn new things. There is the common saying that

“practice makes perfect.” There for an individual can improve knowledge by practicing to adapt to all

creations in these circumstances or environment. The part which nurture plays in human development has

been demonstrated by psychologists in experiments in which stepping practice was administered to a

cohort of inference for just a few minutes many times in a day. It was later that these children were able to

walk several days earlier than infants who had not been given stepping practice (Zalazo, Zelazo & Kolb,

1972.)

In conclusion, when anyone asks the question “how do nature and nurture influence human development,”

it is evident that nature is responsible for producing healthy, well-developed babies. It is also nurture that

plays an important role in the early stages of human development. Research has drawn beyond doubt that

early human development is quicker and more focused due to nurture as it builds up on the talents

provided by nature. Nature is responsible for the normal development of the fetus into a normal and

healthy infant but it cannot entirely develop that fetus into an intelligent, knowledgeable or athletic adult.

This is possible only through the exposure that nurture gives a person. Therefore when answering the

question “how do nature and nurture influence human development”, and it would be correct to say that

although the nature has some degree of influence on human development, nurture strongly influences

early human development.

STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENTThe process of prenatal development occurs in three main stages. The first two weeks after

conception are known as the germinal stage; the third through the eighth week are known as the embryonic period; and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the fetal period.

The Germinal StageThe germinal stage begins with conception, when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg, known as a zygote, then moves toward the uterus, a journey that can take up to a week to complete. Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception.

The Embryonic StageThe mass of cells is now know as and embryo. The beginning of the third week after conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells becomes a distinct human being. The embryo begins to divide into three layers each of which will become an important body system. Approximately 22 days after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will later develop into the central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain.

The Fetal StageOnce cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and becomes known as a fetus. This period of develop begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth. The early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage continue to develop. The neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord and neurons form. Sex organs begin to appear during the third month of gestation. The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical growth occurs in the later stages of pregnancy.

This stage of prenatal development lasts the longest and is marked by amazing change and growth.

During the third month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate and by the end of the month all

parts of the body will be formed. At this point, the fetus weight around three ounces.

The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. During the second

trimester, or months four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger and other body systems become

further developed. Fingernails, hair, eyelashes and toenails form. Perhaps most noticeably, the fetus

increases quite dramatically in size, increasing about six times in size. The brain and central nervous

system also become responsive during the second trimester. Around 28 weeks, the brain starts to mature

much faster with activity that greatly resembles that of a sleeping newborn.

During period from seven months until birth, the fetus continues to develop, put on weight, and prepare

for life outside the womb. The lungs begin to expand and contract, preparing the muscles for breathing.

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SOCIOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

Several social forces are at work during the process of curriculum development. Probably the most powerful is the national economy, because schools are challenged constantly to meet the workforce demands of a changing world. The world of the twenty-first century will be technologically advanced world, and the workplace will require more education than ever before. Modern careers require skills that are more technologically complex, and also more interactive. Successful workers in the modern world must possess both an understanding of electronic technology and the ability to work cooperatively with others to solve problems of a highly intricate nature. The curriculum must change to meet these needs.

Social Forces that Influence Curriculum Development

In curriculum development, the social phenomena must be taken into consideration, without forgetting that the individual must maintain his identity and individuality. The curriculum must assist the individual to understand the process of harmonization and to develop a repertoire of behaviors that will serve in a broad range of situations such as compassion, understanding, sensitivity, awareness, affection, acceptance, initiative and inquiry. The curriculum must foment a reasonable conformity to social norms and standards without going against individual expression. There must be choice up to a point.

Another social force that impacts curriculum development is the women’s movement. As women gained a new level of confidence in themselves during the 1960s and 1970s, they entered the workforce in large numbers though their salaries were often unequal to those of their male counterparts. In spite of the fact that most professions have attracted more women into their ranks, careers are by and large still gender oriented. The curriculum has clearly not met the needs of the female population as they attempt to enter traditionally male professions. As a result, a significant human resource remains underutilized in our society.

As society changes, so do the boundaries of acceptable behavior, and no one questions the influence of student and family behavior on the curriculum of the schools. Curriculum is formal, informal, and hidden. Informal curriculum is most affected by the behavior of people in schools, and it is a curriculum that is deteriorating in many cases. Standards of acceptable behavior for adults (educators, parents, and adults in general) and students have declined, and the result has been a code of ethics too confusing for most young people to understand, let alone internalize. Many families have become fragmented, in some cases forcing children to try and construct their own set of values. Many students demonstrate a lack of self-discipline that has in turn had a less than desirable effect on their behavior at school. Although the formal curriculum may have to change to meet these students’ needs more adequately, it is the informal curriculum, including that of the family and the surrounding community that will have to be strengthened if violence and disciplinary problems in the schools are to be reduced.

Other social factors, including the financial burden and changes in the student population, have made it more challenging than ever for educators to develop curriculum appropriate for all students. The responsibility cannot, however, simply be laid at the feet of teachers and administrators. Clearly there is a much larger sphere of influence, encompassing the family, the community, the media, the national

economy, and the changing international scene, that brings an unprecedented variety of learners to the schoolhouse door each day-and consequently an unprecedented demand for curriculum development as well.

SUMMARY

Many forces today influence society. Each social institution, including educational system, affects and is affected by other facets of society. Social customs and aims in cultural, political, and economic matters also shape school curriculum. Each of society’s institutions is accorded important functions to perform in relation to the system as a whole and to its various parts. Decisions of governmental agencies, for example, affect the school and home. And operations of these two institutions in turn affect governmental practice.

