political science, roll no. 116, sem-1, rohit mohan-final

7/28/2019 Political Science, Roll No. 116, Sem-1, Rohit Mohan-Final

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Representative Democracy

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Project submitted to:

Dr.B.K.Mahakul

(Faculty of Political Science)

Submitted by:

Rohit Mohan

Section-A

ROLL NO. 116

SEMESTER- II


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Hidayatullah National Law University

Raipur, Chhattisgarh

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am highly elated to work on the topic, Representative Democracy. At the outset, I

would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and thank my teacher, Dr. B.K Mahakul for

putting his trust in me and giving me a project topic such as this and for having the faith in

me to deliver.

My gratitude also goes out to the staff and administration of HNLU for the infrastructure in

the form of our library and IT Lab that was a source of great help for the completion of this

project.

I would like to thank my family and friends for their constant support and motivation which

urged me to work hard on this topic.

Rohit Mohan

Semester - II


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Table of contents

1. Acknowledgments........................................................................................ 22. Introduction

i. Objectives............................................................................. 4ii. Research Methodology......................................................... 5

iii. Scope and Limitation............................................................ 53. Meaning of democratic socialism................................................................. 64. Essential features of democratic socialism................................................... 85. Growth and spread of democratic socialism................................................. 96. Democratic socialism in India...................................................................... 107. Criticism of democratic socialism................................................................. 118. Conclusion.................................................................................................... 129. References.................................................................................................... 13


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Introduction

Representative Democracy: A Contextual Outline

Representative democracy is a variety of democracy founded on the principle of elected

people representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy.[1]. For example, two

countries which use representative democracy are the United Kingdom (a constitutional

monarchy) and Germany (a federal republic).

It is an element of both the parliamentary system and presidential system of government and

is typically used in a lower chamber such as the House of Commons (UK) or Bundestag

(Germany), and is generally curtailed by constitutional constraints such as an upper chamber.

It has been described by some political theorists as Polyarchy.

Objectives:

What is Democracy?

Democracy is a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the

decisions that affect their lives. Democracy allows people to participate equallyeither

directly or through elected representativesin the proposal, development, and creation of

laws. It encompasses social, economic and cultural conditions that enable the free and equal

practice ofpolitical self-determination.

What is Representative Democracy?

It means that people elect their representatives to power to run the government for them.

Representative democracy works in a particular way. People group themselves into politicalparties according to their views and objectives. These parties choose their candidates. During

the campaign before an election they announce to the people their would-be programmes and

policies. This is known as the party manifesto.

Some people contest elections as independent candidates too, if they do not wish to join any

political party. The role of political parties is very important in a democratic system. The

members of political parties keep the people informed about important issues by holding

public meetings, for either supporting or opposing the policies of the government. Thus, the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_of_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_freedomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_freedomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_of_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy


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political parties help the people in knowing what they should expect and in turn mould the

public opinion.

Role of Representative Democracy in India

According to our Constitution, India is a "Sovereign, Secular, Socialist, Democratic

Republic." It has 28 States and 7 Union Territories. With a population of approximately 1.2

Billion, India happens to be the largest democracy and second most populous country in the

world. Indian polity is a multi-party democracy, based on the adult franchise system of

voting. That is any Indian citizen of age 18 and above, who is not debarred by law, can vote

in the Indian elections, at national, state and local levels.

India is a parliamentary democracy and a federal parliamentary representative democratic

republic, where the Prime Minister is the head of government. He or she should be chosen by

the MPs (Member of Parliaments) of the ruling party or the coalition that comes to power,

and is the focal point of Political System in India. However, The Prime Minister of India is

formally appointed by The President of India. Presently Dr. Manmohan Singh is The Prime

Minister of India.

1.1) Research Methodology:This project work is descriptive & analytical in approach. It is largely based on secondary &

electronic sources of data. Books & other references as guided by faculty of sociology are

primarily helpful for the completion of this project. Websites, e-articles and books have been

referred as suggested by the faculty members.

1.2) Scope and Limitation:This project work is limited to representative democracy. It is purely based on theoretical

aspect of democratic socialism. It does not deal with the aspects of direct democracy (e.g. -

the Athenians government) of the world and is only concentrated on representative (e.g.

United States) democracy.


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How is United States a Representative Democracy?

