PROBLEMS OF

TRIBAL AGRICULTURE IN .INOlA

Submitted to the UNIVERSITY OF POONA

in partial fulfilment o~· the requirements of the

· Master of Philosophy D~gree in Economics

by

JAGABANDHU SAMAL

Gokhale Institute· of Politics and Economics

- PUNE 411004

June, 1979

PROBLEMS OF TRIBAL AGRICULTURE IN INDIA

Submitted to the University ot Poona in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Master of Philosophy Degree in Economics

~·

Jagabandhu Samal

Gokhale Institute of Politics & Economics, Pune.

June, 1979.

CONTENTS

(i)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study, "Problems ot Tribal Agriculture in

India", was taken up under the able guidance ot Dr. Neela­

kanth Rath, Joint Director, Gokhale Institute of Politics

and Economics. I am gratetul to him tor his Taluable

advice and constructive suggestions in preparation ot this

work.

I owe a lot to Miss F,K. Wadia, Ex-Director (E & M),

North Eastern Council Seoreteriat, Shillong and presently

at Indian School ot Political Economy, who was kind enough

to go through my earlier drafts pa~ently at the oost of

her precious time end givf! useful s•.tggestions.

I am grateful to the authorities ot Gokhale Insti­

tute ot Politics and Eoonomios tor awarding me.a Teacher

Fellowsh~p under the U.G.C. Faoulty Improvement Programme.

I am equally grateful to the Management and Principal of . - . .

D.A.v. College, Koraput (Orissa) for granting me the nece­

ssary leave for this period.

My special thanks ere due to the Staff of the

Servants of India Society Library for their co-operation

and help in providing me the necessary reading materi&l

required tor the preparation of this dissertation. I will be tailing in my duty, it I do not express my

thanks to Shri l4P. Limbore tor typing the dissertation neatly.

Gokhale Institute of Politics & Eoonomios, Pune 4. Jagabandhu Semel

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The tribal communities in India constitute almost 7 per

cent ot the total population ot the country. Aooording to

the 1971 Population Census, out ot a total population ot 548

million persons, the Scheduled Tribes constituted 38 million

persons, i.e. 6.9 per ~ent ot the total population ot the

country. (See Table I). An analysis ot the Table I reveals

that there ere nine states in the country having a concentra­

tion ot tribal people. These are Madhya Pradesh (8.3 million),

Orissa (5.0 million), Bihar (4.9 million), Gujarat (3.7

million), Rajasthan (3,1 million), Meharashtra (3.0 million),

West Bengal (2.5 million), Assam (1.9 million), and Andhra

Pradesh ( 1. 7 million). There are, however, other states and

Union Territories where the bulk ot the population is tribal.

These include Mizoram (94. 25 per oent), Lakshadweep (92.9 ~er

per oent), Nagaland (8~.6 per cent), Dedra and Nagar Haveli

(86.9 per cent), Meghelaya (80.5 per cent), and Arunachal

Pradesh (79.0 per oent). Manipur and Tripura have also

sizable proportions ot tribal population i.e. 31.18 per cent

and 28,95 per cent respectively ot their total population.

1,2 The geographical distribution ot the Scheduled Tribes

in the country can be divided into three main categories,

viz.,

(i) those scattered over South-Western India in the hills

and converging lines ot the Western Ghats;

(ii) those occupying the central belt ot the older hills and

2

and plateau along the dividing line between Peninsular India

and the Indo·Gangetia .Plain;

(iii) those living in the North and North·Eastern Zone in . . . . . 1

the mountain valleys end Eastern Frontiers·of India •

. The ahareateristla features of these Tribes are their

isolation from the neighbouring areas,.living as they do in

the interior areas mainly in the hills and forests. Inede·

quete communication teailities in many ot these areas have

resulted in limited interaction with other population

pockets.

1,) Agriculture end forests occupy a prominent place in

the tribal lite end economy. This ohereoteristio has also

been revealed in the 1971 Census data. Of the working popu·

letion among the Scheduled Tribes 93 per cent were engaged

in sectors related to the exploitation of natural resources.

(See Table II). These occupations include cultivation, (57.6

per cent) agricultural labour (33 per cent), and allied

activities like livestock, forestry, fishery, plantation,

hunting eto. (2.4 per cent). Lend and resource uses among

the tribals differ in different parts or the country.

Communities like Onge, Jarawa and Sompen of Andaman and

Nioobar Islands are even.today dependant on hunting, fishing,

collecting wild roots and tubers. 2 Tribal communities

1, Report of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission (Dhebar Commission) 1961. P.S.

2. Pettneik N. - "Teehniques of Integrated Developmental Planning •••" • Integrated Tribal Dev. Planning­NICD- Hyderabad P.120. (1975).

3

ot Eastern India like Mlzo, Naga, Kuki, Khasi, Adi Garo,

etc,; Juang, Bhuinya and Bonde ot Orissa, and some ot the

tribes ot Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, Maha­

rashtra, Tamilnadu 1 Madhya Pradesh, eta., .depen,d upon a

primitive way ot "Slash end burn cultivation" or shifting

oultivation.3 This will be dealt in detail in Chapter 3 ot

this Dissertation. Settled terming, either of the wet or

dry type, is also the primary souroe ot livelihood tor a

large number ot tribal. communities. Some ot the tribes ot

Andaman and ··Nioobar Islands and ot Lakshadweep depend upon

plantation ot oooonuts and arecanuts. The tribal communities

living in the Western Hin~layan regions i.e. the Gaddis and

Gujjars ot Himachal Pradesh and the Bhots ot U,P, are more

dependent on animal husbandry than on agriculture tor their

livelihood. The nomadic tribes ot Rajasthan desert also earn

their livelihood by raising animals through migratory grazing.

The_Birhors ot Bihar and Orissa (called as the Makarakhiya

Kols in the latter place) depend upon trapping small game

and collecting plants and medical herbs,

1.4 The tri~al people reside both in the plains and the

hill areas. Although their economies differ, there ere cer­

tain common features among them like, primitive terming

praotioes, high labour intensity and some traditional social

and cultural rigid! ties affecting their principal o.coupation-

J, Bose, S - "Agriculture in Tribal Sooiety" - Integrated Tribal Development Planning - NICD, Hyderabad - (1975).

egricul ture,

The ·plain tribels ere largely settled cultivators

with individual ownership ot lend, Like other smell end

marginal termers in the country,· they face the problems of

uneconomic end scattered holdings, land alienation and

tenancy sy~tems~ Tribal exploitation either in the form of

lend alienation, high rete of interest, low wage payments

or even market imperfections, are regarded as the major . .

problems teeing the plains tribals, Lack'of irrigation -

teoiilties is ·a common ohersoteristio in most ot the tribal

areas. BYv Programme with the adoption of improved tech­

niques of production end fertiliser use, as well as institu­

tional credit facilities ere yet to reach the tribal villages

end to be accepted by them,

The agricultural problems of the hill tribals are

somewhat ditterent from those of the plain tribels, The

"Shifting Cultivation" practised by the hill trlbals has

posed a number of problems - both tor the tribal economy end

the country as a whole, This is e very primitive and sub­

sist~noe agriculture having much less carrying oepeoity on

lend, With the growth of tribal population, the pressure

on the lend is increasing end the oyole ot shifting cultiva­

tion is decreasing, leading to further diminishing returns

on land. The problems like destruction of fores·ts, soil

erosion end floods in the plains are said to be the outcome

ot shifting cultivation,

As mentioned in en earlier paragraph, there ere some

tribes in u.P., Himaohal Pradesh end RaJasthan who ere

largely livestook raisers. Their problems ditter trom those

ot the hills end plains tri bale. The nomsdio tribes ot

RaJasthan, tor example, taoe problems ot sosroity ot grazing

lends, with arid lands ooming under oultivstion as a result

ot extension ot irrigation tsoilities in th~ desert areas.

Many ot them have given up oattle rearing 1n favour ot work

as landless 'labourers on these new farms.

In the ensuing seotions an attempt is made to disouss

the agrioultural problems ot the ·Gribals 1 and the measures

that have been taken or suggested to ~phold the eoonomy ot

the tribal population. In Chapter II 1 the sgrioultural

problems ot the plains-tribals and in Chapter III 1 that ot

the hills-tribals have been dealt with in detail. The dis­

oussion will end in Chapter IV atter mentioning some ot the

suggested remedies in the field ot tribal agriculture.

6

CHAPTER II

TRIBAL AGRI CULTO'Hli: IN THE PLAINS

2.1 It is ditticult to give an accurate picture or the

nplains tribals" living in the country on the basis of a

strict «1efinition. The "Plains-tribalstt ·are generally re­

ferred to the tribal population living in the plains outside· 1 the scheduled areas. The Excluded and Partially Excluded

.Areas ~ub-Committee. under the Chaiz:manship of Sri A. V. Thaker

defined plains-tribals as·those living outsice 'excluded' . . . 2

and 'partially excluded' areas. The Sub-Comro4ttee viewed

that although tribals living in the non-excluded areas are

otten hard to distinguish trom the plains people among whom

they live, they were generally in a backward condition, which

was sometimes worse than the condition or the Scheduled

Castes. Henoe tribes whether l'iving in the plains or in the

partially excluded tracts are treated as plains tribals.

Whl.le discussing the agricultural problems ot the plains

tribals, all tribal people who practise plains - cultivation

irrespective ot the fact as to whether they re~ide in or .

outside the scheduled areas have been considered.

1. Committee on Welfare of Soheduled Tribe:! (1977-78) - Fifth Legislative Assembly, Andhra Pre.desh - Second Report on Welfare of Scheduled Tribes in

Plain Areae.

2. The Sub-Committee on Excluded and Parlally Exoluded Areas (other than Assam) was appointed by the Consti­tuent Ass~mbly.

7

2,2 The Eoonomy of the Pleins-Tribels

Like the greet maJority or rural ~eople in the oountry,

the economy or the plains tribals is predominantly eg~arian

in nature. The plains tribals cultivate small plots or land,

whioh is generally owned or taken on lease·· .A.· large propor- ·

tion work as labourers on other people's lands. The agricul­

tural eoonomy_ot the plains-tribals represents subsistenoe

farming; due to the uneconomic size ot t~e holdings and the

primitive agricultural practices followed by them. In the

three states ot Madhya Pradesh, RaJasthan end Maharashtra,

the maJority ot the tribal holdings are about 2 hectares in

size; the holdings in Andhra Pradesh; Orissa, Bihar, West

Bengal and GuJarat are below 2 hectares.) A case study made

by SaroJ Kanti Choudhury in a Santal Village ot Bolpur P.s.

or West Bengal in February 1970, revealed that, out ot the

J1 cultivating terms in the village 45 terms were below the

viable economic holdings i.e. 5 acres or land.4 Another

important feature that was brought about by the study was

that out ot the tot~. operated land, leased land constituted·

almost 59 per cent, and this proportion was highest (i.e.

71.7S per cent) in the size group ot 2.51 ... s.oo acres, The

same study also indicated that out ot the total cultivating

terms in the village land owning cultivators constituted

). Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture ... (1976) Part XIII P.102.

4. Choudhury Saroj Kant! - Tribal Agriculture in the Plains -Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics- Vol.2S (1970).

39,22 per cent and the rest, 60,78 per oent, were tenants

or share croppers, Hence, the agricultural economy ot the

plains tribals 'not only sutters trom size disincentives,

but also from the tenurial disinoentives, The uneGonomio

holdings ot the farms, prim1~1~e f'arming practices, and

tenurial disincentives in the f'arm1ng sectors, keep the

tribal farmers under poverty, as a result of' which they are

af'f'eoted by other economic maladies like indebtedness, land

alienation etc,, leading to economic exploitation, An

attempt is made in the ensuing paragraphs to enalyse the

agro-economio problems of' the tribals - mostly residing in

the plains,

2,3 Agricultural Practices

The plains-tribals are mostly settled cultivators,

Their cropping pattern depends upon the nature of' the soil,

rainfall and availability of' irrigation facilities, As lack

ot irrigation facilities is a common f'eature in most ot the

tribal areas, the tribal cultivators have to resort to the

cultivation ot rain-ted crops. The cropping pattern is

therefore dependent upon the rainfall pattern; the bulk of'

the area being under mono-culture, The highest priority is

given to food grains'required tor subsistence. u~. Pawar

after a study of' some of' the sample tribal villages in the

Sabarkantha district ot Northern GuJarat, where dry f'arming

was practised in 75 per cent of' total cropped area, and about

25 per cent of oropped area was under irrigation, reported

that in the cropping pattern of' the tribal cultivators highest

9

highest priority was given to toodgrain crops like bajra,

maize, wheat etc. Commercial crops like ground nuts and

cotton had been given comparatively less importance.S ·An

All India pioture ot the wet cultivation based on irrigation

facilities in tribal areas is not available tor the present.

However some ot the data oompiled by Mr. I.P. Singh gives

the position ot irrigated areas in oase ot tribal districts

ot tive states6 (see Table III). The table reveals that the

percentage ot irrigated areas in case ot each ot the tribal . . . . .

districts is much lower than that ot the respective state

averages.

There are instances ot tribal areas where even though

irrigation facilities are available, the volume ot production

and ohange in cropping pattern could not show any encouraging

teatures due to small size ot holdings, lack ot investments

in agricultural implements, and inputs prevalence ot tenancy

system etc. In case ot the Santhal village ot Bolpur P.S.

referred to earlier, it was found that though more than 92

per oent ot the cultivated area ot the Tillage had irrigation

facilities, the productivity ot crops was 4 quintals per acre,

as against the Block average ot 6.1 quintals. There are, how­

ever, instances where cropping pattern and productivity or

S. Pawar Jegannath Reo - Tribal Agriculture in Northern Gujarat - Agro-Economic Problems ot Tribal India (1972) - Edited by M.L. Patel.

