Revision activity by Danielle Duffy

Representation theories

Richard Dyer – Typographical theory

Dyer stated that there were four aspects to representation:1. Re-presentation: the use of media language to portray the

subject in a certain way. 2. Being representative of: types (typically stereotypes) are used

within media to communicate. Mise-en-scène is selected carefully in order to allow the audience to identify these.

3. The purpose for the creation of media texts is mainly for profit, and so accuracy and realism shouldn’t be guaranteed. Audiences are thought to prefer to be entertained rather than have to think, and so stereotypes are used repeatedly as a sort of comfort for viewers. Countertypes (where stereotypes are challenged or subverted) do not go down well with many audiences.

4. Audiences’ responses to representations: audiences can either make preferred, negotiated or oppositional readings of texts.

Richard Dyer – Stereotypes legitimise inequality

* Recognised that stereotypes perform several functions in media representations

* Argues that the use of stereotypes within the media emphasises that there are big differences between different types of people

* ‘How we are seen determines how we are treated. How we treat others is determined by how we see them. How we see them comes from representation’ The Matter of Images

* His theory was that the use of stereotypes legitimises inequality, encouraging others to replicate similar, negative behaviour in real life

* Most representations conform to some form of stereotype and are exaggerated or hyper real for entertainment values

* The ideological reading of this form of stereotyping is to legitimise (support) inequality (preferred reading)

Richard Dyer – Stereotypes legitimise inequality

For example, in Coronation Street, teenage girl Bethany is subject to bullying about her weight (despite being of a slim physique) by a fellow student and female. This narrative is derived from similar happenings in real life. Dyer’s theory would argue that the featuring of this hate would encourage watchers to replicate this behaviour and pick on classmates for their looks.

Laura Mulvey –Male Gaze

*Suggests that female characters tend to be displayed for the visual pleasure of male characters and audience members*Females are coded as the ‘object’ of gaze within

media texts and are represented in a sexual way

Males = look (Active)Females = looked at (passive)

Laura Mulvey –Male Gaze

*However, this theory has been criticised as it focuses too much on the idea of a male, heterosexual audience*It ignores the idea that males may also

provide visual pleasure for women*It proclaims that the object of the gaze

is passive (weak), but perhaps it could instead be interpreted that objectified women are able to exert power over their submissive audience

Baudrillard – Hyperreality

*Representations no longer refer to real things*They have surpassed reality to a point where what

we see has become more real to us than reality itself, and has replaced it*Therefore images can now be described as

‘hyperreal’ as Baudrillard believes they bare no relationship to the real*Audiences often judge a text’s realism against their

own ‘situated culture’*Suggests that the use of stereotypes can enhance

realism

Levi Strauss –Binary Opposites

*Two contrasting characters or scenes featured within a show that stand out clearly as being oppositional to one another*They are described as ‘binary opposites’ and consist of concepts such as good/evil, light/dark, male/female, old/young

Levi Strauss –Binary Opposites

Dominant vs. subordinate types:*Male / female*White / other ethnic groups*Middle-upper class / working class*Middle aged / the young-old*Heterosexual / homosexual*Able-bodied / disabled*Regional identity / North/Midlands/Irish*(London/south east) / West/Scotland/Wales

Stuart Hall – Dominant Ideology

*Suggested there were 3 main types of reading (interpreting) a text and its representations: dominant, oppositional and negotiated *A set of beliefs that are widely accepted as

being the most normal, or the most accurate *For example, the dominant ideology of men

is that they are strong, brave and work to provide money for their families

Gramsci –Hegemony

*Hegemony involves the idea that representations are used to assert control over the public *Ensures support for the elite (higher-ups in

society) by portraying other groups as unfit or unsuitable to hold or wield legitimate power*The elite portrayed as the only group

capable of maintaining peace, prosperity, justice, etc.

Gramsci –Hegemony

*Roles in media with negative portrayals are most commonly depicted as being of a lower class e.g. ‘hoodies’, paedophiles, criminals, ‘chavs’, foreigners, immigrants*Front page newspapers exhibit these types

and others will associate crimes with these types of people*Therefore others will turn to the elite for help

and protection against these degenerate types

Gramsci –Hegemony

*Cultural hegemony is the philosophic and sociological concept that a culturally-diverse society can be ruled or dominated by one of its social classe *It is the dominance of one social group over

another*The theory claims that the ideas of the ruling

class come to be seen as the norm; they are seen as universal ideologies, perceived to benefit everyone whilst only really benefiting the ruling class