To answer the question, let's first define the important parts:

A Democracy in the simplest form means a system of government where individual citizens

have a direct [and meaningful] vote in their government. There are many different kinds of

democracies - variations on what is a citizen, who can vote, and who or what they vote for.

However, the overarching characteristics of the democracy is that at least a majority of

citizen have the power to vote, that they have a choice when voting, that their votes dictate

the direction of government policy, and that the citizen is (reasonably) frequently called upon

to vote on government matter.

A Representative form of government is one where (some) citizens chose another citizen to

make political decisions for them. That is, rather than a citizen being directly involved in

politics and government, they chose a proxy to make their choice for them. Representative

forms of government often have multiple layers of this action - a proxy is chosen at (say) the

village level, then the village proxies get together and chose a county representative, who

then may chose a regional proxy. How these representatives are initially picked depends on

the actual system of government being used - voting is common, but not by any means

universal.

Combining these two definitions, you find that a representative democracy is a system where

the majority of citizens vote for a proxy to represent them in government - such

representatives then govern in the citizen's name, and are (at least occasionally) forced to go

back to the citizen to be re-authorized (i.e. re-elected) to hold their position.

The United States is a multi-faceted Representative Democracy: we elect representatives in

many aspects of our government form, all of which have specific duties and limits on power.

We periodically have elections to either retain or replace our representatives. And a majority

of the population is allowed to vote (though sadly, less than half does).


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Advantages of Representative Democracy

1. Democracy provides for frequent elections after a specified period of time. Thisensures that unpopular governments are voted out of office and replaced by a new

administration that will be forced to implement favorable policies so as to stay in

power.

2. Democracy affords citizens their right to elect the representatives of their own choice.3. Democracy affords the most popular candidates the opportunity to be elected.4. Democracy ensures that wealth is evenly distributed. This is possible as the peoples

representatives fight to have their fair share of development funds.

5. Through democracy, a people have the opportunity to have their voices heard andtheir wishes fulfilled.

6. Democracy allows for many political parties to compete for power. This givescandidates and the electorate a broad field of parties for candidates and different

candidates to choose.

Disadvantages of representative Democracy

1. Because majority rule is a central characteristic of democracy, the danger alwaysexists that a majority, free of restrictions on its power, will oppress members of the

minority. This so-called "tyranny of the majority" .The U.S. Constitution avoided this

drawback of representative democracy with a series of measures and safeguards

designed to protect the rights of those not in the majority. These include two houses of

Congress, the presidential veto and the protections in the Bill of Rights. 2. Citizens in a representative democracy elect their leaders for fixed terms of office and

have the right to change them by choosing others in the next election. In the United

States, members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms; Senators, six

years; and presidents, four years. In addition, there are state and local elections in

which voters elect governors, state legislators, city mayors, city council members and

other elected leaders. Regular elections encourage short-term thinking by elected

officials, causing them to focus on the next election at the expense of what is best for

the citizenry. This discourages the development of long-term public policy solutions


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to existing problems. Further, the frequent elections--at national, state and local

levels--may cause voter fatigue.

3. Voters choose elected representatives from their communities, and thoserepresentatives act on behalf of their constituents. In the U.S. House of

Representatives, for example, members reside in and represent the people of their

districts. Serving constituent needs and interests in a representative democracy often

leads elected officials to favour local interests over policies that benefit the nation as a

whole. The controversy over congressional earmarks reflects this issue, as many

elected officials steer federal money and projects to their districts, benefiting their

constituents. This may serve a legislator's re-election prospects, but the projects and

money may hold no benefit for the nation as a whole.

Pros & Cons of Representative Democracy

Representative governments have elected individuals who pass laws and make decisions, in

contrast to direct democracy, which is a democratic government in which any citizens who

wish to participate may do so. For example, in a representative government, elected officials

create and vote on laws. In a direct democracy, the entire population votes on laws. The

United States, United Kingdom, Canada and many other countries have representative

governments, although some local and state laws in the U.S. also permit forms of direct

democracy.

Pro: Elected Officials May Be More Informed

Elected officials have the time and resources to make them fully informed on issues. In

contrast, citizens may not have the time or ability to learn about each issue, which makes

them less prepared to vote. Elected officials may also be in a better position than direct

democracies to protect the rights of minorities and individuals.