6. Singh I.P. - Development ot Agriculture in Tribal Areas -Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics Vol.XXV No 3 1970. •

10

the tribal lands have improved where iand, seeds, implements

and inputs have been provided tO the farmers side by side

withthe provision.ot irrigation. In Srikakulam district

ot Andhra Pradesh, and Ganjam and . .Koraput districts ot

Orissa, the Tribal Development Agencies are gradually under­

taking irrigation schemes through MIPs,·Litt·Irrigation and

wells. Added to the provision ot water, the Agencies are

supplying r~olaime~ ~ands tor cultivation, seeds, fertilisers

and pesticides etc. on subsidy basis tor a limited period. ' .

A comparative·study made by T.v.s.·Rao and N. Gopala Rae

between 197.3-74 (when the project was started), and 197S-76

in the above areas shows the range of differences in the

cropping pattern, production, and income between the bene­

ficiaries and non-benetioiaries. The study reveals that

there is a perceptible shift in cropping pattern in favour

of high yielding varieties of paddy, wheat, and vegetables

on irrigated lands. The non-beneficiaries predominantly

raise pulses, ragi and paddy ot tribal varieties. The study

·further reveals that the beneficiaries under irrigation

schemes are able to earn a gross income ot Rs.1084.S5,

Rs.)10S.80, and Rs.1412.84 (per household) in the project

areas of Srikakulam, Koraput and. Ganjam districts, as

against the non-beneficiaries' 1noome ot Rs .. 891· .o6,

Rs.820.66 and Rs.792.47 in the respective districts. \.

1. Rae T.v.s. and Reo N. Gopala- Modernising the Farming System ot Hill Tribes - The Experience ot Tribal Develop­ment. Agencies in A.P. and Orissa- Agro-Economio Research Centre - Andhra Un1 versi ty Oooasional Paper - 1 o.,

11

Considerable changes have been brought about in.the

traditional agriculture during recent years involving use

ot modern. inputs. and new technology •. The benefits ot the

developmental ettorts have been confined largely to areas

and ·people v.i th developed resource base; The trib"al agri­

culturists ere no less responsive than the non-tribal ones

to improved techniques ot cultivation. What is lacking is

exhaustive and dedillated extensionwork to orient the tradi­

tional tribal termers towards better terming systems. The

success ot the programme in the tribal areas ot Srikakulam

(.A.P.) and Ganjam and .Koraput (Orissa) is en illustration.

Similarly, the success achieved by the Gujarat State Ferti­

liser Company Ltd., under "Leap Forward Project" in some ot

the tribal Tillages o:t' Chhotaudepur Taluka (Gujarat) can

show some light .in ·the way. 1·7 .·Added· to the provision o:t' . - . . . .

modern inputs, like seeds, fertilisers and pesticides etc.,

at a subsidised rate tor a limited period ot time, the

scheme provided technical guidance and know-how right :t'rom

the selection ot tields upto harvesting ot crops to the

participant termers. The project was started in the year

1973-74~ and an evaluation study conducted in 197S-76 showed

that the per acre net income o:t' participants in the maize

tract covered by L.F. Project was Rs.11)).00, as against

that ot non~partioipants, Rs.117.00. In paddy treot, net

17. B.L. Kumar - Transforming Tribal Agriculture -Yojana - Vol.XXII/17, 1978.

12

returns obtained by the participants on L.F. plots was

Rs,522.00, as against a mer~ Rs.52,00 obtained by the non-

. participants from the same crop, There was also a gradual

increase tn proportionate area under commercial crops like

cotton and ve.getables etc, in the fields of tribal partici­

pants,

2,4 Except tor a few oases o~ success in tribal agrioul-

ture with such comprehensive programmes ot.agricultural . ' .

development through governmental agencies, the tribal agri-. ' . . .

culture in ge~eral suffers from backward and traditional

methods of oul~ivation, Use ot te~tilisers, improved seeds,

pesticides and modern agricultural implements are seldom

evident among the tribal cultivators. Lack ot all these

tcoilities. along with uneconomic holdings, tenurial imper­

fections, and dependence on monsoon, bring a very low yield . .

per acre in tribal lands when compared to that ot non-tribal

areas ot the country,

A comparative study with regard to the gross value ot

crops per acre in the tribal and non-tribal districts ot

Madhya Pradesh was made by I,P, Singh, The findings ot the

study as given in Table IV revealed that in comparison to

the non-tribal district ot Mandsaur, where the gross value

ot crops per sore was Rs,151,50, the per acre gross value ot

crops in tribal districts ot Jhabua, Khargone, end Dhar, were

Rs.1)1,)0, Rs,128,40 a~d Rs,1)8.90 respectively. Similarly,

compared to the non-tribal district ot Jabalpur, the gross

value. ot crops per acre in tribal districts ot Mandla and

1)

Shadel, and compared to the non-tribal district ot Raipur,

the gross Talues ot crops per acre in the tribal district

'ot Bastar, Durg, Raigarh and Surguja were muoh lower,

The backward nature and subsistence level ot terming

. haTe made the tribal termers' economy largely detioit,

Income trom the agric~ture is not sutticient tor the main­

tenance ot a tribal tamily·tor the Whole year. An enquiry

made by the National Council ot Applied Economic Research . . . .

in the West Nimar area ot Madhya Pradesh revealed that the . . .

average annua~ (per household) tribal inc~me was Rs~1064,S2,

76 per cent or which i.e. Rs.8o6.67, was contributed by

agricultureS, 24 per oent ot the household income ot the

tribal was covered by other subsidiary incomes like collec­

tion and sale ot torest_ products, working on others' terms

es oesual labour, periodic migration to other·areas tor work­

ing as tarm iebourer end livestock raising to some extent,

The household expenditure per tribal tamily being Rs,1164.80,

there was a detla~ ot about Rs.100.00 in the cultivators'

budget. ·This detioit was covered by borrowing trom the money

lenders and traders, thus resulting in indebtedness.

2.; Indebtedness is a major problem ot the plains tribal

people, LiTing in a subsistence economy, the tribels go into

· debt mainly against the mortgage ot land. Loans are obtained

trom money lenders end traders at high rates or interest end

8, Singh I.P~ - Credit Requirements ot Tribal Cultivators in West Nimar ~istriots (M.P.)- Agro-Eoonomio Problems ot Tribal India -Edited by M,L, Patel, P,)1,

w1 th manipulation ot aooounts, ·Reports ot the study team:

ot Tribal DeTelopment Programmes with regard· to Koraput·dis­

triot ot Orissa and in·the tribal areas ot Bihar revealed

that in Koraput district the money lenders charged usurious

rates ot interest yarying from 25 per cent to 1oo· per cent

per annum, and in Bihar it ranged even from 50 per oent to

250 per oent.9

On the ground of inability to repay the loans in

time, the tribal cultivator is otten oompelle~ to lo~e his

land and become the tenants ot their bondees or mortgagees,

or labourers~ Not only the ~ribal la~ds are alienated to

the non-tribal money-lenders, but also, in sane oases, the

tribal lands are alienated to some well-to-do tribal persons

on the same grounds. Where the land is not sufficient to

meet the requirements' the creditor makes an agreement either

oral or written, to get the services ot'the debtor till the

loan is repaid. The latter is oalled the system ot ~Bonded

Labour" whioh is largely prevalent in tribal areas. In

either.oase the tribal is exploited. Alienation ot tribal

lands as a oonsequenoe ot their indebtedness is a great

ebstaole to the eoonomio development ot tribal people and -:::::-

improvement ot their agr1oulture.-

The phenomenon ot the green revol~t1on, a continuous

process or· urbanisation, exploitation ot minerally rion

9. Report ot the Study Team on_Tribal Development Programmes, All India Committee on Plan ProJects - Planning Commi-ssion- 1966 (Bihar), 1969 (Orissa). .

areas, hydro-electricity proJects, requirement ot len~ tor

tactory sites, township, etc., have also resulted in demand

tor lands in triba.l areas. The value of tribal· lands has

also enhanced in recent years. In those areas where such

proJects are established, the tribals are easily dislodged

trom their land.

Over the years the percentage ot cultivators in the

tribal population has decreased trom 6g.15 per cent in 1961

to 57.6 per cent in 1971. On the other hand, the percentage

ot agricultural labourers have gone up tran 19.73 in 1961

to 33.0 in 1971. (See Table V). A view expressed by some

experts, "for the decline in the number of cultivators in

the tribal work torae during the lest decade, is that tribal

lands have been alienated to non-tribals.n10

2.6 The credit needs ot tribal termers are largely tor

unproductive purposes which include family consumption, end

provisions tor social, religious and other demands. A survey

ot indebtedness among tribels in Madhya Pradesh revealed that

as much as 60 per cent ot the total debt (3g per cent tor

domestic consumption and 22 per cent tor social, religious

and other requirements) were raised tor unproductive purposes.

(See Table VI). A report on tribals ot Andhra ~radesh men­

tions, "various studies have shown that more than 60'per cent

ot loans taken by the tribals is tor consumption purposes.

10. Dubey end Ratan - Policy and Administrative Issues -Lend Alientation and Restoration in Tribal Communities in India- P.195.

16

Unless credit is provided tor their consumption needs, they 11

will continue to seek help from the mo,ney lenders." The

income·trom agrloulture being insu1'fioient-to maintain their

families, the tribals spend a large part ot the year tor

gathering torest produce or tor seeking employment elsewhere.

The people who ere at the starvation point cannot be expected

to spend their time tor improving the lend and environment -

a process which guaran~~es higher income in future. "Financ­

ing consumption, therefore, becomes more important to

improve production oepaoity rather then financing production

itselt.n12

· • As regards the sources ot credits, the money lenders

end indigenous traders eta., proTide the major share of

oredit to the tribal peo~le. A survey undertaken in Parla­

khemundi Agency Area (Orissa} reveals that the tribals

borrow 86.2 per cent ot the total loans from unauthorised

money lenders. (See Table VII). The co-operative societies

could meet only 5.S per oent ot the total needs_ of the

tribals-and 7.8 per cent was met by other governmental

agencies. In general, the tribals have not been able to get

muoh benefit from the institutional credit sources including

co-operative societies. The short-term credit ~equirements

11. A.K. Sharma - Andhra Pradesh, Land Alienation and ·Restoration in Tribal Communities ot India - Dubey end Reten- P.26.

12. s. Dasgupta - "Choice of Technology and its Implica­tions" - Planning :B'or Tribal Development- Edited by R. Gupta.

17

ot the farmers tor the purpose of seeds, fertilisers, wages

ot labour, manure, hire of bullocks, repair ot implements,

etc. were expected to be met by the Primary Agricultural

co-operative Societies, However, as mentioned by the

National Commission on Agriculture, "Primary Agricultural

Credit Societies operating in the tribal areas are weak,

both structurally and tinanoially and the credit provided

by them has been tar from adequate,n13

Long-term cred1 t would be generally tor me_eting. agri­

cultural development needs including soil conservation, land . reclamation, construction ot wells tor irrigation purposes,

. - . .

purchase ot agricultural implements, etc. The subsistence

economy ot the tribal population does not attraot them to

such land development programmes. Further, their low income

would entail supply or their credit neeas entirely from

financial institutions' a major reliance would have to be

plaoed on subsidies.· However, in view of the 1nadeq~ecy

and poor quality ot land, the majority ot tribal cultivators

are considered 'risky' to finance, Lower yields from the

!"and generally ett'eot their repaying capacity, Once they

beoome defaulters they are no more considered tor further

help trom the institutional sources. Again procedures and

formalities involved in. organising co-operative societies,

getting loans sanctioned, etc,, seems to have discouraged

the tribals from ooming to the co-operative tolds, The

13 •. Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture (1976) P,117 Part XIII,

18

tribals have, therefore, to go tor their needs to the money

lenders and ultimately get exploited. The· National Commi-.

ssion on Agriculture had mentioned that the Land Development

Banks were not in a position to advance such investment credit.

In case of such long term credit, a mortgage ot land appeared

necessary as a security. "In most tribal areas, land 'surTeys

and settlements have yet to be completed. Expedious comple­

tion of this work will remove a maJor impediment in the grant

of term oredit.n14

2.7 Poor and unorganised marketing system in the tribal

areas due partly to the· inaccessibility, has left the tribal

economy in many areas non-monetised. Transactions are still . .

I

conducted on the basis of a barter system, Essential consu-

mer goods, which have to be brought from outside (tor example,

salt, kerosene, coarse cloth, tea,·gu~ 1 cheap varieties of

soap, aluminium utensils, etc.) are purchased from the traders,

who ere also money lenders, in exchange tor the agricultural·

and forest produce. "These traders advance money to tribels

tor various ceremonies on personal surety, stipulating r~­

payment of loan with interest in the form of forest products

or agricultural products attar harvest, The entire crop is

thus mortgaged in advance and very little remains with the

farmers tor personal consumption after the produce is

collected by the trader."1' This results in turther

14. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture -(1976) Part XIII, P.118

15. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture­( 1976) Part XIII 1 P. 1 0) ••

19

borrowing both in oash end kin.d ~rom the trader, end the

burden of' debt thus increases. The food stutfs whioh the

tribal farmers sell. 3ust after the harvesting to the traders

at a depressed price would be required again for consumption

in the lean season.· The higher prioes prevalent in the lean

season results in either starvation for the tribal families

or further indebtedness. Hence, they fail to derive the

benefit either from high. agricultural pr.ioes prevailing in

pre-harvest period or from the prices prevailing in the

post-harvest period. In addition, the village merchants,

taking advantage of' termers' ignorance ot weights and

measures and prevailing market rates, exploit them in both

ways; i.e. while selling to the tribal farmers their re­

quisites, as well as purchasing trom them the agricultural

and forest products. 16

2.8 Governmental Measures

The Union and the State Governments have been taking

measures from time to time to improve the s·ooio-eoonomio

conditions of' the tribals. The important measures aimed at

improving the economy ot the tribals include the steps to

save the tribals trom the exploitation ot money-lenders,

·traders and liquor contractors eto., improving ~grioulture

and opening ot employment opportunities through oottage

industries, rural works programmes and giving preferences in

f 16. Singh I.P. - Development of' Agriculture in Tribal Areas - Indian Journal ot Agricultural Bconomios Vol. XXV, 1970.

