research method - data collection

7/24/2019 Research Method - Data Collection

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Data collection for

Quantitative

Chapter 6


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Overview of the chapter

Types of sources- secondary and primary

Measurement and scaling

Dierences between measurement andscaling

Concepts, indicator and variable

Level of measurement scales

Types of scale

Goodness of measurement instrument


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Data collection

One of te important activities in teresearc process

Data can be collected in many waysand using various types of metods

Data can be classi!ed into"uantitative and "ualitative


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Data collection method

#ources of data can be secondary orprimary

Metods for collecting "uantitativedata can be in te form ofsurvey$"uestionnaire or e-survey

%n terms of setting, data can becollected eiter in a natural settingor lab setting


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Where quantitative data comesfrom

Primary Sources:

#urveysContent analysisObservation studies&rcival studiesOter'

Secondary Sources:

O(cial statistics )surveys and oter material*&rcived academic surveysOter arcived datasets

& lot of secondary datasets are now available on te weband access is free for tose in academic environments+

You can rowse some data at: Data &rcive www!data"archive!ac!u#$

.conomic and #ocial Data www!esds!ac!u#$

O(ce for /ational #tatistics www!statistics!%ov!u#$
http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/http://www.esds.ac.uk/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/http://www.esds.ac.uk/http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/


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Primary sources

Data can be collected by ac"uiring !rstandinformation from te respondents

%s analysis conducted by te investigator)s* orinstitution tat collected te data+

0or instance, sending mail survey to respondentsor interviewing te respondents

%t can be collected also from observation+ 0orobservation, te data is documented in a form and

it can be in te form of non participatoryobservation or participatory observation+Observation is mainly used in "ualitative approac


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Oservation

1esearcer will indicate te area tat seor e would li2e to observe

Ta2e note important points related to te

area tat e or se observed 1esearcer can decide weter to involve

wit te participant or not to participate

0or "uantitative researcer, observation isone of te ways to gain initialunderstanding about te area to be studied


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Questionnaire

&lso 2nown as survey

%t provides a "uantitative or numericdescription of te trends, attitudes,opinions or perceptions of apopulation by studying a sample oftat population

&n instrument of measurement


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&nterview

3uantitative data can also beac"uired from interview for instance,wen as2ing participants about teirages, income level

%nterview can be categorised asstructured, semi structured and

unstructured


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Secondary sources

%s any furter analysis of an e4istingdataset tat produces results orconclusions oter tan tose produced as a

result of te !rst report on te in"uiry+Often carried out by dierent people tantose tat collected te data+

%nformation are obtained from articles,

researc report and etc 3uantitative data can be ac"uired from

database developed by a company


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Quantitative data

Data are used to classify groups+

.4amples5 numbers, "uantity,prevalence, incidence+

6ariables can be classi!ed aspysical )population, infrastructure*,social )poverty, slums*, spatial )landuse, pro4imity* etc!


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Quantitative data ' e(ample


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)easurement

Measurement encompasses scales and scalingused in measuring concept as well as reliabilityand validity of te measures used

Measurement in "uantitative researc sould

ful!ll7+ 6alidity - &re you measuring wat you tin2 you are measuring8

9+ Ob:ectivity - researcers stand outside te penomena tey study+Data collected are free from bias+

;+ 1eliability- if someting was measured again using te same

instrument, would it produce te same or nearly te same results8

+ ?recision= @ow muc trustable, ow con!dent is te result+


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)easurement

%s about ow variables in teframewor2 is measured

Operationalising te variables

Developing scale


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Scalin%

#caling is construction of instrumentsfor measuring abstract constructs+

eg using Li2ert scale to measureperception of te respondent on Mpostgraduate programme


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John W. Creswell

Educational Research:

Planning, Conducting, andEvaluating Quantitative and

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*in#in% Data Collectionto +ariales and Questions

Flow of Activities Example

%dentify te variable

Operationally de!ne te variable

Locate data )measures,observations, documentswit "uestions and scales*

Collect data oninstruments yieldingnumeric scores

#elf-e(cacy for learning fromoters

Level of con!dence tat anindividual can learn sometingby being taugt by oters

7; items on a self-e(cacyattitudinal scale from Aergin

)7BB*

#cores of eac item rangedfrom -7 wit 7 beingEcompletely con!dentF


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John W. Creswell



6.17

&nformation to Collect:,ypes of Data )easures

&n instrument is a tool formeasuring, observing, ordocumenting "uantitative data+