Pro: Officials Can Be Elected Democratically

Although citizens don't directly vote on issues in a representative government, they do vote

for their elected officials. This gives citizens the opportunity -- even the responsibility -- to

participate in the government, and it allows citizens to influence governmental policy.


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Pro: Representative Government is Efficient

Holding a nationwide vote on every issue would be very time-consuming and expensive, and

choosing a fair place and time for votes would be a challenge. Representative government is

more efficient. However, improvements in technology may make direct democracy more

feasible.

Con: Citizens Don't Participate

Representative governments don't allow citizens to participate as fully as in direct

democracies. Elected officials may not be as effective as citizens are at making some

decisions. This is because they may not have a personal investment in the outcome. In

addition, citizens may not inform themselves on political topics if they have no voice or vote.

Con: Elected Officials May Not Represent Constituents

Elected officials are frequently wealthier than the constituents they represent. They might not

have the same opinions or beliefs as their constituents; they may not even know what their

constituents believe. In addition, it may be impossible for an elected official to represent a

heterogeneous constituency.

Con: Elected Officials Aren't Accountable

Often, the public does not hold elected officials in a representative government accountable

for their decisions, apart from the risk of not being re-elected. They may break campaign

promises or make decisions that differ from the wishes of their constituents.

Problems of Representative Democracy in India

Of the two forms of democracy, direct and representative, only the latter is possible in the

modern State. The State of today is large. It cannot be visualised by the citizen and fails to

satisfy the criterion of the ideal State of Aristotle. The type of government that the Greeks

practised with such success is impossible in it. In the recent past, to render more effective the

participation of the people in their government, the representative system has been

supplemented in some democracies by the devices of direct legislation by the people, the

Initiative, the Referendum, and the Recall.


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The defects of representative government have become of late increasingly manifest. Under

the stress of the extraordinary political and economic conditions resulting from the last War,

democratic governments in some countries, notably in Italy and Germany, have been replaced

by dictatorships. In experts opinion this "signal failure of democracy" has been due to the

difficulty of re-adjustment in an unprecedented economic crisis, to the sense of defeat,

"disillusionment and widespread neurosis," to the lack of faith in democracy and an

inexperience with its methods, and above all to "an insufficient appreciation of the paramount

claims of race." With this analysis of the causes of the failure of democracy in the post-war

world or with the desire that in this country we should avoid the defects that have become

evident from this experience no one would disagree.

Of the system of representative government as it has functioned Mr. Srinivasa Iyengar is a

severe critic. To him representative government realizes only very imperfectly his idea of a

"complete democracy". He writes: "The system of representation, betraying a strange lack of

confidence in the democratic ideal, is devised to secure party advantage and to minimise

administrative inconvenience which is only another name for fear of change." For this

astonishing proposition the presence of Second Chambers, checks and balances and

safeguards of all sorts in most modern constitutions provide the evidence.

This is neither fair nor accurate. It is a misrepresentation of the intended or actual purpose of

representative systems. Such devices as Second Chambers, checks and balances, which

appear today to obstruct the progress of democratic change, were largely the products of an

admiration for the English Constitution that was widespread in the last two centuries and that

made it the model for other constitutions. In the eighteenth century view the excellence of the

English Constitution depended on the checks and balances that were supposed to form part of

it. Montesquieu had seen in these mechanisms the secret of the Englishmans liberty. It was

not realised that the bicameralism of the English Parliament was an accident of history and

that there was not a separation of powers in the constitution, but rather a novel and fruitful

combination of them in the Cabinet System that was being evolved. Every country that

desired liberty sought to set up this theoretical constitution with elaborate checks and

balances of one power set against another. It should also be remembered that when

representative institutions were first introduced their object was merely the prevention of

arbitrary government and the preservation of liberty and not the achievement of large social

changes. A negative purpose was necessarily reflected in institutions of a negative character.


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representative system is a device to secure party advantage are surely contradictory. One

cannot blow hot and cold in the same breath.

Mr. Srinivasa Iyengar uncritically repeats the defects of democracy pointed out by its critics

since the time of Lecky, Maine and Sir James Fitz Stephen till Ostrogorski, Ludovici and

Mencken.6 The control of the electorate over the representatives is "largely theoretical ". The

elector is never well informed to be a competentjudge of his representatives actions. "This is

especially the case where the democracy as a whole is not adequately educated as in India."

(17) The elector does not choose his representative nor is he in constant contact with him.