20

services, etc.

Among the laws to end eoonomio exploitation· ot

tribals the Debt Relief Legislations, the Lend .Alienation

Aots and Acts regarding Abolition ot Bonded Labour are very

important. The problem ot agricultural indebtedness and its

seriousness could be felt by the authorities as early as

nineteenth century by the uprisings like the Sonthal rebe­

llion ( 18;;), the Deccan riots ( 1874), and the riots· ot . .

AJmer (1891). 18. The measures taken at that time were mainl7

palliative in nature and were apilioable to restricted areas

only. For instances, the Encumbered Estates Relief Aots and

Court ot Wards Acts passed between 1860 to 1890, the Land

Alienation Aots passed in PunJab (1900) and other provinces

and the Usurious Loan Aot, 1918, were some ot the earlier

Acts aimed at oheoking rural indebtedness as well as lend

alienation. The oases were to be settled b7 the Courts.

As regards the laws to protect the tribals from the

exploitation of non-tribals the British Government passed

the Scheduled District Act, 1874 and also provided tor de­

marcation o:r Scheduled Districts to administer tribal areas.

The Government ot India Act, 1935 on the recommendation ot

the Simon Commission provided tor the classification ot dis­

tricts on the basis of the predominance ot tribal population

into "Partially Excluded" and "Excluded" areas. Provincial

18. Agricultural Legislation in India - Vol. VIII, -Relief ot Agricultural Indebtedness - 1.1 and 1.8 (19.58). .

21

Governments also passed several Aots, to save the tribals.

For example, the Madras Act I of 1917 was passed to regulate

interest, end transfer of land in the Agency Tracts of

Genjem, Visakhepetanem and Godavari Districts. Similarly,

the Chhotte Nagapur Tenancy Aot of 1908 was to protect the

backward aboriginal classes of tenends. 19 __.,.

. The Constitution of India, 19501 in the Fifth

Schedule provides :-

"In particular end without prejudice to the generality . . . . . . '

of the foregoing power, such regulations may -

(a) prohibft or restrict the transfer of lend by or among

members of the Scheduled Tribes in such area;

(b) regulate the allotment of land to the members of the

Scheduled Tribes in such areaJ

(c) regulate the carrying on ot business as money lender

by persons who lend money to members of the Scheduled Tribes

in such area.n20

The State Governments, Which were responsible for the

management and regulation of land tenures, have either amended

the existing tenancy legislation or promulgated executive .

orders covering Schedule.d Areas with e view to controlling

alienation of tribal lends to non-tribals. For example in

Madhya Pradesh, which has the highest concentration of tribal

19. Land Alienation and Restoration in Tribal Communities in India - Edited by Dubey and Ratan.

20. Constitution ot India -Fifth Schedule 5(2) Page 240-modified upto June 1977.

22

population in the country, the Madhya Bharat Scheduled

Area (Allotment and Transfer of Lands) Regulation, 1954,

provides that no member of the soheduled.tribe, exoept with

prior permission of the Collector, can· transfer, by way of.

sale, lease or otherwise, any land to any person other than

the member of the Scheduled Tribe. In Orissa, the Orissa

Scheduled Areas Transfer of Immov$ble P~operty by· Scheduled

Tribes Regulation 2 of 1956 end Seotions 22 ana 23 of the .

Orissa Land Reform Aot, 1960 restrict the transfer ot lends

from Scheduled Tribes to members of non-scheduled tribes

in Scheduled and Non-Scheduled Areas respectively. Simi­

larly, in GuJarat, the Scheduled Areas Regulation, 1969, in

RaJasthan the Aot of ·1956 o·onoerning transfer of tribal

lands, and Ma~arashtra Land Revenue Code, 1966, eto., are

some of the examples of legal restrictions imposed by the

State Governments regarding transfer of tribal lands to non­

tribal&. Inspite of these restrictions on the transfer of

lands from scheduled tribes in different states, a large

acreage of tribal land has continued to be alienated due to

certain loopholes in the tenancy legislation, slaokness·in

the implementation of restrictive provisions, and other

socio-economic factors like lack of awareness on the part

of tribals rege~ding legislative prohibitions, their poverty

end tear and shyness of tribals to approach to governmental -~....:_.:_~

authorities. It was only after June 25 1 1975, after.tbe

President of India declared National Emergency in the country,

most of the State Governments have amended existing laws or

23

even enacted new laws and tried to implement them more

foroetully. The laws were amended or enacted mainly on the

following lines -

(a) to plug loopholes which were used to grab tribal

lands;

(b) To make them comprehensive so that they also cover

tribals living outside Scheduled AreesJ

(o) to simplify legal proceedings involved in the

handling ot land alienation oases;

(d) to tone up the administrative machinery for speedy

handling ot th~ oases;

(e) to include penal provisions to deal with tuture

occurrences of land alienation;

(t) controlling the loaning activities of. private money

lenders in tribal areasa and

(g) abolition ot bonded labour bT the enactment ot a

Central Legialation. 21

In the areas of legislation, the State Governments

have declared land alienation by way of sale, mortgage, or

by possession under Tenancy Acts from a tribal to a non­

tribal as nul and void. For example the Government. of Rajas­

than ~9de amendments to the Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 in

1976 by which a mortgage~ in the event of failure to return

land to the tribal mortgager, would be criminally liable to

21. Land Alienation and Restoration- in Tribal Communities ot India - Edited by Dubey and Ratan -PP, 193-204,

24

imprisonment upto one yeer and a fine'upto Rs.1,000 or both.

The Orissa Government has amended the Orissa Regulation 2

_of 1956 in which the period for obtaining tenancy on sche­

duled tribes lands by a non-tribal is now )0 years instead

of 12 years, Whioh was the period earlier, Provision ot

imprisonment and fines are included in the ABt·in the event

of unauthorised occupation of any immovable property belong­

ing to a member ot any scheduled tribe by a non-tribal, Rest

ot the State Governments having concentration ot tribal popu­

lation in the States have emended the Aots accordingly,

Available information regarding the oases o~ lend alienation

detected, registered and restoration ot lends to tribals has

been given in Table VIII. The Table reveals that the largest

number ot oases of land alienation have been detected or

registered in Bihar (3S,501), followed by Maharashtra ()1,222),

RaJasthan (22,)28), Tripura (1),491), Andhra Pradesh (8,719),

Orissa (7,))8) end GuJarat (4,700) - in varying periods ot

time upto 1976 in oases ot various states. The disposal ot

the oases within this period was not, however, very encourag­

ing. Column 7 ot Table Vlllindicates that a large number ot

oases ·were still awaiting disposal. The Table Villturther

revealed that the largest number ot tribels (17,952) had

been benefited with 15,848 aores ot land in Bihar upto

December 1976. The Report ot the Commissioner tor Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes tor the year 1973·74 indicated

that oases ot large scale alienation ot tribal lend were

reported in the States ot Assam, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, U.P.,

25

and West Bengal too.

After the declaration of emergency, State Governments

have also amended existing legislations regulating money

lending activities such as interest rates, disposal of out­

standing debts, licencing of money lenders operating in

tribal areas, setting up debt relief Courts, etc. For

example, in Rajasthan the Scheduled Debtor Aot, 1975, pleoes

a morato~ium of one year on the recovery of debts trom

scheduled tribes debtors such as marginal farmers, small . -. - - ' -. .

farmers, agricultural labourers eto. An amendment to the

Aot in 1976; provides tor total liquidation of debts of oer­

tain categories of debtors - marginal farmers, artisans and

agricultural labourers below Rs.2,400 per annum. In Bihar,

the Moneylenders Aot, 19.3g_and the Bihar Moneylenders (Regu­

lation of Transaction) Aot, f9.39 were amended regulating

money lending activities in tribal areas. 22 Similarly,

several other states have enacted or emended legislation to

make it more stringent and enforceable.

The bonded labour system in the country has been . . .

abolished through the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Aot,

1976. The main provisions of the Act are to deolare bonded

labour tree from any obligation to render any tree service,

manuel or menial and el~ such oustoms, traditions, oontraots

and agreements as applied to them were declared void. 2.3 The

22. Policy Measures and Administrative Issue - Lend Aliena­tion end Restoration- Edited by Dubey end Ratan- P.206.

2). Report of The Commissioner tor Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes- 1975-76 _and 1976-77 (24th Report) P.26.

26

Governments through,a series ot rules end regulations ere

trying to rehabilitate the freed bonded labourers •. As on .

)1st July 1977 ot the 97,396 bonded labourers identified in

the oountry-95 1 997 had been released and 2),720.rehabili-·

teted. 24

2.9 Planning and Tribal Agriculture

During the Plan-period both Union Government and State

Governments have undertaken various Developmental ProJects .... . . . . . . . . . - - ..

to bring about a change in socio-economic structure ot the . . . .

tribal economy. Under the Second Plan 4.3 Multi-purpose

Pilot ProJects-were started with the main objectives ot

improvement ot agriculture including encouragement of settled

cultivation, organisation of co-operatives, provision ot·

communications, health services etc •. These projects were . - .

renamed as Tribal Development Blooks in the Third Plan. Each

T.D. Block was intended to oover 25,000 people against the

Community Development Blocks which was intended to cover

66,000 people. At present there ere 464 tribal blocks end

20 sub-blocks (making a total ot 504) operating ell over the · 25 country. ·

An amount ot as.19.93 crores was spent in the First

Plan, during the Second Plan as.42.92 crores, the Third Plan

as.se.Jg crore, the Three Annual Plans as.)2.)2 orore, end

24. Heport ot The Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes - 1975-76 end 1976-77 (24th Heport) · P.26 end India 1977-76, P,)67.

25, V.K. Pur! - Planning for Tribal Development - Yojena · - June 1 , 1976 ~

27

Rs. 7S crores ~uring the Fourth Plan. · So tar as the develop­

ment ot agriculture and employment programmes in the tribal

areas are ooncerned these programmes included communication,

subsidy for agricultural equipment, animal husbandry, horti­

culture,. minor irr'igation, soil ooni!ervation, cottage in­

dustries, etc. Added to all these programmes,. those of

health, housing and other taoilities were to be covered,

On the pattern of SFDA/ME.Al. Projects in rural areas,

Tribal DeTelopment Agency Projects were established on an

experimental b!!sis in 1971-72. These proJeots covered areas

like Srlkakulam district ot Andhra Pradesh, Singhbhum dis-. ' -

trict of Bihar, Dantewada and Konta tehasils of Bastar dis­

trict in M.P., and Ganjam, Koraput, Keonjhar distr1ots of

Orissa. The outlay tor eaoh ot these agencies was Rs. 2

crores and the target was to· cover 10·,000 deserving tribal

families or 50,000 deserving tribal people in each tribal

agency project.

The Fifth Plan introduced the conoept ot sub-plan

in the tribal areas - At present around two-thirds ot the

tribal population is covered by such Plans~ 26 The Plan has

substantial provision tor integrated rural development -

developing agriculture through supply of agricultural

inputs, minor irrigation services, soil conservation,

deTelopment ot road and communication, development ot horti­

culture, adequate marketing facilities etc. Added to all

26. Draft Five Year Plan (1978-8)) 1,91.

these.the integrated·programme also lnoludes the problems

of land alienation, indeqtedness and exploitation, bonded

labour, supply of consumer goods, housing eto. At a Maoro

level, the tunotions inoludes co-ordination of activities

in tribal development proJeots, ·agriculturaL re.searoh on a

regional basis, maJor irrigation projeots, river valley ' .

development, industrial and mineral development of the

region, eto, .. To help the States in the implem.entation of

the tribal development programmes the Fifth Plan had out­

lined a Central assistance of Rs,19S.3) crores, the share

of the States ~eing Rs.ssS.)) orores. 27

The Sixth F~ve Year Plan however, hopes to make the·

Sub~Plan S~hemes more comprehensive for the upliftment of

backward areas which also include the tribal areas, "The

approach ot this Plan is to_rely to a much greater extent

on the development ot agri~ulture, village and small indus­

tries.• subsidi'ry oooupations and related services through

hill area, tribal area, revised minimum needs and area

development program.mes,n2S For such area development schemes

including hill· area and tribal area plans and NRC outlays_j.s

Rs, 2800 crores.

Though some ot the changes in the tribal eoonoiDY' are

in evidence on·aooount of the e.otivities _undertaken by the

government, the efforts have not no far been able to solve

27. Draft Five Year Plan (197S-S3) 1,91, Page 112, '

28. Draft Five Year Plan (1978-8)). 1,97.

29

the basio problems ot poverty, malnutrition and exploitation.