WHAT IS CURRICULUM?

CURRICULUM has numerous definitions, which can be slightly confusing. In its broadest sense a

curriculum may refer to all courses offered at a school. This is particularly true of schools at the university

level, where the diversity of a curriculum might be an attractive point to a potential student.

A curriculum may also refer to a defined and prescribed course of studies, which students must fulfill in

order to pass a certain level of education. For example, an elementary school might discuss how its

curriculum, or its entire sum of lessons and teachings, is designed to improve national testing scores or

help students learn the basics. An individual teacher might also refer to his or her curriculum, meaning all

the subjects that will be taught during a school year.

On the other hand, a high school might refer to a curriculum as the courses required in order to receive

one’s diploma. They might also refer to curriculum in exactly the same way as the elementary school, and

use curriculum to mean both individual courses needed to pass, and the overall offering of courses, which

help prepare a student for life after high school.

In colleges, specific courses make up the individual’s curriculum, allowing one to obtain a degree or certification in a certain field. Usually an individual will have to complete a certain amount of general education courses, and then specialized courses within a chosen field. In this way, the curriculum is individualized to the person’s desire for a certain type of expertise. Not following the prescribed curriculum may mean not obtaining a degree.

What Is Curriculum Planning?

 Curriculum planning involves a series of organizational methods that are focused on achieving optimal

student comprehension. This comprehension is typically demonstrated in terms of what the students have

learned and how they can apply that knowledge. Instructors might structure their curriculum around daily

lesson plans, certain units within a class, or an entire educational program.

During the curriculum planning phase, instructors usually take into consideration various external factors

that might compliment or hinder their lesson curriculum. Current issues and trends in society might

necessitate the adjustment of certain lesson topics. There might also be certain institutional requirements

that the instructor could need to implement into their curriculum.

Instructors are typically responsible for making sure that their curriculum planning meets the educational

needs of students. If, for example, an instructor is teaching an astronomy course, it is his or her duty to

make sure that the materials that are assembled are the most current and most comprehensible. When

the astronomers find something new, these discoveries can be included in curriculum lessons.

Students usually have different methods of understanding information. Curriculum planning can be done in

such a way as to accommodate many different learning styles. Depending on the subject being taught,

lesson plans can implement ideas such as lectures, experiments, field trips, and research papers.

Progress indicators are typically an integral part of curriculum planning. They allow instructors to adjust their lessons accordingly if a concept is not fully understood by the students. Instructors usually need to create their own set of planning guidelines to keep curriculum lessons on task.

ACCREDITATION

Accreditation ensures that the quality of professional programs merits public confidence. The Accreditation Standards establish basic requirements for baccalaureate and master’s levels. Accreditation Standards pertain to the following program elements:

• Mission, goals, and objectives • Curriculum • Governance, structure, and resources • Faculty • Student professional development • Nondiscrimination and human diversity • Program renewal • Program assessment and continuous improvement

Accrediting a new course

When a client's training needs cannot be met by customising a course within the guidelines of an existing Training Package or accredited course, nationally recognised training may still be offered by developing a new accredited course.

Any course developed by a registered training organisation (RTO) must be accredited by a state or territory training authority (STA) if the RTO intends to issue nationally recognised qualifications or statements of attainment to students who successfully complete the course.

STAs will consider applications for the accreditation of courses where:

a Training Package or competency standards in the area proposed has not yet been developed competency standards from two or more Training Packages are incorporated to achieve a

qualification not otherwise available current Training Package qualifications are not relevant to industry or community needs.

Course development and accreditation processAn RTO’s first step in getting a course accredited is to contact its STA to discuss the specific requirements for curriculum development, and the accreditation application. The next three steps in the course development and accreditation process are:

Research and consultation Course development Submission and accreditation.

Research and consultationThe need for the course must be established through research and consultation. During this step an RTO must ensure the proposed course does not duplicate an existing Training Package or accredited course.

The RTO must consult with its state or territory course accrediting authority and possible stakeholders such as industry enterprise and community groups. Consultation is required at all phases of course development to ensure it is related to realistic industry, workplace or community needs.

Course developmentA course can be developed by:

using units of competency from Training Packages developing units of competency eg specific enterprise units of competency developing modules comprised of learning outcomes if the course proponent can justify to the

accrediting body that units of competency are not appropriate.A course can also be developed by using a combination of the above processes.

Submission and accreditationAfter a course has been developed, it must be submitted to the relevant state or territory course accrediting authority body for accreditation.

While considering a submission to accredit a course, the state or territory course accrediting authority may require additional information. The course developer should be prepared to provide any additional information requested.

If the course is accredited, the RTO will receive an accreditation document, which will detail:

the title and national code for the accredited course the start and end date of the accreditation.

Accreditation feesAccreditation fees vary according to the course and qualifications proposed. Fees can range from $500 for a short course to $4000 for a degree or diploma.

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AFMA

The Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997 (AFMA, Republic Act 8435) is a piece of

landmark legislation that aims to accelerate the pace of development of agriculture and fisheries. It

prescribes a comprehensive set of policies and programs that aim to jumpstart agriculture and fisheries

modernization.

Department of Agriculture Administrative Order No. 6 (1998), the Implementing Rules and Regulations of

RA 8435, mandates the NAFC to assist the DA in the broad-based monitoring of the agriculture and

fisheries modernization process (Rule 113.1).