Types of instruments ?erformance measures )e+g+, test

performance*

&ttitudinal measures )measures feelingstoward educational topics*

Aeavioral measures )observations ofbeavior*

0actual measures )documents, records*


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John W. Creswell



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*ocatin% or Developin% an

&nstrument for Data Collection Loo2 in publised :ournal articles 1un an .1%C searc and a descriptor for te

instrument you want in an online searc to see iftere are articles tat contain instruments Cec2 Tests in Print Cec2 Mental Measurements Yearbookpublised

by te Auros Center at te niversity of/ebras2a, Lincoln, /. )ttpunl+edu$Auros* Develop your own instrument


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John W. Creswell



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Criteria for Choosin% a -ood&nstrument

@ave autors developed te instrumentrecently8

%s te instrument widely cited by oter autors8

&re reviews available for te instrument8

Does te procedure for recording data !t teresearc "uestions$ypoteses in your study8

Does te instrument contain accepted scales ofmeasurement8

%s tere information about te reliability andvalidity of scores from past uses of teinstrument8


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+ariales

Quantitative .nalysis involves the studyof variales!

+ariales are attriutes that vary acrosscases/ and$or within a case over time!

0or e(ample/ %ender/ a%e/ happiness/political association/ occupation/

numer of students on a course1

,he process of %oin% from a concept toa variale involves operationalisation ofthe research question!

When variales are produced in surveys

they are often the product of 2closedquestions3!

Closed questions are questions in whichpossile answers are %iven and therespondent selects from these: all ofthe questions in last"wee#3s survey

were closed as you did not have theoption to write your own answers!


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.spects of Measurement Validityin Social4esearch

What is a Concept in sociolo%icalresearch 5

Concept :

! Mental Constructs/ or ima%es/ developed tosymoli7e ideas/ persons/ thin%s/ or

events! 8symolic interaction9

! .n Organized principle used to di;erentiatethose classes of phenomena with common

characteristics from other classes of

phenomena!

Are we measuring what we intend to measure ?

O , Are we measuring the !orre!t Con!e"t ?


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Conceptuali7ation

%n Deductive research, conceptualiHation elps to translateportions of an abstract teory into speci!c variables tat can

be used in testable ypoteses+ %n Inductive research, conceptualiHation is an important partof te process used to ma2e sense of related observations+

Conceptualizationis te processofspecifying wat we mean by a term+ ) &clear, verbal speci!cation of your variable

)concept* so tat oters 2now wat it isand can place cognitive borders around it+


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Conceptuali7ationContinued1

&fwe ypotesiHed tat lowersocialstatusin college students directly

correlatestoan increase in deviantehavior, ten wat e4actly isDeviant Behavior8 )Te conceptual D6 weare measuring*

-Deviant Aeavior as Causing pysical arm,

Tal2ing out loud in class, nderage Drin2ing,


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Concepts in 4esearch

ConIicts in Measurement 6alidity

7+ &ll concepts are )ulti"Dimensional What do we mean by social status?

Lets do a study to see if tere is a Directrelationsip between Social Statusof parents andDeviant Behaviorin college students+

Social Status

Power Privilege Prestige

Indicators

O E I G R E A B R

Income Possessions, Fasion, !eet, Self"Report,#ewelr$, etc%

Process of

Conceptualization

.ndOperati

on"ali7atio


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Operationali7ation

%n #ocial 1esearc, tere are

Operations of )easurement!Operation: &procedurefor identifying or indicatingte value of cases on a variable+ )%nstructions*

Operationali7ation:Teprocessof specifying teoperations tat will indicate te value of cases on avariable


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*ets say we were to Operationali7e thee;ects of ASendin% 0lowers and -et wellcardsB to a Patient/ as a method of

A&ncreasin% ealth!B

Shorter hospital stays=OperationaliHedas EDays spent in the hospitalF

ormal heart rates and loodpressures= OperationaliHed in EBeats

per minuteF and EDiastolic and systolicpressuresF+

&ncreased morale= OperationaliHed byas2ing patients a series of "uestions

How will we measure Increasing

Healthof Patients ?


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*evels of )easurement

,he *evel of )easurementis te matematicalprecision wit wic te values of a variable canbe e4pressed+

Te /ominal )name* level of measurement, wicis ualitative, as no matematical interpretation5

Te !uantitativelevels of measurementJOrdinal,%nterval, and 1atioJare progressively more precise

matematically+

When we #now a variale3s level of measurement/ wecan etter understand how cases vary on that variale

and so understand more fully what we havemeasured!