Although legislations have been passed against the.transfer

of tribal lands, the benami-trensfer of tribal lands to non­

tribals is continuing, "There are instanoes of non-tribals

marrying tribal women to get over the legal restriotions, 29

The problems of indebtedness, credit and marketing

are linked to one another, The co-operatives have to play

a significant role in this programme, As the tribals have

a strong feeling of community living, and long tradition ot

demooratio institutions, the oo-operative:movement has a

chance of suooess, They failed in the past due to lack ot

proper organisation and implementation by the people in the

field, Moreover, they fell into the hands of some vested

interests, A study team was constituted by the Government

of Ind1a in 1971 (Bawa Committee) on the co-operative struc­

ture in tribal areas, The Team has recognised that the

society at primary level, which caters to the tribals 1

should provide a comprehensive range ot services, It had

recommended the organisation of credit-cum-marketing socie­

ties. The society is expected to provide loans to the

tribals both for consumption and production purposes, under­

take marketing operations in the tribal areas in the field

of purchasing from the tribals agricultural end forest

products and selling to them their daily necessities as well

as agricultural inputs. Some of the State Governments have

29. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture -1976, Pert XIII, P.111,

)0

alread;r taken steps to establish oo-operat1 ve societies

based on the recommendations of the Bawa Committee. "It

is hoped that the initial difficulties in the setting up

of· LAMPS· (Large Sized Multi-purpose· Co·operative Societies)

would be overcome and these societies would be able to give

muoh needed succour to the exploited tribal communit1es."30

It is· also good to note that the Government of Inaia has

issued instructions to nationalised banks to advance O.S

per cent cf their gross deposits under 4 per oent rate of

interest to· Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Tribal economy is intimately oonnected with the

forests. The forests provide them fruit, fuelwood, timber

and other products which the tribals consume as also sell.

Collection and marketing of minor forest products gives

employment to the tribals and supplements their income.

The National Commission on .Agriculture has recommended the

implementation of the Scheme of Social Forestry with the

following objectives 1

(1) fuel wood supply to the rural areas end replacement ·

of oowdung,

(it) fodder supply,

(iii) small timber supply,

(iT) protection of agricultural .fields against wind; and

(v) recreational needs.31

30. Report of The Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes - (24th Round) ;1976-77, P.a.

)1. Interim Report of the National Commission on Agriculture on Social Forestry, 1973 1 P.12.

.31

The plantation ot trees on the termers own hol~ings, . .

village commons, banks and bunds ot the tanks, government

waste lands, eto. was recommended by the Commission. The

Soh.eme would not onl7 giTe employment ·to the' tribal people,

but also oan fulfil their basio needs in the long run. The

Scheme has been working ~ith the co-operation ot both the

Centre and State Governments sinoe the Third Five Year Plan.

Muoh ot its success depends upon the willing co-operation

ot the rural and, tribal ~eople for which a net work ot

extension workers is needed.

The allied activities like dairying, poultry, bee

keeping, animal husbandry, eto., haTe great potentialities . '

to.provide employment all the year round to the tribal

farmers. While promoting livestock and poultry development

programmes tor the tribals a distinction has to be made

between tribal areas which have a market economy or are

nearer to market oentres, and areas whioh are inaooessible

and where a market economy has yet to develop. In the first

oese steps have to be taken tor breed development, management

ot livestock and poultry on modern and oommeroial lines. In

the second oase, the tribals may be helped to maintain the

liTestook to meet looal consumption needs.

Tribals are quite familiar with the cottage industries

like weaving and basket making eto_ The traditional skills -;r - .

ot the tribals should be identified and proper assessment

should be made regarding the development potential ot

village and cottage industries based on available looal raw

.32

materials.

The Sixth Five Year Plan has proposed the schemes

ot regionally oriented investment programmes in the baokward

areas. Some of the examples of such programmes are

"(i) investment in major bridges, roads, marketing taoili­

tiee, or communication that oan open an area, make commercial

agriculture profitable and possible to help to stimulate

non-agricultural job opportunities;

(11) investments in labour training which would be ot

particular importance in areas where a substantial change in

the occupational structure is required;

(iii) emergence of rural banks, credit co-operatives end

o~her institutions to improve the credit net work and reduoe

exploitations;

(1v) support tor land retorms and.other programmes ot

institutional ohange • .32

These programmes need sincere and systematic imple­

mentation in tribal areas by the implementing authorities.

The success ot the proJects much ~epends upon the popular

support and eo-operation of the tribal people.

32. Dratt Five Year Plan- (197g.g3) 6.10.

.33

CHA.-1?TER III

TRIBAL AGRICULTURE IN HILL AREAS

SHIFTING CULTIVATION

.3.1 The economy of the hill tribals is largely based on

lend end forest resources, Agriculture is the principal

source or livelihood tor the hill tr1bals, as it is tor

the p~ains-tr~bals. Although in some pockets of the hill

erees 1 settled farming in the form ot terreoe or wet oult1-

vat1on is practised by some ot the tribes, t'he prinoipal

type or cultivation prevalent among the hill tribals is

known as "Shifting Cultivation". It is assumed that shitt­

i.ng cultivation is th~ oldest method of e.griculturel practioe

adopted by man.y primitive tribes inhabiting in the tropioal

and sub-tropiael regions. One source dates back the existence 1 of shitting_oult1vat1on to· .3000 B.c.

The system consists of telling of trees in the hill

slope 1 burning. the fallen trees and buehes 1 end. lastly

dibbling or broadcasting seeds in the ash-covered soil. The

lend so prepared is cultivated tor two to three years till

its fertility is exhausted. Then the land is abandoned end

e new patoh of forest lend is brought und.er cultivation.

The oultiva.tion is thus shifted _from one pBtoh of land to

another after every few years of cultivation.

Though in English terminology this system is oalled

1. Tripethy D.P. - Shifting Cultivation in Orissa -P.8.

34

as "slash end burn" cultivation, in India it has numerous

local terms. It is known as "Jhum" 1.n Assam, Kureo end

Khelli in Bihar, Weler in Gujaret, Pendo, Bewar end Dehiye

in Madhya Pradesh, Kumeri in Madras, Brings, Podu, end Dahl

in Orissa, Tekongtuu in Nagaland, Hookuismong in Tripura . 2

and Adiabiok in NEFA. .

The system of Shifting Cultivation has been defined

by Pelzer as "an eoonomy of which main ohareoteristios are

rotation of fields rather than orops; clearing by means ot . . - .

tire, absence of draught animals and manuring, use ot human

labour only, employment of dibble stick or hoe; short

period of soil"oooupanoy alternating with long follow

:periods. "3

We may brief the charaoter1stias of shifting cultiva­

tion as follows

(i) Rotation of fields, not orops - or shifting ot the

fields over time end spaoo;

(11) using of fire as the olearing agent.;

(111) use of human labour as the ohiet inputs;

(iv) no enimal or plough is used tor cultivation;

(v) use of simple tools like dibble stick or hoe;

{vi) praotice of mixed cropping in the land; and

2. Banerjee N.K. • An Appraisal ot Shifting Cultivation in India - Agro-Eoonomio Problems ot Tribal India - Edited by M.L. Patel. P.106.

). Pelzer, K.J. - Poineer Settlement in Assietio Tropioa ( 1954) - Clark and Haswell, 1966 P. :n _.-The Eoonomios ot Shifting Cultivation in AAsam (A Thesis) - N. Sehe.

(vii) shifting of homestead, it necessary.

),2 Extent ot Shifting Cultivation

In India Shifting CUltivation is found largely in

the States ot Andhra Pradesh, the hill districts ot Assam,

Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram,

Menipur, Nagaland, Orissa and Tripura. The system also

exists in some parts of Bihar, Gujarat, Mahareshtra, Mysore

and Kerala, The _dat~ rega~ding the eoreage ~overed under

shifting cultivation, ~umber o~ people depending on it, and

its productivity, etc., are scanty and sketchy, Doubts have

often aris~n regarding the reliability ot the published

statistics. H6wever, atter oompiling the reports given by

the Commissioner tor Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes,

and the Dhebar Commission, a Table is prepared, whioh gives

a picture of the tribal population depending on shifting

cultivation, the areas covered and the crops grown etc,

(See Tabla IX), An analysis ot the Table IX would reveal

that during the sixtees, 25 1 89 1 401 tribal persons were depend­

ing upon 1),08,2)6 acres of land annually for shifting culti­

vation. Dhebar Commission viewed that since the land was

changed in rotation, the total area affected by shifting

cultivation might be estimated at five times the annual

area. 4 In North East India alone where shifting cultivation

is largely practised by the tr1bals 1 about 2.7 million

hectares of forest land are affected by jhuming and nearly

4. Report ot the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission - (Dheber Commission)_ 1).6.

halt a million tribal tamilies were involved.'

Al~hough production ot rood orops is the main type

ot agricultural praotioe among the tribals under shitting

cultivation, some cash and oommeroial crops are also raised.

Shifting cultivators in 'aitterent states, tor example, are

raising cotton, fruits, chillies, ginger, tumeric, oilseeds,

sugarcane~ 3ute,. vegetables, tor the markets in the plains.

A oompari sbn ot the Column S w1 th Column. It ot Table

IX indicated that.per capita availability of land in India . ..-- . . . '

tor Shi~ting cultivation was_ onl~ 0.50 sores •. Table x, however, shQws that the average lend ~er p~rson practising

. shifting culti~ation varied between 0.004 sores in Bihar to

2. 89 sores in Gujarat (inclucUng Maharashtra); in the

ma3ority ot oases it was less than one aore. Considering

the small amount ot per capita forest land put under &hitt­

ing cultivation, and the primitive praotioes ot agriculture,

the tribal& have to depend upon ~ the collection ot forest ¥ • • ...- -- •

produce, hunting and gathering tood eto.-, tor the rest or

the year. In some oases they ere also engaged in ~se

house industry and oasual labour.

).) Low Produotivitt

The produotiTity ot land under shitting cultivation

has been estimated to be lower than that ot wet and settled

cultivation in any part ot the country. An estimate ot per

sore paddy yield under shifting cultivation by the tribals

s. Wadis F.K. ·-Control ot Shifting Cultivation in North Eastern Reg! on- Prajnan Vol. V No. ) , Sept. 1976.

37

.. of GanJam district (Orissa) shows that it is 240 Kg.,

whereas it comes to 480 Kg. to 600 Kg~ in case of low land

in the Plains. 6 Similarly in Meghalaya it .has been esti­

mated that paddy yields in Jhum areas are 715 Kg. per

heotare 1 as against 1369 Kg. per heotare in more terraced

agr1oulture.7 Low returns from agriculture have been mainly

responsible in keeping the hill tribals at a subsistence .-:::

level of existence.

The low productivity of land under shifting culti­

vation may be attributable to.the following reasons J,

(1) Primitive Methods

It has already been mentioned that after burning the

trees and bushes, the cultivators Just broadcast the seeds

on the ash bed or dibble the seeds into the holes. Gene-- .

rally plough is not used or earth is not dug. The main

input in shifting cultivation is the ash from the burnt

matter and human labour next to land and seed. A pattern

of mixed_ cropping is generally adopted by the cultivators,

where paddy, millets, beans, sweet potatoes, chilU.es,

ootto~, end a number of vegetables are planted together • .

In the absence ot application ot manure or fertilisers, or

any improved techniques of cultivation, the yields per acre

ere bound to be low.

6. K. Mahapatra and K. Devi - Shiftin~ Cultivation in Orissa- Ad1bas1 - Vol.XIV- Jan. (1973).

1. F.K. ·wadia - Control of Shifting Cultivation in North Eastern Region - PraJnan - Vol~ 3 July - Sept. 1976.

(ii) Jhum Cyole

A plot of forest land after being cultivated for

two to three years is left fallow for a number of years to

regain fertility. Ih the interval the cultivators cultivate

other plots of lanl'l. This is known as the "Jhum Cycle".

This oyole depends.upon the pressure of population of a

particular area as well as the availability of suitable

hill slopes~ :t'he h_igher the densi_ty of_ popu~eti?n in a

particular area, the shorter is the 'jhum oyole'. With . . . ' . . . . . . . . . .. . .

inorease.in the population in recent years the jhum cycle

which was 30 to 40 years ~n the past had decrea~ed to 1 to

17_ ye~rs i~ Arunachal Pradesh, 4 to 5 years in Meghalaya,

Mizoram and Tripura, ' to 10 years in Assam Hills, 6 to 8

years in Manipur and 6 to 1S years in Nagaland.g With the

jhum cycle, becoming shorter, the soil fertility cloes not

fully recover and the yield of crops per sore decline.

(iii) Lend Ownership

In most of the tribal areas in the hills the land

is owned by the community as a whole, The power of distri­

bution of land for cultivation rests with the village head­

man, or the village community. Due to non-fixity ot indivi­

dual tenurial rights, the farmers have little attachment to . - .

land. They do not take any interest for_ the improvement of

land and hence, the productivity sutters. Moreover due to

8, Wadia F,K.- Control of Shifting-Cultivation in the North Eastern Region - Prajnan - Vol. ) July-Sept. 1976, and National Commission on Agriculture- Ch.42, PP.147-158 ( 1976).

.39

lack of individual records of right over the cultivable

land, the tribals are unable to get the facilities of

institutional credit for investment in agriculture against

land as a security.

(iv) Difficulties of Irrigation

Tribal areas are extremely backward from the point

of view of irrigation. Although, hill areas ~enerally get

more rainfall, the rein water is not retained on the hill . . -

land as it immediately runs off down the slopes. The

tribals in the hills ere therefore able to grow only rein-fed

crops. The major problem ~s _to preserve the water_ through

dams or bunds, -and the preparation of_te~~ac~d lands for

irrigation purposes whioh involve heavy _oost.