The NAFC has initially embarked on monitoring agency compliance with the deadlines for the completion

of various groundwork activities set under the law. It has since started to upgrade its monitoring activity to

include examination of the more substantive provisions of the law.

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE STATUS OF ACTIVITIES UNDER THE IMPLEMENTING RULES AND REGULATIONS (IRR) OF THE AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES MODERNIZATION ACT (AFMA)

(As of June 30, 2011)

STRATEGIC AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT ZONES (SAFDZ)

The following activities were completed:

• Preparation of the list and composition of the Network of Protected Areas for Agricultural and Agro-Industrial Development (NPAAAD);

• Identification of SAFDZ areas;

• Completion of the NPAAAD and SAFDZ maps for the whole country The maps are available to the public;

• Issuance of guidelines to local government units (LGUs) on the incorporation of the SAFDZ in the enactment and updating of LGU land use and zoning plans and ordinances; and

• Issuance of guidelines on premature conversion of agricultural lands to non-agricultural areas through Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR)

Administrative Order No. 1 series of 1999, which was issued on March 30, 1999.

AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES MODERNIZATION PLAN (AFMP)

• The AFMP 2001-2004 of DA has been formulated and disseminated. The DA availed of a World Bank Technical Assistance (TA) for the formulation of the framework for the successor AFMP.

• A plan for the participatory planning and capability building activities under the AFMP was completed.

• Reading and other information materials for planning activities had been prepared.

• The Plan Performance Monitoring Indicator System (PPMIS) has been finalized and is being implemented in the DA regional offices and some attached agencies.

CREDIT

• The design and the operating policies and procedures of the Agro-Industry Modernization Credit and Financing Program (AMCFP) had been approved and issued.

• Dialogue sessions among stakeholders in rural, agricultural and fisheries financing are continuously being conducted.

• The joint circular between the Department of Agriculture (DA), Department of Finance (DOF) and Department of Budget and Management (DBM), which established the rules and regulations on the transfer of the Directed Credit Program (DCP) funds into the AMCFP was approved on March 11, 2003.

• Implementation of the AMCFP is on-going. Highlights of the Status of Activities Under the IRR of the AFMA (As of June 30, 2011) 2

- The following programs are being undertaken under the AMCFP Special Lending Facility:

a) Agricultural Microfinance Program (AMP) with the People’s Credit and Finance Corporation (PCFC); and Agri-Fishery Microfinance Program (AFMP) with the Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP).

R.A. 100681 - ORGANIC AGRICULTURE ACT OF 2010

Bill Highlights

Policy - To promote, propagate, develop further and implement the practice of Organic Agriculture 

that will cumulatively condition and enrich the fertility of the soil, increase farm productivity, reduce

pollution and destruction of the environment, prevent depletion of natural resources, further

protect the health of farmers, consumers and the general public, and save on imported farm inputs.

Coverage – (a) Policy Formulation on regulation, registration, accreditation, certification and

labeling on organic agriculture; (b) Research, development and extension of appropriate

sustainable environment and gender friendly, organic agriculture; (c) Promotion and

encouragement of the establishment of facilities, equipment and processing plants that would

accelerate the production and commercialization of organic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and

other appropriate farm inputs; and(d) Implementation of organic agricultural programs, projects

and activities, including the provision and delivery of support services with focus on the farmers

and other stakeholders.

National Organic Agricultural Program – through the promotion and commercialization of

organic farming practices, cultivation and adoption of production and processing methods which

have already been developed, or to be developed, continuing research and upgrading thereof, the

capacity building of farmers and the education of consumers thereon, the extension of assistance

to local government units (LGUs), peoples’ organizations (POs), nongovernment organizations

(NGOs) and other stakeholders including individuals  and groups who are practicing and promoting

these methods as well as those who are willing to do other pertinent activities, and documentation

and evaluation of the program.

National Organic Agricultural Board (NOAB) – to carry out the policy and the programs

provided in this Act, there is hereby created a NOAB which shall be the policy-making body and

shall provide direction and general guidelines for the implementation of the National Organic

Agriculture Program. The NOAB shall be attached to the Department of Agriculture (DA). The NOAB

shall ensure the full participation of POs, NGOs and the general public through coordination and

consultative mechanisms such as, but not limited to, public hearings, meetings and joint projects.

Organic Agriculture and the Protection of the Environment – The NOAB shall constantly devise

and Implement ways of producing organic farm inputs and help alleviate the problems of industrial

wastes and community garbage disposal. The BAFPS shall conduct studies and consultations in order to

advise local government on the collection and disposal of wastes and the production of organic farm

inputs.

Research, Development and Extension (RDE) – The Bureau of Agricultural Research (BAR), as the

lead agency shall coordinate with other agencies of the DA, DAR, DOST, DepEd, DILG, SUCs and private

organizations to develop, enhance, support and consolidate activities and related technologies for the

formulation and implementation of a unified and integrated organic agriculture RDE Plans which

include: (a) Research, Development and Commercialization of appropriate, innovative organic

agricultural technologies; (b) Nationwide promotion of developed and commercially viable farm wastes

and by-products through various extension strategies to accelerate production and distribution of

organic fertilizers; and (c) Conduct research for market development, policy formulation, regulation

and certification.

Organic Agriculture RDE Network – organized by the BAR and composed of SUCs, LGUs, NGOs,

reorganized association of organic input manufacturers and distributors, agricultural engineers,

agriculturists, soil technologists and farmer’s groups/associations.

RDE Centers – National, Regional and Provincial Organic R&D centers will be established and

integrated as a major component of the existing RDE centers of the DA, DOST, DENR, SUCs and LGUs.