#ominal

Ordinal

$nter%al

atio


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&ndicators and Dimensions

K &ndicators are Observations eCoose to1epresent as a 6ariable of a Concepteis to #tudy+ Going to religiousplace suc as mos"ue may be

cosen as an %ndicator of 1eligiosity+

K Dimensionsare 0acets or &spects

of


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EC.F,&OEL.6.L# O0 M..M./T C&/T A.D.T.1M%/.D W&,OF,CO/#%D.1%/G GO,T@. CO/C.?T

&/D T@. M..)ConceptualiHation andOperationaliHation*


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&nstrument$)easurement

%nstrument development

adapted or adopted

adapted - ac"uired instrument frompublication ):ournal, boo2 and so on* on topicrelated to te study+

adopted = is based on te establisedinstrument witout canging te originalcontent+


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*evel of )easurement Scales

#cales in measurement

a*/ominal #cale

b*Ordinal #calec* %nterval #cale

d*1ation #cale


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ominal

Scale

%s one tat allows teresearcer to assignsub:ects to certaincategories or group+

Categories individuals orob:ects into mutuallye4clusive and collectively

e4austive groups+ Gives some basic,

categorical, grossinformation+


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Ordinal

Scale

%s not only categories tevariables in suc a way as todenote dierences among te

various categories, it alsoran2-orders te categories insome meaningful way+

it any variable for wic

te categories are to beordered according to somepreference, te ordinal scalewould be used+

@elps te researcer todetermine te percentage ofrespondents wo considerinteraction wit oters to bemost important, tose wo

consider using a number of


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&nterval

Scale

&llows us to perform certainaritmetical operations on tedata collected from terespondents+

/ot only groups individualsaccording to certaincategories and taps te orderof tese groups, it also

measures te magnitude ofte dierences in tepreferences among teindividual+


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4atio

Scale

/ot only measures temagnitude of te dierencesbetween points on te scalebut also taps te proportions

in te dierences+ %s te most powerful of te

four scales because it as auni"ue Hero origin and

subsumes all te properties ofte oter tree scales+


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,ype of scales

/umerical rating scale = measuringfrom poor to e4cellent =ow wouldyou rate your supervisor from to

78


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,hurstone

4atin% the Potential Scale &temsNudges rate te items on 77-point scale

7 agreement indicates very low

amount of te attribute 77 agreeing indicates very ig

amount of te attribute

encourage :udges to use entire range ofscale, assigning some statements toeac of te 77 values = sort tem into77 piles+


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,hurstone Scales:)ethod of >qual".ppearin% &ntervals

De


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,hurstone

Computin% the Scale Score+alues for >ach &tem 0ind median and SDor inter-"uartile

range &rrange in table

#ort by median

itin items wit same median, sort by#D or inter-"uartile range


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,hurstone

Select the 0inal Scale &tems 7 )or 9 or ;* item)s* for eac possible

scale score value

?refer items wit low variability among:udges

.nd up wit 7-; items

%tems and scale score values are sownon te ne4t slide+


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?eople wit &%D# deserve wat teygot+ )7*

&%D# is good because it elps controlte population+ )9*

&%D# will never appen to me+ );*

% canPt get &%D# if %Pm in amonogamous relationsip+ )*

Aecause &%D# is preventable, wesould focus our resources onprevention instead of curing )>*


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?eople wit &%D# are li2e my parents)Q*

%f you ave &%D#, you can still lead anormal life )*

&%D# doesnPt ave a preference,

anyone can get it )B* &%D# is a disease tat anyone can

get if tey are not careful )B*

&ids aects us all )7* ?eople wit &%D# sould be treated:ust li2e everybody else+ )77*


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,hurstone

.dminister the 0inal Scale 1andomiHe te order of te items

0or eac item, respondent cooses

&gree or Disagree 0or eac item te scale score is te

median from te :udgesR ratings

Total #core mean scale score for itemson wic te respondent agreed+


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,hurstone

Turstone scales are rarely usedtese days

Tey are :ust too muc trouble tocreate+

Li2ert scales were developed inresponse to tis di(culty


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-uttman Scalin%

Devaluatin% the Potential &tems 0or eac item, :udges are as2ed if

someone ig in te attribute wouldagree wit te statement = Ses or /o+


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-uttman

Conduct a Scalo%ram .nalysis ofHud%es3 4esponses use special software to do tis

if successful, it will create an ordered listof items suc tat

agreeing wit te !rst item indicates youave at least a little of te measured

attribute agreeing wit te second indicates you aveat least a little more of te attribute

etc+


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-uttman

Te scalogram analysis also computes ascale score value for eac statement+

#ee te e4ample in TrocimRs %nternet

document Guttman#caling )reproducedon te ne4t slide*+

%t is assumed tat anybody wo wouldagree wit te ntitem would also agree

wit all preceding items+Te order of te items may be

scrambled prior to administering te

scale+

% believe tat tis country sould allow in
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scalgutt.htmhttp://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scalgutt.htmhttp://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scalgutt.htmhttp://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scalgutt.htm