Where terraces have been constructed, the cultiva­

tion is more intensive. The Apatanis ot Arunachal Pradesh,

the Angami Nagas, and the Savaras of Orissa, have been

successful in intensive terrace fa_rming unC!er <tondi tiona of

wet cultivation. The Savaras of Orissa have turned the

Podu fields into terraced lands. Water from the neighbouring

streams is diverted into these fields for irrigation with

great care and ingeneuity. Angami Nages of Nagaland, and,

in some areas, the Khasis have been practising settled

farming by oons~ructing terraces on the_ hill slopes. Though

no sophisticated implements are used and no chemical ferti­

lisers are applied in the fields, the Apatanies have

achieved excellent results by efficient use of water re­

sources. The carrying oapeoity of the soil is about SOO per

40

square miles, whioh has besides irrigated tields, pasture

land, groves, housesites, forests, eto.9

(v) Carrying CapacitY

A comparative study on the carrying capacity ot land

under shifting cultivation in the areas ot Mizo Hi~ls

(Assam), Keonjhar Hills (Orissa), and Abujhamar Hills

(Madhya Pradesh) (See Table ~) reveals that sh~tting oulti·

vation oan supp~rt varyi~g number ot people under different

conditions ot raintall. 10 The rainfall in the Mizo Hills - -- .

is 13~ in the Keonjhar Hills 65ft and i~ the Abujhamar . . - '

Hills 50". The oar17i.ng densi ~Y o~ popula.tion. per. square

mile i~ 37.5 in the Mizo Hills,.24.7 in the Keonjhar Hills

.and 14.3 in the.Abujhamar Hills. It we compare these . . .

figures with the present density ot population ot those

areas, we tind in the Mizo Hills it is 13.2 and in the . .

Abujhamar Hills it is 6.1, whereas in the Keonjhar Hills ~ . . ~ ..

the .figure is. 63.2. The oonsequenoes ot over population

in the Keonjhar Hills are extension ot cultivation to areas . . .

whioh are unusable tor the purpose, ~hortening ?t r~speotive cyo~e~ result~ng.in low.average productivity (2.37 quintals

per aore), and outmigration in search ot work as agricultu­

ral labourers. Suoh problems are not there where density ot

9. Tripathy R.N. - Agricultural Problems in TriQal India -Perspeotives on Tribal Development and Administration -NICD, Hyderebad- PP.181-194.

10. Bose Saradindu - "Problems ot Shitt.ing Cultivation in India - Agro-Economio Problems.ot Tribal India -Edited by M.L. Patel - P.120 (also see his book Carrying Capacity ot Land Under Shifting Cultivationft - The Asiatio Sooiety- Cal.11. ·

population is lower then the oerrying capacity. Another

important thing to note here is the difference between the

carrying capacity under shifting cultivation with the

highest rainfall in the Mizo Hills (37.5) and the carrying

capacity of the Apatani under provisions of irrigation (SOO).

).4 Reasons of Pursuing Shifting Cultivation as an occu­

pation -

Inspite of the disadvantages as stated above, the

system of shifting cultivation continues among the tribals - . . .

for various reasons.

(i) The tribals under shifting cultivation practise

mixed cropping·in the 3hum land. In favourable conditions,

the cultivator produces his family requirements of food, • I •

cereals, vegetables, oilseeds and pulses and a few cash

crops to exchange or barter against his requirements from

outside.

(ii) Shifting cultivation provides work to all the able

bodied persons including grown-up children.

(iii) Plough cultivation requires more of inyestment in

form of bullocks, seeds, fertiliser and labour charges

which are beyond the means of an average tribal. For shift­

ing cultivation the tribals do not spend much on these items.

Ashes of natural vegetation are the only manure used in the

land. Moreover shifting cultivation oan be undertaken with

extremely simple implements like hoe, digging stick and axe.

(iv) ExtensiTe fertile lands are not available in the

areas where the primitive tribes live. Besides in certain

.42

areas where they live at the foot of the hills or plains

they have lost their wet land to non-tribals. As a result

. they have no other alternative but to cultivate hills slopes.

·(v) Shifting ·cultivation forms .a part .and parc.el of ~heir

culture and way of life, The rituals, socialorganisations,

.and recreational activities are interwoven with t:be practice

of shifting cultivation.

3. S Effects of Shifting Qul tiyetion - Two Views.

There are two views regarding the effects of.shifting . . . . . . . '

cultivation an~ the steps to be taken to tackle the problem•· ·

Those who opine that the system is be.d and harmful have based

their findings .il! _the f<>.llowing lines.

Shifting ~ultivation )las led to the destruction of

valuable forests, soil. erosion, and drying of the springs

in the hills. It has affected rainfall and caused floods in

the lower reaches of the valleys. H.L, Bor, the then Bota­

nist of. the Forest Research Institute of Dehra Dun had

characterised shifting cultivation as harmful causing ex-11

tensive soil erosion. It is viewed that the forests

provide physical obstruction to the velocity of wind and

water, and thus check soil erosion. Once the forests are

gone due to continuous operation of shifting cultivation,

land becomes loose, and dust storms and torrential rain

cause wide scale soil erosion.

11, Bor M,L, - Presidential Speech in Bombay Session of Indian Soienoe Congress, 1942 - Dhebar Commission (1961) 1),8.

43

Mr. Nicholson, one time Conservator of Forests in

Orissa, while giving ·evidence before the Partially Areas

Enquiry Committee of Orissa, observed, - "The damage done

to the forests by shifting cultivation was serious; and

only under certain conditions where area of land available

is large and population small, sucb culti_vation does little

harm."12 Due to practice of extensive shifting culUvation

in the Koraput plateau (Orissa), for example, the sal

forests have completely gone out of e:x:isten.ce from the Sader

Sub-division. Even some of the blocks of the district are

practically devoid of all forest resources. ·

It has ~lso been viewed that reduction of forests

caused by shifting cultivation reduces the water-holding

and water-releasing capacity of the hills. As a result

streams and rivers run dry in summer - when actually water

is most needed. Further, reduction of.forests brings devas­

tating floods in the plains as the rivers get silted rapidly.

Hence, on the basis of these observations, it is con­

cluded that shifting cultivation gives rise to two grave

enemies of agriculture i.e. flood and drought.

The second opinion on the effects of shifting culti­

vation is that, Jhuming operation is not so much harmful as

it has been generally described. Mr. Chaturvedi, at one

time Inspector General of Forests, Government of·India, and

12. Report of the Second Conference for Tribes and Tribal (Scheduled) Areas, Nov. 1953, P.256 •.

44

Mr. M.S. Sivaraman, the then Advisor, Programme Administra­

tion,. Planning Commis·sion, are ot the view that the system

is no·t necessarily unsoientitio and can be improved. 13 It

is argued that the high humidity and heavy rainfall in the

region does not peruiit the soil to remain barren tor long,

Some form ot growth immediately covers the top soil which

does not allow tor further erosion. The tribals also·

prepare a seed bed in the steep· slo~es and do not dist~rb

the top soil by ploughing or hoeing, Chaturvedi opined, . .

"The notion widely held that shifting cultivation is res­

ponsible in the main tor large scale soil erosion needs to

be ettectively.dispelled. The oorrect approach to the

shifting oul"~ivation lies in aooepting it not as a necessary

evil, but recognising it as a way ot liteJ not condemning

it as an evil praotioet but regarding it as an agricultural

praotic e ••• " 1 ~

The opinion that shifting cultivation do.es not create

much problem of soil erosion as some form ot growth imme.:.

diately covers the soil due to hea:,Y rain cannot be accepted

as universally true. Shirting cultivation has caused severe

problems in the areas where rainfall is comparatively less,

13. See Dhebar Commission Report ( 1961) ·13. 8 and Tripathy R.N. - Agricultural Problems in Tribal Areas -P.erspeotive on Tribal Development and Administration -NICD - Hyderabad.

14. Chaturvedi - Report ot the Committee on Special ' Multi-Purpose Tribal Blocks (Scheduled) Areas -

PP. ·46-49 - Dheber Commission (1961} 1).6.

4S

and soil is not oonduoive tor rapid vegetation, and the

density of population· is more.

There is also another observation that in the Assam

Hills, at least ten centimetres or soil is washed away

even from the moderate slopes in each. Jhum!ng cyole, Al­

though the vegetation grows quioklyl the suooessive growths

deteriorate from large trees to shrubs and bamboos, and

ultimately to coarse grass, Where the slopes are steep or

Jhuming cycle short, barren rooks have also appeared. 1S

Hence, the shifting oult~vation is one ot the maJo.r

problems in the tribal areas and it is not an ideal method,

Dhebar Oommiss~on feels that, as nearly 10 per cent ot the

tribal population depends upon jhuming, they oannot be

deprived ot their land, their livelihood and their way or

lite. "Total replacement or the system, it it comes at all, . 16 . . .

will be a long term prooess." Similarly Mr. Sivaraman

concludes; "In most ot the interior areas, where communica­

tion is not developed, and not suttioient land suitable tor

terraoing is available; jhuming alone oan be done tor the . .

present and as such every effort should be made to improve

the fertility of the jhumed land.n17

· 1;, Goswami P.O. -Status Paper on Shifting Cultivation and Soil Conservation in North East India - Directorate ot So~l Conservation, Assam 1973 - quoted by-Wadis -Prajan Vol. V No. ), 1976.

16. Dhebar Commission (1961) 1).11.

17. Report ot the Committee on Speoial MUltipurpose Tribal Block (Scheduled) Areas - PP.4S-49 - quoted by Dhebar Commission - ( 1961 ) 13. 8. ·

System of shifting cultivation is a mixed prob~.~ partly connected wit~ the physical condition of the land

and partly with social customs, trad~ti~ns ana beliefs.

The solution, for the present, is to regulate the farming . . practices on scientific lines so that its disadvantages

are reduced and fertility of the soil is promoted. Alter­

native terming praGtioes must be gradually introduced so

that dependence on shifting cultivation is reduced.

).6 Measures to Control Shifting Cultivation

Various schemes tind programmes sponsored by the

Centre and the State Governments are under implementation

to ween awey trjbels from shifting cultivation. It is also . .

expected thet the programmes·would enable the tribals to

have a better end more stable income trom agriculture. The

important measures include -

(a) soil conservation activities , land reclamation,

terracing, countour building, plantation, development ot

irrigation, development ot pastures, etc.;

(b) Programmes of colonisation and settlement; - provid­

ing the tribals with land and other facilities to undertake

settled cultivation, and also with residential accommodation;

(o)

(d)

(e)

introduction of cash crops and horticulture; . ' . '

tangle cultivation, and

agri-silviculture.

The implementation and progress ot some of the prin­

cipal measures in this direction are mentioned below.

47

Soil-Conservation

Proper implementation ot soil-conservation activi­

ties can yield immediate returns end can save the soil from

further deterioration, It will give D.ew soil, new vegeta­

tion and in tew years rejuvenate forests too,

Dhebar Commission viewed that the soil conservation

activities were progressing in full swing in the States ot

Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Orissa, The

Commission found that everywhere complaint was regarding . 18

the insuttioienoy ot tunds. In the North Eastern Region

the States' programme ot soil conservation oompris! -

(a) the traditional soil conservation measures like

terracing; countour building, reclamation, attor~station, . . . .

irrigation, plantation etc., and

(b) special programme ot resettlement.

Available reports show that by the end ot 1975-76 an

area ot about 190 lakh hectares ot agricultural land was

treated with soil conservation practice and about 20 lakh . ' . . . . .

hectares ot non-agricultural land was put under afforesta­

tion and grass land development with a total expenditure ot

Rs.4,22 crores. Although these tigures stand tor the country

as a whole, the major work, no doubt, has been done in the

tribal areas. 19

Len~ Reclamation Schemes

A Land Reclamation Scheme has been undertaken by the

Tribal Development Agencies in the tribal areas ot

18. Report of the Dhebar Commission (1961) 1).)1, 19, India (1977-78) P,211,

48

Srikakulam District ot Andhra Pradesh. The Agency prepared

the land, undertook m1nor irrigation works, end supplied

the cultivators with·arought oattl8, farm implements and

houses etc.· A survey of the pertormanoes of· the scheme

tor a period ot three years (1973-74 to 1975-76), showed

that as against 35~52 per cent ot cultivated area put under

shifting cultivation in the first year (i.e. 1973-74), the

proportion declined to 10.76 in the second year and to 10,2)

in the third year. 20 In the areas* where the Tribal Develop­

ment Agencies are undertaking this type ot intensive works,

the tribals are also gradually shifting to high yielding

varieties .and (l.Ommercial crops.

Terraced and Settled Cultivation

Terraced cultivation is regarded as a more ettective

solution to ·the problems ot shifting cultivation. In many

areas subsidies have been given by the government to per­

suade the tribals to take to terrace cultivation. But

terracing can be undertaken only under certain conditions,

and not everywhere. Roy Burman and Sharma, in their study ot

a Naga Village, found that the efforts did not make much

success due to. the following reasons.

(1) nature of the terrain was not suitable tor terrace

or wet oultivation,/~f~ts were small and scattered and there

was t~ar ot ~1ld animals, (3) dittioulty ot making roads to

20. Reo I.v.s. and Reo N. Gopal- Modernising Farming Systems of Hill Tribes.

49

reach the scattered plots tor wet cultivation at long

distance, (lt) Rivers were deep and it was C!ifficult to

construct the irrigation channel, (5) lack of finance for ' . 21

irrigation.

Another factor which inhibits the adoption of

terrace cultivation is the :reeling that the top soil con­

taining fertility built into it by long years of leaf fall ' ' gets disturbed when terracing is made. The newly.construc-

. ' '

ted terraces h~ve comparatively inferior top soils~ To

restore fertility in the terraced fields green manures and ' . '

other chemical fertilisers are necessary to be applied in

the fields. I~ is doubtful how far the tribal cultivators ·

with their subsistence economy will be able to invest in • the inputs re~ired for a more settled form of agriculture.

Unless adequate.and timely inputs are made available to them

from the institutional sources, such costly projects of land

reclamation and terracing are not normally undertaken by the

tribal e.

The National Commission on Agriculture has recommen­

ded the following 'points with regard to terracing_ of land

for settled. cultivation. 22

(i) small scale irrigation may have to be arranged from

hill-streams,

(ii) effective extension education is essential,

21. Roy Burman B.K. end Sherma P.S. - Tribal Agriculture in India - Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics -Vol. XXV 1 July-1 970. ·

22. Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture - (1976) Part IX, PP.147-158 1 Ch.lt2:12.