Appropriations – Php 50 Million and the existing budget for the promotion of organic farming of the

DA is

appropriated for the initial years of implementation of the Act and for the continuous operation of the

NOAB. The NOAB is also authorized to solicit and accept assistance or facilities in forms of grants from

individuals/entities local or foreign.

Components of Farming Systems

In the integrated farming system, it is always emphasized to combine cropping with other enterprises/ activities, many enterprises are available and these includes cattle maintenance sheep or goat rearing, poultry, piggery, rabbit rearing, bee keeping etc.Any one or more can be combined with the cropping.

Integrated Farm System Model

Table 6.1 Major Farming Systems of East Asia and Pacific

Farming Systems

Land Area(% of region)

Agric. Popn.(% of region)

Principal Livelihoods

Lowland Rice 12 42 Rice, maize, pulses, sugarcane, oil seeds, vegetables,

      livestock, aquaculture

Tree Crop Mixed

5 3 Rubber, oil palm, coconuts, coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, rice, livestock

Root-Tuber 2 <1 Root crops (yam, taro, sweet potato), vegetables, fruits, livestock

(pigs and cattle)

Upland Intensive Mixed

19 27 Rice, pulses, maize, sugarcane, oil seeds, fruits, vegetables, livestock

Highland Extensive Mixed

5 4 Upland rice, pulses, maize, oil seeds, fruits, forest products, livestock

Temperate Mixed

6 14 Wheat, maize, pulses, oil crops, livestock

Pastoral 20 4 Livestock with irrigated crops in local suitable areas

Sparse (Forest) 10 1 Hunting, gathering

Sparse (Arid) 20 2 Local grazing where water available

Coastal Artisanal Fishing

1 2 Fishing, coconut, mixed cropping

Urban Based <1 1 Horticulture, livestock, off-farm income

What is the Integrated Farm System Model?

With tighter profit margins and increasing environmental constraints, strategic planning of farm production systems is becoming both more important and more difficult. This is especially true for dairy and beef production. Livestock production is complex with a number of interacting processes that include crop and pasture production, crop harvest, feed storage, grazing, feeding, and manure handling. Computer simulation provides a useful procedure for integrating these processes to predict the long-term performance, environmental impact, and economics of production systems.

Components of Organic FarmingDifferent components of organic farming are as follows: Crop and Soil ManagementOrganic farming system encourages the use of rotations and measures to maintain soil fertility. Carefully managed soil with a high production of humus offer essential advantages with respect to water retention ion exchange, soil erosion and animal life in the soil. Green manuring and inter-cropping of legumes is another important aspect for  biological farming systems not only in regard to weed control but also in reducing the leaching of nutrients and in reducing soil erosion

On-farm Waste RecyclingIncrease price of chemical fertilizers have enables organic wastes to regain an important role in the fertilizer practices on the farm. Good manure management means improved fertilizers value of manure and slurry and less nutrient losses. Composting of all organic wastes in general and of Farm Yard Manure (FYM) or feedlot manure in particular is important in organic farming.

Non-chemical Weed ManagementWeed management is one of the main concernin organic agriculture. Generally, allaspects of arable crop production play an important role in a system approach to problems. The elements to consider in preventing weed problems are crop rotation, greenmanuring, manure management and tillage. Mulching on a large scale by using manurespreaders may also be useful in weed control

Domestic and Industrial Waste Recycling 

Sewage and sludge use for crop production can form an important component of organicfarming if treatment and application methods are improved further

Energy UseIn the energy requirement for production measured per rupees of produce for organicfarms is only one third of what it is for their conventional counterparts. Because N-fertilizer andpesticides are not used by biological farmers, the comparison of total energyinput/ha. with total energy output favors biological farming systems.

Food QualityFood quality is one of the main issues, which concerns both scientists and consumers. Nitrates in water and farm produce, desirable components, pesticides residues, keeping quality and

Ecological AgricultureThe growing concern about environmental degradation, dwindling natural resources andurgency to meet the food needs of the increasing population are nompelling farm scientistand policy makers to seriously examine alternative to chemical agriculture. As reported by Vankataramani (1995) case studies shows that when chemical farm incurred about11.250 towards the cost of cultivation of rice. An organic farm spend rupees 10,590 to produce 5625 kg paddy and 8 tones of straw/ha. The net returns from the ecologicalfarming system at the current cost of rupees 3.34/kg paddy is rupees 8,197.50. Inchemical farming, the net profit is rupees 7500. If one gets a premium price for the poison force, organically grown rice, the economic returns from the ecological farmingsystem will highly encouraging

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Dissertation sample is a written work of whom?Was the dissertation written by a person who does not speak English as very first language? What was class or course the dissertation was written for? When it was written?Was It Approved &amp What Grade Did It Get? This is the most essential thing to know before you mock-up a dissertation example. If the examples you are following failed to get the approval, then chances are your dissertation could end up with the very same result…What are the essentialities a sample Dissertation need to contain?Does the dissertation sample flow correctly?Dissertations that sound choppy or stuttered are for the most portion ineffectual and will most likely fail to impress.Is the dissertation sample appropriately formatted?The last thing you want is to have your professor concentrate on your improper dissertation formatting as opposed to your great suggestions.Does the sample contain strong sufficient thesis hypothesis?Let us function with you on creating a powerful argument to point you in the proper direction.Is the sample is gathered with supporting study?Backing up your facts is paramount to any dissertation. Expert researchers are able to offer you with the necessary information to make your dissertation stand 

AGRICULTURE DISSERTATION WRITING HELP

Agriculture Writing Tip 1 – Topic Selection

Firstly, pick a topic on which you are supposed to write your agriculture assignment. Your agriculture topic

should be selected under the light of these two points.