The parties choose the members of the legislatures. The elector is hypnotised by their

propaganda. Existing electoral systems are imperfect and do not recognise the need to secure

the services of able and experienced men of character for democracy. Corruption and

professionalism vitiate democratic politics and these have vastly increased with the unlimited

tenures of members in legislative bodies and the payment of their services. And so on.

1

1A review of Mr. S. Srinivasa Iyengars Address of the above title

2 Headlam Morley: The New Democratic Constitutions of Europe.

3 Beard: Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy.

4 Hawgood: Modern Constitutions since 1787.

5 Clarke: The New Federalism.6 See E. M. Saits Democracy for an admirable summary of these criticisms.


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CONCLUSION

The invention of representative government is often taken to be the central achievement of

modern politics. In its European homeland, it took seven centuries (and quite a few rebellions

and revolutionary upheavals) to consolidate representative institutions. Church hierarchies

had to be resisted in the name of true religion. Monarchs had to be brought under the control

of assemblies. Legislatures then had to be subjected to democratic election, and in turn these

democratic elements had to be grafted onto pre-democratic institutions of representation. The

model of representative democracy that resulted is today familiar as a cluster of territorially-

bound governing institutions that include written constitutions, independent judiciaries and

laws that guarantee such procedures as periodic election of candidates to legislatures, limited-

term holding of political offices, voting by secret ballot, competitive political parties, the

right to assemble in public and liberty of the press.

Compared with the previous assembly-based forms of democracy associated with the

classical Greek world, the invention of representative government and its subsequent

democratisation greatly extended the geographic scale of institutions of self-government; it

also fundamentally altered the meaning of democracy. Representative democracy came to

signify a type of government in which people, understood as voters faced with a genuine

choice between at least two alternatives, are free to elect others who then act in defence of

their interests, that is, represent them by deciding matters on their behalf. Much ink and

blood was to be spilled in defining what exactly representation meant, who was entitled to

represent whom and what had to be done when representatives snubbed or disappointed those

whom they were supposed to represent. But what was common to the new age of

representative democracy that matured during the early years of the twentieth century was the

belief that good government was government by representatives.

Often contrasted with monarchy, representative democracy was praised as a way of

governing better by openly airing differences of opinion not only among the represented

themselves, but also between representatives and those whom they are supposed to represent.

Representative government was also hailed for encouraging the rotation of leadership, guided

by merit. It was said to introduce competition for power that in turn enabled elected

representatives to test out their political competence before others. The earliest champions of


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representative democracy also offered a more pragmatic justification of representation. It was

seen as the practical expression of a simple reality: that it wasnt feasible for all of the people

to be involved all of the time, even if they were so inclined, in the business of government.

Given that reality, the people must delegate the task of government to representatives who are

chosen at regular elections. The job of these representatives is to monitor the expenditure of

public money, domestic and foreign policies, and all other actions of government.

Representatives make representations on behalf of their constituents to the government and

its bureaucracy. Representatives debate issues and make laws. They decide who will govern

and howon behalf of the people.

What are the current contours and probable futures of representative democracy in this sense?

In practice, there has always been a gap between the ideals of representative democracy and

its actually existing forms. Some observers draw from this the conclusion that expressions of

dissatisfaction with representative democracy are normal, even healthy reminders of the

precious contingency of a form of government that has no other serious competitors.

According to other observers, euphoria about representative government is unwarranted. The

mechanisms of representation that lie at the heart of actually existing democracies are said to

be afflicted with problems. These observers claim that such difficulties are nurturing public

concerns about the future of representative democracy itself. In democratic systems as

different as the United States, India, Germany, Great Britain, Argentina and Australia, these

observers point to evidence of a creeping malaise: formal membership of political parties has

dipped; voter turnout at elections is tending to become more volatile; levels of trust in

politicians and government are generally in decline; public perceptions of the deformation of

policy making by private power, above all by organised business interests, are rising. When

considered together, these disparate trends have encouraged some analysts and citizens to

draw the conclusion that the system of representative democracy is breeding politicaldisaffection. Others have argued that the ideals of representative democracy are themselves

now under siege, even that we are heading towards an epoch of 'post-democracy


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References

Books referred:

Websites referred:

1. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy2. www.preservearticles.com/.../representative-democracy.html3. www.preservearticles.com/.../representative-democracy.html

political science, roll no. 116, sem-1, rohit mohan-final

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