50

(iii) continued financing for maintenance, and institu­

tional arrangements for irrig~tion, seed and fertiliser,

· etc,,

(iv) the land tenure system should be set right,

It is realised that settled-cultivation should not

be ~egarded as the only solution to the problem of shifting

cultivation, It may not be possible to obtain sui table

lands for terracing to solve the proble~s of all·tribal

families depending upon shifting cultivation. It is also

a time. consuming process involving heavy oost. Henoe,

simultaneous programmes like J~ri-silvi culture, introduc­

tion of horticulture crops, and development of live-stock,

etc, have to be taken up.

fl~ri-Silvioulture Programmes

Agri-Silviculture programme has been recommended as

another alternative to improve shifti.ng oultivatlon. It

aims at integrating the forest preservation with shifting

cultivation. It is based on the assumption that trees play

a vital role in protecting agriculture in the long-run.

Trees preserve moisture in the lend by giving shade to the

soil, their falling leaves provi~e manure to the soil;

loppings end thinings give firewood to tho cultivators, so

that cow-dungs and animal dropp~ngs can be used as manure.

Lastly, forests provide valuable timber, fruit, honey and

several other raw materiels to the tribels which oan be

exohangod for consumer goo~s. The programme has to be

worked out in a planned manner in diff~rent regions

51

depending upon the availability or lend tor cultivation

end tor forests, eyst·em or lend tenures, evailebili ty or

water, etc• "The programme should provide the five F's -

rood., fuel, fodder, fruits end fair returns to the termer. n23

This objective can be achieved by a rational distribution

ot productive lend tor agriculture, horticulture, silvi­

culture end pestorege. The National Commission on Agricul­

ture opines, 24 "we should say that the lower and middle

hill slopes should be suitable tor horticultural end planta­

tion crops and higher slopes tor afforestation and pasture

and grass land development." We have also referred to the

Programme ot "Social Forestry" in Chapter II. Agri-Silvi-.. . . . .

culture Programme designed tor the hill tribals is only a - . .

scheme on the same lines.

Taungie System

Tating~ System is a combination or Silvi-CUlture end

impermanent agriculture. It has been tried with success in

Assam and Menipur tribal belt end is under experiment in

Tripura area. 25 Under this system the cultivators ere per­

mitted to clear end burn a part or the forest area and then

23. Pal B.N. - Policy Measures tor Tribal Agriculture -Agro Economic Problems ot Tribal India - Edited by M.L. Patel- P.19.

24. Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture -1976- Part IX Ch.42:12, PP-147-158.

25. Pel B.N. - Some Farming Practices ot Indian Tribes men - Agro Economic Problems of Tribal India - Edited -M.L. Pal- P.100.

52

plant .rows of commercially valuable trees. Th~ fermer is

permitted to cultivate his own crops between the rows or

the new plantations. Within three to four years when the

new plantation gets established, the fermer is allowed to

move to another part of the forest and repeat the process

there. This method enables the commercially useful trees

to be exploited ·by a cycle or about 50 to 1 50 years. The

cultivator wil.l return to the first plot wher_e the trees

having tull growth ere ready to be out down.

Cash Crops end Horticulture

The Dhebar Commission in its report gives a note on

the possibilities or undertaking cash crops and horticulture

plantation programmes in different parts of the tribal areas . 26 . - . . .

or the country. Himachal Pradesh is supplying potato seeds

to a great part of India. The Commission feels there is

urgent need to provide credit, transport and marketing

facilities to the tribal cultivators. Andhra Pradesh

Government in the Arku Valley is trying pine-apple, other

fruits and coffee. Chillies and cashewnuts can be conve­

niently produced by the Andhra tribals. G~Jerat 1 Mahareshtra

and Rajasthan are ideal tor growing cotton and tobacco at

the lower al,titude and various types of fruits. at higher

altitud~. Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and West Bengal

can produce oranges, pineapples, plantains and potatoes.

26. Report or the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission -.Dhebar Commission- (1961) Ch.1). _

53

Coffee can oe grown at higher altitudes of these areas.

In or~ssa there is a scope for tumeric cultivation. The

Assam tribal areas, Manipur and Tripura grow large quanti­

ties of oranges and pineapples •. They can also develop tea

gardens in .these areas. But fruits of these areas are

mostly wasted for want of transportation facilities.

Miss Wadis, after an assessment of the resettlement,

plantation and horticultural .schemes undertaken by the

governments of North-Eastern Region, feels that there are

two maJor problems whioh are not properly dealt.with by the

governments. First is the post reclamation credit needs . .

and second, the marketing arrangements. 27 Added to these, . . ·- . . . . . .. . . . - ' . .

seeds, plants, manure, fertilisers and insecticides eto • . . - . . '

should be provided to the tribal cultivators practising the

cultivation of cash crops and horticulture - in different

states of the country.

Colonisation Sohemes

Colonis~tion schemes in the tribal areas aim at a . .

comprehensive programme to resettle the shifting cultivators.

State governments are taking steps to induce the tribals to

settle agriculture by providing them with residential facili­

ties, lands for cultivation and necessary inputs, and imple­

ments. Government. of Orissa, for example, have estaolished

a number of colonies in the tribal areas during the plan

27. Wadia F.K. - Control of Shifting Cultivation in the North Eastern Region - PraJnan, Vol. V, No. ) -July-Sept. 1976.

54

period. Available information revealed that by 1974-75

altogether 105 such colonies were set up, in which 3098 . .

families were settled. But subsequently it was found that

522 families i,e, about 17 per cent or the families had . 28 . .

deserted tor some reason or other, Some efforts have also

been made by the Government to rehabilitate the tribals in

Dandakaranya ProJect area by providing them 25 per cent or

the reclaimed lands, Government or Tripura, for example,

have started the colonisation scheme for the tribals since

195.3-54 - end a large nllDJ.ber or tribals have been settled,

In recent years Government of Tripura have proposed to settle

200 Jhumia fami~ies - 100 families will be settled tor horti-- . .

cultur~l development, end the .. rest 100 fam!l~es will be

settled on agricultural land. 29 Government_ or Assam prop~sed

to resettle 11,600 families in the Mikir and North Cachar - .

Hill districts under a soheme for the "Permanent Settlement

ot Jhumia Cultivators Through Development of Plantation

Crops," Though they will be employed on wages in rubber and . .

coffee plantation, subsidiary employment will be provided to

them through settled agriculture and other forest works.

. . .

28, Moh~patra P.O. -The Strategy of D~velopm~nt of Tribal ·Economy of Orissa with ~peoial Reference to.Koraput District - Tribal Problems ot Today and Tomorrow -Saberi Cultural Society - Bhubaneswar - Compiled from Annual Administration Report 1974-75. -

29. Wadis F,K, - Control of Shifting Cultivation in North­Eastern Region - Pra4nan - Vol, V, No. ~ - July-Sept 1976. ~ . . . J . •

55

Although various State Gove~ments ere undertaking

colonisation schemes in the above lines to divert the

shifting cultivators to settled agriculture, the proJects

have not been enthusiastically accepted by the tribals in

all places. . It is found that tribals, in some places, have

either deserted the colonies or are maintaining two esta­

blishments i.e. the old houses in the. hills and the new

houses in the colonies.

A. well planned extension programme is needed to

orient the traditio~al hi_ll cultivators towards a ~ermanent

settled cultivation, Timely hel~ with regard to seeds,

fertiliser, 1mP.lements credit and water facilities will

keep the cultivators attached to their new farms.

Occupations allied to agriculture like animal hus­

bandry, poultry, fishing etc., as have been discussed in -- .

Chapter II oan be taken up simultaneously in the settled . . areas as subsidiary source ot employment. Forest areas

should be earmarked for the purpose ot grazing ot cattle

and other animals.

_.Tribal families, both undertaking shifting cultiva­

tion as well as under colonisation programmes, should be

organised under the SFDA/MFL tor their requirements ot

credit, inputs, etc. and tor the marketing ot their produce,

Forest and agro-based small and cottage industries

may be opened in the tribal areas depending upon the availa­

bility ot raw materials end other facilities.

Added to all .these a net work ot communication should receive the top priority in these areas.

CHAPTER IV

SUGGESTED REMEDIES

4,1 In the earlier chapters some ~t the major problems

ot the tribal agriculturists, both living in the plains and . . ' . . .

in the hills have been discussed, An attempt was also made

to review the measures taken by the authorities to tackle

them, This chapter reviews the suggestions given by ditte-.. . . . . ~ . . .. - . . . . . . ..

rent authorities and scholars to solve the agricultural

problems of the tribals,

It has been pointed out in Chapter II, that the major

problems teeing the _plains tribals are uneconomic holdings,

land. alienation, tenurial disincentives, indebtedness,

problems of marketing and lack ot extension services,

4,2 In order to make the uneconomic holdings of the

tribels into economically viable units, there are suggestions

that in the matter of land distribution schemes priority . 1

should be given to small cultivators, The proper implemen-

tation of such a suggestion would however be dependant upon

the ava1iabil1ty of surplus lend ~ either by way of ceilings

or from Government waste land, as elso.the number ot land~ess

as well as poor tribals with uneconomic holdings in the

1,(a) V,K, Puri- Plen,ing tor Tribal Development­Yojana Vol, XXII 10, June 1, 1978,

. . (b) I.P, Singh'- Development of Agriculture in Tribal

Areas - Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics, Vol, XXV, July, 1970.

57

village. In comparison to the needs of the people, the

available surplus land is generally inadequate. Under suoh

circumstances the distribution of land would need to be

weighed among the land.less tribals· or the uneconomic hold­

ings. In either case the total magnitude of the.problem

cannot be solved. Henoe, more intensiv.e methods of culti­

vation of the existing farms with the provision of water,

inputs, seeds and fertilisers to generate more income from

the field at governmental initiative have to be taken up.

At the same time allied activities like livestock raising,

poultry, piggery eta, should be encouraged, Rural works

programmes.wil~ help the landless and land poor tribals to

earn and supplement their income.

4.) Almost all the scholars who have been studying the

agr~oultural pr~blems of tribals, the Committees and Commi­

ssions appointed to go through their eoonomio problems have

been pointing out that the land alienation, as a result of

tribal indebtedness is the main cause of their exploitation.

Suggestions tor the passing of legislation against aliena­

tion of tribal land have been made. State Governments have

passed laws against alienation of tribal lands to non-tribals,

implemented them, end in some oases restored the alienated

land to the tribels. But due to loopholes in the legisla­

tion, benami transfers of lend are oontinuing. A detailed

study is needed to be done in this regard, end solutions

have to be found out to remedy the legal loopholes and to

solve the specific eoonomio problems of tribals who are

allowing suoh benami transfers. The Commissioner for

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tri be.s however tel t, · "it

seems that it has not been possible to know the megni tude

of the problem in ell the tri.bel areas of the ·country.· It

will go a long way if comprehensive surveys by expert

agencies are Il!EI.de in the tribal areas· where this problem

has known to be acute. Efforts ere also req:uired to be

made by the State Governments to ensure that the restored

tribal lands are really cultivated by the tribal cultivators . . . . . 2

and timely agricultural assistance is made available to them."

4.4 It has been widely suggested that in order to keep

smell and medi~ tribal farmers tree from the clutches of

exploiters (i.e. money lenders) arrangements fo~ granting . . . ~

loans through co-operatives and other financial institutions . . .

should be mad e. It has been felt that co-operation in the . . .

pa$t has failed in the tribal areas due to certain troubles . .

- like working of some vested interests, i'nadequate or no

landed securities with the tribals, no provision for giving

loans for unproductive purposes, etc, Mr. Puri suggests•

"Keeping these considerations in view, the rebuilding of

the co-operative movement has once again to be done from

co-operative credit societies and all mistakes Of the past

to be remedied. 3 Not only the money lenders exploit them

2, Report o:f' the Commissioner for Scheduled Caste end Scheduled Tribes - (24th Round) 1976-77, P,1)4.

). V.K. Purl - Planning for Tribal Development - Yojana - 1 June 1978.

59

by way of charging high interest rates and alienate their

land, the traders and· middlemen also exploit the tribals

in the field of marketing. Considering all these problems,

the Study Team constituted by the Government. ot India in

1971 (Bewa Committee) on the Co-operative Credit Structure

in Tribal Areas,· had suggested the unification of credit

end marketing structures, The unified structure should

provide for all se~vices including production credit (short

term, medium term and long term), supply input~ and essen­

tial consumer - commodities, marketing of agricultural and

minor forest goods end credit for consumption needs and

social purpose~.4 Based on the suggestions of the Bawa

Committee the State Governments have started working large­

sized-credit-cum-marketing societies in the tribal areas,

The successful working of these sooie~ies will go a long

way to save the tribal cultivators trom the clutches of

the exploi tors.

As it is difficult to cover all the tribal farmers

through co-operative societies, the nationalised banks

should be e.llowed to open more benks in the tribal areas

and start giving credits to the tribals at a ooncessional

rete.

4.5 An important suggestion which has been stressed by

many persons is the development of extension efforts which

would cover the entire agro-eoonomio lives of the tribals,

4. Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture -(1976) -Part XIII, P,119,

60

Pal while outlining the problems of tribal agriculture in

the plains stated "Extension efforts are sporadic and are

half heartedl7 directed •••• concentrated drives are lacking,"

He suggested that extension services should b'e geared to

the needs of' the t.ribals. 5 For implementing improved agri­

cultural practices in the tribal areas what is essential is

that proper environment is to be created so that the initia­

tive and oo-operation ot the tribal population oan be gene-• 4 • - • • • • •

rated, This also requires extensive and liberal use of

extens:l.on servia es, The extension efforts should be con~

centrated on the most improved agricultural practices 6

rather than for package use of such practices, . . ~ .