Ø Your interest

Ø Enough data, so that you may not get stuck

The agriculture topic is supposed to be selected in which you are interested so that you may not get bored

while writing your papers and it should not be too narrow. It should be general so that you can easily

complete your agriculture without getting stuck.

Agriculture Writing Tip 2 - Research Sources

Be careful that you employ the latest research sources. You can use diverse research techniques. You can

conduct research online and offline and you should use up-to-date research resources.

Some sources for research from which you can get adequate data are:

ü Surveys

ü Online and off-line libraries

ü Newspaper

ü Past research papers

ü Latest debates

Agriculture Writing Tip 3 – Agriculture Dissertation Format

After collecting all the data, now you have to write your agriculture agriculture dissertation in the

following format.

ü Introduction

ü List all the Problem

ü Review of Literature

ü Finding

ü Discussion

ü Solution

ü Ending

ü References

This is an exact format of agriculture dissertation writing. You must pursue this format to finish

your dissertation right on time, but the real fact is this that many students are not capable to manage it

because of many reasons. They face grave problems, for they are not able to write their dissertation.

Problems Of Students

• Confused in starting agriculture dissertation because they don't have clear enough ideas about starting dissertation• Puzzled in deciding a top quality dissertation title• Not up to the mark sources of research• Not capable to complete dissertation because of small amount of collected data available.• Mingle in selecting a right data to utilize in papers• Not confident to complete academic papers on time• Lack of writing skills

These are the problems which hinder in the way of students to finish their papers on time

THE AIM OF EDUCATION   IS TO CULTIVATE   PERSONALITY   INTEGRATION AND CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE:    Education as the fostering of natural human development.GROWTH IN   FREEDOM

 theme: Discussion of aim of education is a function of the philosophy of education or 'educational theory'. The aim of education - in the fullest and deepest sense of the word - is in keeping with the nature of the human personality or 'human nature'. Human nature is defined in  terms of the cultivation and development ofperceptive intelligence based on experience i.e. ' creative intelligence ' . Creative intelligence or 'intuition '  combines reason of understanding with wisdom of compassion... depends  on human 'awakening' or 'enlightenment'....   aim of education  is to cultivate creative intelligence required for adaptation to changes in thesocial environment i.e. 'adaptability ' .    .

Basic aim of education for the child is maturity and integration of personality required for personal freedom and adaptability

The purpose of education is to cultivate the mind so that the individual can accomplish all his/her aims in life. Education should enable the individual to use the full potential of the body, mind and spirit... should develop the ability to make the best use of his personality, surroundings and

circumstances in order to accomplish the maximum in life for himself and for others. The purpose of education would be met if the schools provided educational methods of self-development by which the individual can gain complete possession of of all his powers. Broadly speakly, education has two goals which are mutually dependent: cultivation and development of the individual and the improvement of society... individuals make up the society... the society improves with the improvement of the individuals who make it up... the individual is the heart of society....only by being true to the full growth of individuals who make it up, can by any chance society be true to itself. The aims of education are to foster the individual's inner freedom and development towards the following: self-initiated action and acceptance of responsibility for one's own actions, self-direction and intelligent decision making, critical learning and evaluation of others, acquisition of knowledge for resolution of problems, intelligent and flexible adaptation to new situations, creative utilization of experiential learning in adaptation to new situations, effective cooperation with others, self-motivation and a desire to work for one's own purposes i.e. 'intrinsic motivation'.

The aim of education is for the integration of the human mind which is intelligent and free. Education in the true sense is helping the individual to be mature and free… to flower, to bloom, to blossom… in love and goodness… to become fully ‘human’.    

The ultimate goals of education

Education is an investment. It takes a number of years for us to attend the formal form of education, which is schooling. It takes us the lifetime to be educated. 

So, what should be the ultimate goals of education? Well, in my opinion, there are 3 of them. They are:

1) To make the learners know and aware what his or her true potentials are. We have witnessed so many times, how high school gradutes or even univeristy graduates do not have any clues about what they want to do with their life, because they don't know what their potentials are. It's quite common to find university students who have chosen to study in their department just because their friends are studying there as well, or their parents 'advise' them to study in that department. But do they want to study there? More crucially, do they know what they want to study? Do they know what their potentials are? I doubt it. Even the university graduates can have very few ideas on what they want to do with all the higher education they have mastered. The common answer is that they want to find a job, which pays a lot of money, then get rich. It is such a waste that they don't utilize their true potentials, which can make them a lot happier. Education should help learners to find their true potentials and make them confident about having and utilizing them, otherwise it is a big failure.

2) To make the learners know and aware of the potentials of their surrounding environment. A lot of students in Indonesia study things that are so distant from their environment. They become alienated from their own surrounding. Thus, the education process is not a meaningful one. In a bigger picture it is sad to see that we, Indonesians, do not have clear and comprehensive knowledge of what potentials Indonesia has. It is sad to know that the foreigners, the foreign countries, the institutions outside Indonesia are better informed of what we have and what potentials that we have. It is ironic. But we can change this, through education, by creating a meaningful education process, by making learners 'literate' about the true potentials of our country. But first we need to engage them with their immediate surroundings, so than they become experts of their region.