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% believe tat tis country sould allow inmore immigrants+

% would be comfortable wit new

immigrants moving into my community+ %t would be !ne wit me if new immigrants

moved onto my bloc2+

% would be comfortable if a new immigrantmoved ne4t door to me+

% would be comfortable if my cild dated anew immigrant+

% would permit a cild of mine to marry animmigrant+


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-uttman

&dminister te 0inal #cale 1espondents are as2ed to cec2 items

wit wic tey agree

1espondentRs score sum of te scalescore values for cec2ed responses+

Li2e Turstone scales, Guttman

scales are not often used tese days+


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*i#ert Scales

De


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*i#ert

%nstead of a dicotomous response scale)agree or disagree*, use a multi-pointresponse scale li2e tis


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*i#ert

>valuatin% the Potential &tems Get :udges to evaluate eac item on a >-

point scale

7 -- &greement very low on attribute 9 = &greement low on attribute ; = &greement tells you noting < = &greement ig on attribute

> = &greement very ig on attribute #elect items wit very ig or very lowmeans and little variability among te

:udges+


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*i#ert

.lternate )ethod of &tem>valuation &s2 some :udges to respond to te items

in te way tey tin2 someone ig inte attribute would respond+ &s2 oter :udges to respond as would

one low in te attribute+

?refer items tat best discriminatebetween tese two groups

&lso as2 :udges to identify items tat areunclear or confusing+


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*i#ert

Pilot ,est the &tems &dminister to a sample of persons from

te population of interest

Conduct an item analysis ?refer items wic ave ig item-total

correlations

Consider conducting a factor analysis


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*i#ert

.dminister the 0inal Scale on eac item, response wic indicates

least amount of te attribute scored as 7

ne4t least amount response scored as 9 and so on

respondentRs total score sum of item

scores or mean of item scores dealing wit nonresponses on some

items

reIecting items )reverse scoring*


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Semantic Di;erential Scale

Tis tecni"ue assesses te e4tent ofte sub:ectRs agreement wit items,were te response for eac item is

sown on a continuum+

.4ample

#2ipping class in #ociology ;9 is+++

Good for me+ 79; Aadfor me


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Semantic Di;erential

Tis tecni"ue can be used to as2 many "uestionsin a sort amount of space )mailed survey* ortime )telepone survey*+

Te tecni"ue is intuitively appealing to mostpersons+

Te tecni"ue provides continuous-level data+

Te tecni"ue can become tiresome if used tooe4tensively on a "uestionnaire+

%t sometimes can be di(cult to label te end-points of a semantic scale+

- d f ) t


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-oodness of )easurement&nstrument

To 2now weter te instrumentmeasures wat it supposed tomeasure

To 2now weter it consistentlymeasures wat it intends to

Can be tested troug reliability and

validity test


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V!I"I#$

&'ow do $ (now that the method $ am using is reall)

measuring what $ want it to measure?*

Face validity. +oes )our method a""ear a""ro"riate to

measure what )ou want it to measure at irst glan!e?

Content validity. -his is similar to a!e %alidit), e!e"t that

it reers to the initial assessment rom an e"ert*s "oint o

%iew.

Predictive validity. Can )our measures "redi!t uture

/eha%iour?

Construct validity. +oes )our data !orrelate with other

measures?

%s establised by testing for


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4eliailit

y

%s establised by testing forbot consistency and stability+

CronbacRs alpa is areliability coe(cient tatindicates ow well te items ina set are positively correlatedto one anoter+

Te results of factor analysis)a multivariate tecni"ues willcon!rm weter or not teteoriHed dimensions emerge+

0actor analysis would revealweter te dimensions areindeed tapped by te items inte measure, as teoriHed+

0actor

.nalysis


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Sensitivity

1obustness of te measurement incollecting data


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Exercise # 1

Aased on te :ournal article, pleaseidentify and e4plain

a* Te framewor2 including variables

involved in te study including teindependent and dependent and oters

b* Te ob:ectives or researc "uestions

c* Te researc design

d* Te data collection metod- includingte sampling tecni"ue, sample siHe,population, te instrument

e* Data analysis used in te study


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