It should be the duties of extension workers not only

to acquaint the tribal farmers with the improved praotioes

of egriculture, but also to help them in availing credit and

marketing fac111 ties through 1nst,1 tutional channels. The

shyness of the tribal farmers in establishing oontaots with

extension personnel should be removed by arranging frequent

visits ot such personnel for supplying inputs eto., at the

village level,

5. B.N~ Pal - Some Farming Practices of Indian Tribesmen -Agro Eoonomio Problems of Tribal India - Edited by M.L. Pel 1 . PP.101-2, · .

6, D. Srivestav and O,B, Singh - Agricultural Develop­ment end 'l'ribel Population of India - Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics.~ (1970), Vol, 25(3). B.N. SahU: - Guidelines for Development of Tribal Agrioulturf2!.1nindia- Indian Journal of .Agricultural Xoonomios- Vol.2,()) 1970,

61

4.6 The plains tribals live mainly on the fringes ot

torests in some ot the states. It is, therefore, suggested

that their agricultural economy must be married to the'

torest needs. Not merely to supplement their incomes, but

also to reduce the pressure on their small holdings, a

larger number could be encouraged to tap the torest produce.

As Dhebar Commission had put it the forest policy should

be recast to suit the tribal policy.?

The Scheme ot "Social Forestry" tor tribal areas as

has been suggested by the National Commission on Agriculture

has been men·'iioned in earlier chapters. The Commission

teels that the floheme has good employment potential and it

oan solve the basic needs ot farmers like tuel, fruits,

fodder and small timbers and poles tor housing etc.

The collection and marketing of minor forest produce

should be entrusted to forest labour co-operatives and . .. . . .. . .

forest contractors should be replaced by such co-operative

societies.g

4.7 It·has been suggested that there should be rigid

implementation of Act safeguarding the interests ot the

share-croppers. It possible a way should be tound to see

that they become tull-tledged land owners.9 Available

7. (i) Dhebar Commission (1961), (ii) B.N. Pal- Some Farm­ing Practices of Indian Tribesmen - Agro-Eoo11omic Problems ot Tribal India- Edited by M.L. Patel- P.102,

8. Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture - (1976) Part XIII, P.115. .

9. S,K. Choudhury - Tribal Agriculture in the Plains - IJAE -Vol.25(1970). See also B.N.Pal -Some Farming Practices at Indian Tribesmen - Agro-Eco.Problems ot Tribal India -M. L. Pal , P. 1 02.

62

intormatlon reveals that a number Ot ~States haTe enaoted

laws oonterring owner·ship ·rights on th~ cultivating

tenants.- Though the data regarding the tribal benetioia­

ries due to the enactment ot laws are not .presently avai­

lable, an all India tigure shows that around 40 lakh

tenants have oome to aoquire ownership rights over 37 lakh

heotares of land. 10 A strict and speedy implementation ot

suoh laws in the communities where tribals are involved is

highly desirable.

4. 8 Consolidation ot holding and oo-o.perati ve terming

has also been suggested to form a wider basis ot agrarian

reorganisation,. especially in tribal areas. 11 Social and ~ ' . . - ...

economic homogeneity among the tribes makes tor better ·

possibility or suo cess of such an experiment. . ' - . . .

4.9 The diversification ot agriculture in the torm ot . .

piggery, poultry, dairy, eto. has been suggested to be en­

couraged in the tribal areas as a solution to the problems

ot landless tribal and as a supplementary source ot income . 12

tor small tribal farmers. While implementing such pro-

grammes the aptitudes ot the tribals must be taken into

aooount - and in addition to helping the tribals in

10. India 1977-78- P.218.

·11.· B.N. Sahu- Indian Journal ot· Agricultural Economics­Vol. 25 - July 1970. S.K. Chou.dhury - Tribal Agri. in the Plains - (quoted above).. . · . ' '

12. National Commission on Agrio1ilture- (1976) Part XIII, P.116; S.K. Choudhury; B.N .. Sahu .. See their articles -Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics- Vol.25 1 1970.

6,)

providing necessary inputs, facilities of' marketing-of' the

produce must be consi'dered.

4.10 There are also suggestions regarding the promotional --1

measures f'or installation end extension of' forest based

and agriculture based small industries. Such programmes

should be taken up by the State, end educated tribels

should be given preference in training end employment over

others f'or employment, 1.3

Added to this there is e greet potentiality of'

oottege industries like basket making, weaving etc. which

cen be encouraged among the tribals. They can be developed

es subsidiary employment to agriculture.

4.11 The main approach to the solution of' the problem of'

shifting cultivation has been considered as permanently

settling the shifting cultivators and weaning them away f'rom

the praotioe of' shifting cultivation. Dheber Commission

(1961) f'elt that the terreoe cultivation "holds out immense

possibilities or improvement and in many pleoes throughout

the tribal areas it has been already taken up with enthu-. .

siesm." For proper implementation of' the soheme the follow­

ing suggestions are to be. borne in mind.

(e) Terraced cultivation involves heavy initial expendi-

ture of' money end energy by the tribels, and it is, there­

tore, necessary f'or government to give considerable

1.). B.N. Sehu - Guide Lines.f'or Development of' Tribal .Agriculture in India._ IJAE - July (1970).

. 6J,.

assistance both for builcUng up terraces end providing . 14

proper irrigation. ·For this purpose it has been

suggested to give subsidy to the tribal farmers who would

undertake the terrace cultivation.

(b) Considering the subsistence nature of the tribal

economy 1t is often suggested that the amount of. s~bsidy

should be substantial otherwise the tribals would not take

to settled cultivetio~ through terracing, In certain oases

subsidy covering 75 per cent of the total cost of terracing

even could not be successful to attract the tribals towards

terraced cultivation. 1S Where the lend is suitable for

terracing, but.the economy of the tribal is bad; it is

better that government should beer the entire cost of

terracing •.

(o) National Co~ssion on Agriculture sugge_sts 1;hat

smell scale irrigation may have to b~ arranged from hill

streams to irrigate the terraced field, Lend tenure system

should .be, set right - so that terraced irrigated fields_!s

not alienated to non-tribels. Terracing should be under­

taken where there is possibility of continued financing of

maintenance and institutional errangeme~ts for irrigation,

se~d, fertiliser etc •. Lastly, effective extension education

14. Report ot 1;he Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Comm1 s si on - ( 1 961 ) 1 .3. 17 •.

1 5. D. Sri vasthav end c. B. Singh - Agri oul turel Development end.Tribal Population in India- Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economy, July 1976,

16 should be essential,

6.5

4,12 Land Colonisation Schemes whioh have been undertaken

by the governments is another alternative to divert the

tribals from shifting cultivation to more settled cultiva­

tion, The following suggestions have been made for succe­

ssf.! implementation of such schemes •

. (a) There should be adequate lane!, properly demarcated

and title ot deeds should be given to the tribals,

(b) Provision ot irrigation, other inputs to be invested

in iand should be made simultaneously,

(o) The settlers should be provided employment in clear-

ing land, cons~ru~t.ing houses, wells,.approaoh roads and

irrigation works andthe wages to be borne by the Government.

(d) Colony should be selt sufficient in every respect -

with provision of drinking water, schools, co-operative

societies, et~~ 1 7 4.1) For those settlers who are allotted horticUltural

holdings two facilities, considered important, have been

suggested,

(i) Assured markets at fixed prices tor fruits and

(ii) Supply ot tood and other necessities to the tribal

families at the controlled prioes. It 1s further suggested

that some alternative employment avenues would be necessary

16, National Commission on Agriculture - 1976 - Part IX, PP,147-15g, ·

17. Report of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission - Ch, 2,

66

to provide the temilies with some sustenance during the

slaok: seasons. 18 .Plantation orops ot.rubber, tea and

oottee have-also been ·suggested in plaoe ot shifting. culti­

vation where terracing is not feasible. The gestation

period .ot horticultural plantation crops is long, There

would be need tor payment ot wages to the tribals during

this period, while the oash crop terms are maintained, as

a souroe ot livelihood,

1,14 Miss Wadia has suggested that the tribal tamilies .. in the hill areas should be organised under SFDA/MF~Sohemes

tor their requirement ot inputs, oredi ts, eto, _and tor the

marketing of t~eir produce. The tribals oan also be bene­

fited from such sohemes which assist marginal termers in - -

undertaking ancillary oooup~tions like dairying, poultry,

p~ggery, agr?-industry, eto. , Under the SFD.A/end MF.AI., the

id~ntitied ~ulti~ators are encouraged to avail ot oredit

and marketing taoiliti~s. It is hoped that the oommunal.

nature ot cultivation under shifting cultivation would be . . . . ' . . .. .. . . -. . . - .

an _ideal s_etting tor oo-operati~e institutions to develop

once .the rehabilitation ot tribal families has been un.der­

taken,19

4.1S Goswami and Saikia are ot the opinion that there are

18. F,K. Wadia - Control ot Shitting Cultivation ~n the North Eastern Region - Pra3nan - Vol, V No, ) -July-Sept. 1976. ·

19. F,K. Wadis - Control ot Shifting Cultivation in the North-Eastern Region - Prajnan - Vol, V No. 3 - · July-Sept, 1976.

67

certain social habits and customs, which affect the

improvement or agriculture in the tribal areas, They 20

suggest that these praotioes should be changed. Customs . '.

like payment or ·bri'J.~ prioe, expenses tor appeasement ot

. evil spirits during sickness, exavagant expenses during --=

marriage ceremonies, have ruined many ot the. families . .

eoonomicslly. In some or the tribal societies a person

atter. marriage is rea,uired to live in the house ot the bride, . .

Before marriage he is not expected to work hard in his

tether's farm as he knows that"atter marriage he will have

no rights ove.r th_e property ot :the parents,

A change in these customs and habits can be possible . - . ' ' . - '

only th:rough the spre.ad ot eduoat1.on in the tribal areas.

Opening or adult education centres end exten.sion ot publi-. .

oity programmes, and constant contact. ot extension workers

with the tribal termers will g~adually change their'outlook.

Reduction ot expenses during social ceremonies, end aboli­

tion or bride price ere likely to help capital formation

among the tribal cultivators. Similarly, extension or medi­

cal facilities will relieve the people from heavy expenditure

on ceremonial rites during diseases.

4.16 From the above discussions it is clear that agricul­

tural develo~ment in the tr~bal areas requires an integrated

approaoh. Improvement or infra-structure, changes in the

20. P.C. Goswam! and P.D. SBikia- Problems ot,Ag:rioultural Development in Tribal Areas - Indian Journal ot Agri-cultural Eoonom!os, Vol.2S,. (1979). . .

. . ' . '

68

sooial habits and customs, creation. of en urge for develop­

ment among the t~ibala are quite interlinked problems. On

the other hand agricultural development in its wide oonno­

tation also includes animal husbandry, poultry farming,

forestry, sericulture, bee keeping, lao .oultivation, eto.

An integrated approach for agrioultural·development oalls

for a co-ordination among the governmental and non-govern­

mental agenoies engaged in ~he development activities in

tribal areas.

Table I

Statement showing Total Population,. Adivasi Popu­lation, and Percentage of Adivasi Population to Total Population Statew!se (1971 Census).

States/Union Total Popu- S,T, Popu- Percentage of Territories lation lation S.T, Popula-

tion to the Total

1 2

India · 54,81,59,652 ),80,1,5,162 6.94

States:

1. Ant'lhra Pradesh . 4,),5,02, 708 16,.57,657 ).81

2. Assam* 1 • 46' 25. 1 52 16,06,648 12.84

). Bihar ,5,6),5),369 49,)2,767 8.?s 4. Gujarat 2,66,97,475 37.34,422 13.99 s. Haryana 1,00,36,808

6. Himachal Pradesh )4,60,434 1,41,610 4.09 7. Jammu and Kashmir 46, 16, 6)2 ... 8. Kar~ateka 2,92,99,014 2,31 '268' 0.79 9. Kerala 2,1),47,.375 2,69,)56 1.26

1 o. Madhya Pradesh 4, 16, 54. 119 8), 87.403 20.14 11. Maharashtra 5,04,12,2)5 29,.54,249 ;.86 12. Manipur 1 o, 72,75.3 ),34.466 )1,18 1). Meghalaya t1)Q' 11 .• 699 8,14,230 80.48 14. Nagaland .5,16,449 4 • .57. 602 - 88.61 1 s. Orissa 2, 19, 44,61; .50,71,937 2).11 16. Punjab 1 '3 5. 51' 060 17. Rajesthe.n 2,5?,65,806 )1,25,506 12.1)

70

Table I (contd.)

1 2 .3

18. Sikim 2,09,84.)

19. Tamilnadu 4,11 t 99,164 ),11,515 0.76

20. Tripura 15, 56,.342 4,50,544 · 2S~ 9.S

21. Uttar Pradesh 8, 8). 4.1 • 14.4 1,98,.565 0,22

22. West Bengal 4,4),12,011 2.5,)2,269 .S.72 Union Territories:

1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

1,1.5,13.3 18,102 1 .s. 72

2. Arunachal Pradesh 4,67,.511 ),69,408 79.02 ). Chandigarli 2, 57. 2.51 -4. Dadra and Nagar 7Jh170 64,44.5 66.89

Haveli

.s. Delhi 40,65,698 -6. Goa, Daman, Diu 8,.57,771 7,6.54 0.69 7. Lakshadweep )1,810 29,.540 92.86 s.. Mizoram ),)2,)90 ),1),299 94.2S 9. Pondioheri 4,71,707

* Assam includes NEFA. -

Table II

Percentage Distribution ot Scheduled Tribe Workers by Employment in Agriculture and Allied Activities

States/Union CUltiva- Agricul- Total % ot wor- Livestock,Fores- Total % ot Others Territories tors tural la- kers engaged in try,tishery,hunt- workers emp-

bourers agr.activities ing,plantat1on, loyed in egr •. orchards and and allied allied activities activities

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (2+3) (lt+5)

States:

1. Andhra Pradesh 36.1 49.1 8;.2 4.0 89.2 10 •. 8

2. Assam 85.3 7.1 92.4 0.6 93.0 7.0

3. -Bihar 61.9 28.1 90.0 1. 2 91.2 a. a 4. Gujarat 48.3 42.) 90.6 1.0 91.6 8.4

Himachal Pradesh 82.; ).1 8;.6 ;.9 91.; 8.5 -..:1 ;. ....