3) To enable learners to combine the previous two points, the awareness of themselves and their environment, and then use this as the tools for them to solve problems of the real world, to create products and/or services that are valued within a cultural setting (This point is inspired by Howard Gardner's definition of 'intelligence'). I believe that when we can make this happen, then education will become our important asset to deal with all the problems that the country is currently facing. Education will be part of the solution.

Most importantly, education will not be a false investment. Can anyone imagine how the 12-year or maybe 16-year of formal education can become a false investment, if we dont know what and why we are doing what we are doing? It will be a waste of time, money and resources. We don't want that, do we?

Same-sex marriageFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Same-sex marriage (also known as gay marriage) is marriage between two persons of the same biological sex or gender

identity. Supporters of legal recognition for same-sex marriage typically refer to such recognition as marriage equality.[1]

Historical mention of the performance of same-sex marriages date back to the Roman Empire and the Ming Dynasty.[2][3] In 1989,

Denmark became the world's first country to recognise same-sex unions, and in 2000 the Netherlands became the first country

to sign into law a same-sex marriage bill.

Since 2001, eleven countries have begun allowing same-sex couples to marry

nationwide: Argentina, Belgium, Denmark, Canada, Iceland, the Netherlands,Norway, Portugal, Spain, South Africa,

and Sweden. Same-sex marriages are also performed and recognized in Mexico City, Quintana Roo, and parts of theUnited

States. Some jurisdictions that do not perform same-sex marriages recognize same-sex marriages performed

elsewhere: Israel, the Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, parts of the United States, and all states

of Mexico. Australia recognizes same-sex marriages only if one partner changes their sex after marriage.[4] The introduction of

same-sex marriage has varied by jurisdiction, resulting from legislative changes to marriage laws, court challenges based on

constitutional guarantees of equality, or a combination of the two.

Studies conducted in several countries indicate that more-educated people are more likely to support same-sex marriage than

the less-educated, and younger people are more likely to support same-sex marriage than older generations.[5] Additionally, polls

show that people who personally know a gay person are more likely to support it than people who don't know any gay people.[6]

The recognition of such marriages is a civil rights, political, social, moral, and religious issue in many

nations. Conflicts arise over whether same-sex couples should be allowed to enter into marriage, be required

to use a different status (such as a civil union, which either grant equal rights as marriage or limited rights in

comparison to marriage), or not have any such rights. A related issue is whether the term marriage should be

applied.[7][8][9]

Some analysts state that financial, psychological and physical well-being are enhanced by marriage, and that

children of same-sex couples benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally recognized union

supported by society's institutions.[10][11][12][13][14][15][16] Court documents filed by American scientific associations

also state that singling out gay men and women as ineligible for marriage both stigmatizes and invites public

discrimination against them.[17] The American Anthropological Association avers that social science research

does not support the view that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon not recognizing same-sex

marriage.[18]

Some organizations have described gay marriage as a universal human rights issue, equality before the law,[19] and of normalizing LGBT relationships.[20][21][22] Several authors attribute opposition to same-sex marriage as

coming from homophobia [23] [24] [25] [26]  or heterosexism and likens prohibitions on same-sex marriage to

past prohibitions on interracial marriage between blacks and whites.[27] On 9 May 2012, US President Barack

Obama announced his support for same sex marriage, becoming the first sitting U.S. president to do so.[28] Polls show the most right-wing religious people are more likely to oppose it.[29] Various polls show that a

majority of Americans support same-sex marriage.[30

Controversies

See also: LGBT rights opposition

While few societies have recognized same-sex unions as marriages, the historical and anthropological

record reveals a large range of attitudes towards same-sex unions ranging from praise, to sympathetic

toleration, to indifference, to prohibition. Opponents of same-sex marriages have argued that recognition of

same-sex marriages would erode religious freedoms,[160] and that same-sex marriage, while doing good for the

couples that participate in them and the children they are raising, undermines a right of children to be raised by

their biological mother and father.[161] Some supporters of same-sex marriages take the view that the

government should have no role in regulating personal relationships,[162] while others argue that same-sex

marriages would provide social benefits to same-sex couples.[163] The debate regarding same-sex marriages

includes debate based upon social viewpoints as well as debate based on majority rules, religious convictions,

economic arguments, health-related concerns, and a variety of other issues.

Philippine Ethnic and Muslim Minorities: Educating Children the Traditional WayMucha-Shim Quiling Arquiza

Mucha-Shim Quiling Arquiza Lot 7 Block 7, Sto Nino Village, Barangay Putik, 7000 Zamboanga City, Philippines. lumah_dilaut@yahoo.com

Mucha Arquiza is a member of the council of the Alliance of Indigenous Lumad and Moro Peoples for Appropriate and Liberating Education (Katutubong Alyansang Lumad Moro Para sa Angkop at Mapagpalayang Edukasyon) or KAALAM. She is director of the Lumah Ma Dilaut Center for Living Traditions, a development institution working with the Sama Dilaut sea nomads of Sulu in their struggle for rights to their ancestral seas and a sustainable livelihood, and the right to human security and cultural integrity.

Abstract

The Philippine government has committed itself to the Millennium Development Goal of achieving

100% primary education in 10 years. At the national level and within the context of formal education,

Education for All (EFA) has been adopted as the flagship program and the Department of Education

(DepEd) has a mandate to be aggressive in pursuing reforms to boost performance, eg through the

Basic Education Reform Agenda (BESRA). BESRA propels the “School First Policy” that aims to give

local governments more leeway in planning their education reform agenda. A policy of devolution

ensures freedom to local DepEd units in implementing EFA goals, especially in funding. This is

complemented by basic reforms within the DepEd bureaucracy, including the transformation of the

Non-Formal Education (NFE) Bureau into the Bureau of Alternative Learning Systems (BALS).