6. Kerala 17.7 62.6 80.) 7.9 88.2 11. g . -

7. Madhya Pradesh 62.2 )).2 95-.lt 1.0 96.4 ).6

a. Maharashtra 41.2 ;1. 9 93.1 1.8 94.9 ,;.1

9· Manipur 89.6 4~0 93.6 1.0 94.6 ;.4

10. Meghalaya 78.4 9.6 aa.o 2.' 90.; 9. 5

11. Mysore 26.) 45.0 71.) 10.9 82.2 17.8 (Karns taka)

12. Nagaland 89.6 1.0 90.6 0.2 90.8 9.2

1). Orissa 52.4 36.7 89.1 1. 9 91.0 9.0

14. Rajasthan 81.7 11.; 93.2 2.4 95.6 4.-4

Table II (contd.)

1 2

15. Temilnadu 44.9 37.3 82 .. 2 10.6 92.8 7.2

16. Tripura .. 75.4 20.1 . 95.5 1. 2 .96 .• 7 3..3

17. Utter Pradesh 78.5 8.4 86.9 2.2 89 .. 1. 10 .. 9

18. West Bengal . 31 .. 2 49.0 80 •. 2 10.9 91.1 8 .. 9

Union Territories:

1. Andaman &. Nico. N 0.1 0.1 55.7 55~8 44..2 Islands

2.· Arunachal Pradesh 94. 8 1. 5 96.3 0.2 96.5 3. 5 .. ..

3. Dadra &. N.Haveli 76.9 18.3 95.2 1.1 96.3 3.1 . ..

4 .• Goa, Deman &. Diu 19.2 47.1 66.3 6. 5 72.8 27.2 ..

5. Le.kshedweep 0.1 -.· 0.1 30.7 30.8 69.2 -..3 N

6. Mizoram 92.1 0.4 92.5 o. 2 92.7 7.3

. India· 57 •. 6 33.·0 90.6 2.4 93.'0 1.·o

N • Negligible.

Source - Calculated from Census ot India 1971,Ser1es I,Part II-o(l).

1.

2.

).

4.

s.

TJ

Table III

Percentage ot Irrigated to Total Cultivated Area under Tribal Farming

State Percentage ot irrigated to the total cropped area in the tribal district and State as a whole

Tribal District State

' 1 2 .3

GuJarat Nil to 1. 5' 6.2

Madhya Pradesh 0 • .3 to 2. s 6.4

Maharashtra o.6 to 4 • .3 5.6

Orissa 0 • .3 to 6.) 14.)

Rajasthan 2.0 to 4.0 12.0

Source - Compiled by I.P. Singh trom the Report ot the Special Working Groups on Co-operation tor Backward Classes and published in Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics -Vol• XXV. No. ), 1970.

74

Table IV .

Gross Value of Crops per Aore in Tribal and Nob-Tribal Districts ot Madhya Pradesh

Non-Tr1bel Tribal Per Acre Gross Velue of Distriots Districts Crops (1963-64) in Rs.

1 2

Mandsaur 151' 5

Jhabua 131.3

Khargone 128.4

Dhar 138.9

Jabal pur 141.9

Mandla 96.4

Shadol 100.1

Rei pur 213.7

Bas tar 173.4

Durg 145. 6

Raigarh 184.2

SurguJa 150.9

Source - A Study ot The Tribal People and Tribal Areas of Madhya Pradesh, Government of Madhya Pradesh 1967, PP,2-22- Compiled by I.P. Singh- and published in his Article "Development of Agri­culture in Tribal Areas" - Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics- Vol,25, 1970.

75

Table V

Percentage Distribution of Total Workers among Scheduled Tribe Population as Cultivators, Agrioul~ tural Labourers and other Workers in 1961 and 1971.

Cultivators 1961 1971

1 2

Agricultural Labourers 1961 1971

3 4

Other Workers 1961 1971

5 6

India 68.15 57.6 19.73 33.0 12.12 9. 4

Source- (i) Census·of India 1961, Vol.I, Part II o(i) PP. 547-555.

(ii) Census of India 1971, Series I, Part II c(i).

Table VI

Purpose-wise Distribution of Debt per Tribal Family

Purpose Amount (Rs.) Percentage 2

1. Agriculture 2,7.42 39.9

2. Consumption

(a) Social and Religious 71.62 11.1

(b) Domestic Consumption 24.3.24 37.7

3. Others 72.91 11.3

'l'otal 645.19 100.0

Source - A Study of Tribal People and Tribal Areas of Madhya Pradesh, Vol.VI, No. 2,D~oember 1966, P.1o6.

Table VII

Souroes of Loan (Perlakhemundi Agenoy Area) 1971.

Sources of Loan Percentage ot Loan ·

1 2

1. Tribal· and Rural Welfare Deptt. 0,2

2. Other Govt. Agencies other than 7~6 Co-operative Societies

). Co-operative Sooiett·" s. s 4. Unofficial Co-operative Society 0.5

s. Tribal Creditors ()6.9 862 t49~3 6. Non-Tribal Creditors

Source- Survey made by D.C. Mohanty end published in Tribal Problems ot·To-day and Tomorrow ~ · Saberi Cultural Society, Bhubaneswar, P.80.

Table VIII

Statement showing Cases o~ Land Alienation identi~ied, Cases disposed o~ snd Extent o~ Lands Restored to Scheduled Trimes in some o~ the States

Sr. No.

78

TeDle IJ:

Names or Tribes and their Population ~reot1s1ng Sh~ftl~- Cult1TPt1on, Ar~a• 1n whiob this Proot1o3 is !oll~ed in the States/Union Terr1tort;1 e~d Aor~a~e under Sh1ftin1 CUlt!. Te ti on

Nems or th<J S<;ate/ Union Territories

2

N~~e ot the Trib~s 'lotel Popu­lation depen­t'!ing on shif­ting oul tha­t1on

( Approrlm11tely)

Tot.al ,.c !'e­a.;e of land for el'l1ft1ng ouh.1Tflt1 en (Aml!O!IllJ)

Name of the d1a­tr1ota,d1T1B1ons, areas where shif­ting oultlTRtion is o~trried 011

1. Andhra Pr,.doah Btagete,Geoabes,Kammars, Konde,Kotiges,Koyas,Konda­Kepus,Kon~e Reodie,Kono~­rhors, ~al1£,~enna Dhora, Nayaks,ParnJas,Rena,SaTaras

2,00,000 9~,oco Srikekulam,tg~noy N. A. traota of Vlaakha-patcnam r1at. 1 Aaat GodnTIIri T'1 tlt., West G~dPTari Diet.

2. Aasll!ll Chakma, Gero, Je1nt1a, Khesl, Lulunt;, idiklr, )A!zo, Nag a

5,08,800 G"ro lilll !1 1 U!lit.ed m ll pa .. dJ,

).

lt.

s.

6.

7.

~-

9.

~

1 o.

Biber

Gujeret

Kerela

..:edhre Pra~esb

Kallred

MehR:re~t;!"l! _

~sore

Orissa

West Bengal

J.!anipUl'

'l'r1pura

EdrJia,Kherla,N~Jrwe,~al- 1,15,000 paharis,Seurla pebaria

Bhll, KU!loi,Kol:an:: s,MaYohl, 25,000 • v ... rhll

Irular,Kurumbas,Kurl Chiane, 1 O, 000 Mu~ug11r 1 PaniJ'!D

Agarl;ys, &lg11, Bh~ria 1 Gond, )0, OVO Korwa,Kod9ku,Mad1e,MaJhawar, l'.awasl

Ks~ar,Kurumbc~,L4,lasar, ~,200 Pula~ense,Pen1yen

Halldcl, Kstka rl, Kunot, Kuma r1, • Maretna,~ria Gonn,The~xr, W~tkk~la

a~ttekurubll,lenu~rub&,!unola, 1~,000 JCu-n,kllrat1, Sollg11ra

dbuiya or Bhuyan,Bc~da ~unJ1e, ~adaba,Jatavu,Juanca,4ond• 9,35,700 koye,Khanda,Yotia,reraJ~. Sacra

Toto N.J...

~~l,~bui,Kacha Naga, 1,~),000 :wurtn.:;, T&nguin•l ~»-.1 c 1-.·~.-~o:-,.~.o:,

Che .IelJa , c;e ro, Hal• •,; eM t.a, K•1.it.i 1 Lushs1 1 .NI(t,!UlOt1a, BeaJlt!, Tr1,11•1re

'l'ot.el -

95. 501

1.36

72, )UO•

10,000

.4,100

),200

1111

2,500

1.,00,000

II. l.

5lt,OOO

1,16,9\.)0

Jilldr en<'l North Ca- ootton,oren~oa,

ohar H1ll 1 UnitG4 oh1111n,phn-.bluul an<'l Jainth t.ntion, Jaru, Hllls,Ne~,;ll Hill and 'fegetRblea D1et. ,!.lzo ( Lusllel) Hill !iat.,~la!n Mat. c:ot umrup, Now~ang of Caub11r

Sint,4bhum,Santal P'lddy,.,Uleta, Prag:Jnaa, i:ta!lohl V~g,.t.ebla,

Diet.. p ...........

Dar.;; T'h t, 1111~ 801118 Pel!~)·,l'Uleta,

perr.e of Surat T'l~ Cllll"&f'la.

Atte~a~dy Amaon, F.Ul Pe.,~r. Vallu Venand Teluk, .. Ul'ltr.,Pulaea Male 011 r I'h t, Ollaee~a.

rurg,~aatai,Chhlnd- Ulleta,OU· Wllra,Cbenda,Hele· seed a, t>ulaaa, &bat.,Nenf'l1e,Ralgerb

Co1~D•tore Plrt., t:tlly P"'l!t1y, !11lg1r1 Dht.. J,:llleta.

Kol11ba riet,Soutb Pallt1y,llt \leta Chanda D1•1don, Clllaeel!a. Jan;trh ~•llJ-~..-n.

Interior Mounta1ne- )'1lletc,01l oua tr~ota of ~l- seal! e 1 i';h lll1ea, «•- •• .- 8011~11 .IU!n•re t'ia t.

XeonJba,Sunf'lerg~r~ Palld:p,J•uJ.aea, Dh&u..ll:e.oel, 8e1Lbelptr, 1'u Mll.,r1 0 1 Ot II• Ka1a~DII1,G~nJe~, ~~:•r,rr•1t f.oraJ.out treea.

Jel pe\ a uri r1. at.. If,'·

In t.b., if1 11 Nat. pao41!J 1 lK1lleta, of vn~on T"'rr1to- Pot to, Cotton, r1aa l.ilaeeda.

~~~~~r,lbowe1,ra1la- Paf'lf'IJ,Cottoo, ahat.er, X&aa.lpo.;r, Jute{ 3up~t ro •n• !ll 11 ::o-1'1Jla~;,.,., Ur'a1_plll', Yru t 1·r.,aa, Sor.arrlra,d.,lon1a ~ V•&•t.eblea. Amarpur 8QT-t1Tn.

Sou.roea - Report c,f '!b.-. Coa.rlae1onar for o:>che~ ...lall Crate a en~ ~cbfl/1111 ed Trl bfla - 1960-61, Pege 11:-119 end The Report. of ~he ~eb11r Co-aiaa1oa 1901 (Celeulatlona are oorre~ted).

Rote - • II.A. •

Both for .:iujara~ an4 Waharaahtra. !lot e..-ailoJ;;le.

S,No.

1

1,

2,

),

79

Table X

Statement showing Lent". per Person Practising Shifting Cultivation in different States.

States Land (Aoree)

2

Andhra Pradesh 0,46

Assam 0,52

Bihar 0,004

4. * GuJarat 2,69

s. 6.

7. 8.

9.

1 o. 11."

Kerala 1,00

Madhya Pradesh 1, 47 ·Madras 1.45

Mysore 0,16

Manipur 0,29

Orissa 0.4)

Tripura 1,22

India o.so

* Both tor GuJarat an4 Maharashtra,

Souroe - Compiled from the Report ot the Commissioner for Sohet'luled Caste and Scheduled Tribes -1960-61, PP,116-119 end Report of the Dhebar Commission 1961,

80

Table n Carrying !'enstty of Population in Three Regions of Shifting CUltivation

Mizo Keonjhar Hills lUlls

1 2

Rainfall in inches 13.5 6.5

Average slope in degree 22 19.3 Shifting oyoles in years 6 12

Years ot holding the land 1 2 tor oul ti vati on

Total area surveyed in sores 4.7190 2.54.1 Available cultivable land 1961 .s 1364. in sores

Percentage ot cultivable 3lt. g .54.6 lsnd within total area

Production rate or orops in quintals per sore

;.6s 2.37

Present .density ot popula-tion per square mile

13~2 63.2

Carrying capacity or popu-lat1on per square mile

J7.s 24.7

Abujhawar Hills

.so 16, s

Hi

2

2164-.S

6~t77

29,0

3 • .57

6.1

u, .• 3

Souro e - Bose Se.radi ndu - Carrying Capeoi ty of Land under Shifting Cultivation - Asiatic Society alae - quoted by R.N. Tripathy in his Article n .Agri oul tural Problems in Tri bel Areas n · -Perspective ot Tribal Agriculture - NICD -Hyderebad, PP, 191-194,

81

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