Particularly on mountainous Mindanao—home to at least 2 major groups of indigenous and minority

populations, the Moro and the Lumad—the Arroyo administration has taken a cue from the Republic

Act 9054, otherwise known as the Organic Act on Autonomous Muslim Mindanao—a by-product of

the 1996 Peace Accord—to be cognizant of plurality and cultural diversity on Mindanao. Thus, the

DepEd is charged with spearheading the cultural integration agenda by including Islamic values and

basic Arabic grammar into the curriculum in areas where Muslims are a majority. Meanwhile, catering

to the non-Muslim indigenous Lumad, the DepEd passed a memorandum in June 2004 accrediting

Indigenous People's (IP) schools. Yet it is apparent that the reforms have so far been national in focus

and integrationist, rather than substantial moves towards the full recognition and empowerment of

traditional systems and indigenous ways of educating the IP and minority children. Policy is one thing,

but implementation remains palliative and lukewarm.

Parents as Advocates: The Philippine A Case Study

Teresita G. De Mesa

Philippine

< ABSTRACT >

This case study documents the collaborative partnership of parents and professionals to effect a quality program for children with mental handicap. It also describes how the community and its resources can also be harnessed toward providing full participation and quality of opportunity to these children.

The Parent Council of St. John Maria Vianney has launched a pilot project called Parents as Advocates: A Case Study. The study dealt on the multifarious roles the parents take on as advocates resulting in creating a awareness among other parents and the community. Thirty(30) parents were organized as a team and merged themselves in various projects of the schools and the city. They assumed various roles such as home teachers, teacher aides, facilitators, peer tutors, mentors, resource person, lobby groups, organizers and other similar activities. The project resulted in improved relations of parents and children, parent to parent, and parent to professionals. Another gain of the project is the organization of community programs completing the school curricular offering.

The parents of children with special needs have played an important role in initiating and developing quality programs. They have supported every major efforts to develop appropriate and adequate services for their children. In fact the parent organizations have became a cogent group that greatly influence the

educative and rehabilitative efforts of professionals. The families have become very effective in influencing policies and establishing priorities for children with disabilities.In spite of the vast contribution of parents however, they have frequently been excluded from current aspects of their children's program. For the most part, education has been left to the professionals. Some educators have been initially

reluctant to include parents in educational programs for a number of reasons. They claimed that educational process is too complex for parents to understand, and that the contact between the two groups should be limited to parents have very limited knowledge on child-rearing and that they would add little if at all to educational programs if they became involved. Fortunately, during the past years, there is a tremendous shift in the relations of professional and the parents. Attitudes are changing and more positive approaches to working with parents are emerging, largely because of the enactment of laws, which increasingly mandate family involvement. As a result parents. assume a broader role in the educational process. Educators realize that parents must participate in programs if these programs are to be effective as possible. Parents and other professional organizations are also working together more closely recently.Several studies and researches have also revealed on the needs of parents and sibling to better respond to the child, which educators can very well provide for as a matter of policy. Among those identified are legal issues, curriculum and instruction, working knowledge about disability, behavior management, effective adjustment, family roles and interactions and health concern. Although parents showed common concerns whether the child is disabled or not, there are unique needs that will vary with the extent and nature of the child's problem.

The Philippines: Evolution of a Regional Knowledge Hub

The evolution of agricultural higher education in the Philippines is primarily the story of the development of the University of the Philippines at Los Banos (UPLB). The College of Agriculture was started almost 100 years ago in 1910. But after the first decade, the college went through a crisis because of a lack of faculty members.

During the 1970s and 1980s, UPLB’s graduate program was under stress and in competition with the improved graduate programs of other universities in the region. At that time, Roger Montgomery, Agricultural Development Council (ADC) Representative, visited universities in five countries of southeast Asia and reported that the colleges of agriculture in the region faced a common set of problems (Montgomery 1978). He concluded:

“The problem areas boil down to three: the retention of trained staff, the development of the master’s program, and a lack of study of the supply and demand for the output of a master’s program in economics or agricultural economics.”

The UPLB has experienced a loss of academic staff because of more favorable financial incentives in the private sector, NGOs and overseas. Women staff played an important role in this international migration and they have worked hard to climb the ladder in overseas agricultural research agencies. In their report on women scientists and managers in agricultural research in the Philippines, Brush, et al. 1995 pointed to a possible motivation for emigration:

“Women occupy lower positions than men, more women occupy junior-level positions than men, and men are twice as likely as women to hold senior-level positions. While more than three-quarters of the women with B.Sc. degrees are in junior positions, fewer than 60% of the men with B.Sc. degrees are in junior positions.” After nearly a century of operation, UPLB has served the nation and the region through its graduate program and the development of a regional knowledge hub.

Looking to the future, UPLB recently signed a cooperative agreement with Cornell University to carry out research in plant-breeding and bio-technology. The Cornell/UPLB partnership from 1952 to 2006 is an

example of an emerging trend for developing country universities to maintain academic partnerships with universities in industrial countries for 50 years or more. UPLB currently has an enrollment of 8,000 undergraduates and it offers 44 M.Sc. and 19 Ph.D. programs.

Changing paradigms for farmer-researcher-extensionist relationships: exploring methods and theories of farmer participation in research

AbstractIt is argued that the transfer-of-technology model of research and development is not sufficient to bring about the most effective relationship between stakeholders in agricultural and environmental matters in Australia. An alternative approach is described and trialed which involves changing the process of extension and research by introducing new thinking and a qualitative methodology called Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA). The paper describes the process of training a multi-disciplinary team to conduct an RRA with irrigated horticulture farmers. Some results of both the RRA survey and an evaluation exercise conducted on the research team's experience and learning outcomes are presented.

Conceptualizing integrative, farmer participatory research for sustainable agriculture: From opportunities to impact

AbstractThis paper offers a conceptualmodel for participatory research projects thataim to improve the

sustainability ofagriculture and natural resource management.The purpose of the model is to

provide asystematic framework that can guide the designof participatory research projects,

theiranalysis, and the documentation of results. Inthe model, conceptual boundaries are

drawnbetween research and development, developmentand extension and between extension

andimplementation. Objectives, activities, andactors associated with each of these realmsneed

to be carefully selected, monitored, andevaluated throughout the course of a projectusing well-

designed indicators. The depth ofdisciplinary and methodological integration,and quality of

participation needed to reachthe desired impact effectively and efficiently,however, needs to be

determined on acase-by-case basis depending on the context andissues surrounding each

particular project.

Integrative research - Natural resource management - Participatory research and development - Program evaluation - Program planning - Sustainable agriculture

Trends and challenges of eLearning in national and international agricultural development

John Leary and Zane L. Berge>UMBC, USA

 

ABSTRACT

Compared to other business and management fields, elearning in agriculture-related fields is still in the early phases of adoption. Early pioneers, primarily American and Australian agribusinesses and colleges of agriculture, are now utilizing elearning methods as a major part of both their education and strategic management programs. There are plenty of challenges, involving the faculty and trainers, students and farmers, technology, finances, and other complications, but agricultural instructors absolutely must find ways to overcome these hindrances and aspire toward the plethora of opportunities that elearning presents for the field of agriculture. eLearning is dramatically improving how agricultural education is done. It is allowing greater access to more students and

farmers, more efficiently, with better information. The evaluation results of the first international elearning projects in agriculture show that much good can be done toward ensuring food security in the world if developed countries assist developing countries to implement elearning methods. This paper explains the major trends in elearning in agriculture and the challenges of elearning in agriculture. It describes the major developments and uses of elearning in the field of agriculture and investigates the international opportunities with elearning in agriculture.

Keywords: elearning; classrooms applications of technology; agricultural education; .

 

INTRODUCTION

The need for improved agricultural education throughout the world has never been greater. Agricultural technologies that can increase food security in the developing world while developing income-generating activities and conserving environmental resources do exist. Many of these technologies have existed for decades, yet famine, hunger, desertification, deforestation and droughts continue to plague the world's developing countries, which are least prepared to deal with these devastating problems. In developed countries, farmers are facing a changing atmosphere in which organic foods, new methods in raising animals, disease outbreaks, agribusiness, crop insurance, and banking all continually present new challenges. Hundreds of thousands of small farms throughout North America, Europe and Australia have been forced to close in recent years. All of these problems do have workable solutions, yet the global difficulty is getting the appropriate information to farmers. eLearning can benefit every agricultural community around the world, from research scientists in American universities to the poor subsistence farmers of developing countries. It can benefit persons of all ages, all locations, and bridge the gaps created by mountains, deserts, oceans, wars, and political boundaries. eLearning in agriculture can assemble resources and knowledge from distant places that may otherwise be unobtainable. It can connect farmers with far away researchers and experts. It can also dramatically increase the numbers of farmers who can be reached by single training programs. Despite its potential omnipresence, there is a significant rift between high-quality and low-quality agricultural elearning programs.

Most elearning programs in agriculture currently being undertaken in the world are in the pioneering phase. These efforts are attempting to use low-risk, low-cost elearning technologies. Services tend to be free and are studies, pilot projects, and other initiatives supported by grants. Many of these projects are not sustainable; after a limited number of training sessions they end when the funding ends, perhaps with a research report published on the Internet and an expectation that individuals can find it, fully accept it, and integrate the findings into training curricula. At the same time, universities, businesses, and some well-funded international development organizations are producing and utilizing high-quality elearning programs backed by trained personnel and resources.

MAJOR CHALLENGES

 The major challenges identified by researchers inhibiting the expansion of elearning in agriculture are very similar to the barriers that keep other fields from developing strong elearning programs:

1. Gaps between Trainers and Designers2. Challenges Faced by Trainers/Instructors3. Challenges Faced by Students/Farmers

 

Gaps between Trainers and Designers

Major problems lie in educators' inability to bridge the technical divide. Not only must they identify the knowledge and skills needed by the students and farmers, but they must figure out how to present the material in an appropriate, user-friendly design so that elearners can translate that information into applicable solutions on the farm. "Many extension agents and faculty lack the instructional design competencies to develop courses and programs using distance education delivery strategies" (Raulerson et al. 2004, p. 1005). Teachers and trainers are forced to learn on-the-job how to present their material using elearning. They need on-going support, as well as training, administrative support, and incentives, with few of these currently available to the average agricultural trainer or extension agent.

Challenges Faced by Trainers/Instructors

Instructors in agriculture are faced with similar challenges as those experienced by persons working in other fields. These issues include:

1. lack of time and skills needed in adopting new technologies2. lack of both formalized reward system and technical support3. a concern about the loss of the teacher-student relationship4. marketing for programs5. financial rewards6. maximizing returns on their investment in time and money7. major increases in administrative work