perception_ industrial psychology
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WE DONT SEE THINGS AS THEY
ARE, WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.
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Perception
The study of perception is concerned with identifying the process
through which we interpret and organize sensory information to
produce our conscious experience of objects and object relationship.
Perception is the process of receiving information about and making
sense of the world around us. It involves deciding which informationto notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret itwithin the framework of existing knowledge.
A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
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The Perceptual Process
1.Sensation
An individuals ability to
detect stimuli in theimmediateenvironment.
2.Selection
The process a personuses to eliminate someof the stimuli that havebeen sensed and toretain others for furtherprocessing.
3.Organization
The process of placingselected perceptual
stimuli into aframework forstorage.
4.Translation
The stage of theperceptual process atwhich stimuli areinterpreted and givenmeaning.
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Receiving Stimuli(External & Internal)
Selecting StimuliExternal factors : Nature,
Location,Size,contrast,Movement,repetition,similarity
Internal factors : Learning,needs,age,Interest,
OrganizingFigure Background ,Perceptual Grouping( similarity, proximity,closure, continuity)
ResponseCovert: Attitudes ,
Motivation,Feeling
Overt: Behavior
Perceptual Process
InterpretingAttribution ,Stereotyping,Halo Effect, Projection
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Attribution Theory
When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is
internally or externally caused.
observation Interpretation Attribution of cause
Consistency
Consensus
Distictinctiveness
Individual behavior
Internal
External
Internal
External
Internal
ExternalH
L
H
L
H
L
Hhigh L- Low
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DistictivenessDoes this person
behave in
this mannerin other situation
YesHigh
ConsistencyNoLow
Consistency
No
LowConsensus
YesHigh
Consensus
YESLowDistinctiveness
NOHigh
Distinctiveness
ConsensusDo other personBehave in the
Same manner?
ConsistencyDoes this person
behavein this same
manner at othertimes ?
InternalAttribution
ExternalAttributi
on
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Social Identity Theory
(Tajfel & Turner 1979)
Our social identity, a part of our identity is derived fromthe social groups that we belong to and that we do notbelong to (defining who we are by who we arent)
We derive self esteem by positively differentiating our in-group from out-groups (us and them)
We therefore tend to categorize our social environmentinto groups
We tend to favourize our in-group over out-groups
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Evaluation, advantages
Supporting research
Understanding of prejudice
Can be used for predictions of social behavior in groups
Methodological advantages of supporting studies (wellcontrolled, standardized procedures)
Can be generalized to other cultures (Yuki et al. 2005)
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Evaluation, disadvantages
Identification with an in-group may sometimes lead tolow self esteem (e.g. being black in the 1930:s Clarkand Clark 1939, Jane Eliot classroom exercise)The social identity process can also be affected bypermeability (e.g. Haslam & Reicher 2006)We may also develop our self esteem and identitythrough our individualityMethodological problems of supporting studies(generalisability and ecological validity)
Possible cultural differences for in-group favouritism(Yuki et al 2005)The results of the Tajfel study may be due to thecompetitive behavior, not in-group bias
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Self-fulfilling prophecy
In certain situations, we may respond to stereotypesin such a way that false definitions end up beingaccurate. In this phenomenon, called the self-fulfillingprophecy, a person or group that is described as
having particular characteristics begins to displaythose very traits.
(e.g., when teachers and counsellors tell a bright childfrom a working class family that he would make a
good carpenter or mechanic, for instance, they maydiscourage him from thinking of college or aprofession.)
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Self-fulfilling propheciescan be especially devastatingfor minority groups. The dominant group in a societybelieves that subordinate group members lack the abilityto perform in important and lucrative positions. So it
denies them the training needed to become scientists,executives, or physicians, effectively locking thesubordinate group into societys inferior jobs. The false
definition has become real: in terms of employment, the
minority has become inferior because it was originallydefined as inferior and was prevented from achievingequality.
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PERCEPTUAL ERRORS & ATTRIBUTIONS
STEREOTYPES
Based on appearance
HALO (HORN) EFFECTS
One outstanding characteristic noted
CONTRAST EFFECT
OrderingRECENCY EFFECT
Limited recall
PROJECTION
Similar to me Error
SKEWING ERRORS
Central tendency, leniency, strictness bias
SELF-FULFILLING PROPHESY
People respond the way you expected they would
SELECTIVE PERCEPTION (MIND SETS)
Filtering, selection, and salience
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PERCEPTUAL MIND SET ERRORSROSENHAN
Ho: THESE PEOPLE ARE INSANE(Dont let them out!)
TRUTH
SANE INSANE
SANE -----------------------------------------------------------
OK TYPE I
ERROROBSERVED ------------------------------------------------
BEHAVIOR TYPE II OK
ERROR
INSANE -----------------------------------------------------------
35/118 Youre ok
TYPE I ERROR = Rejecting HO: when it is true (Alpha Error)
TYPE II ERROR = Acceptin HO: when it is false (Beta Error)
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PERCEPTUAL MIND SET CONTDROSENHAN
NOTE THE CHANGE IN BIAS, BASED ON SENSITIZATION
Ho: THESE PEOPLE MIGHT BE SANE
(Dont keep anyone who is ok!)
TRUTH
SANE INSANE
SANE -----------------------------------------------------------
OK TYPE II
ERROR
OBSERVED ------------------------------------------------
BEHAVIOR TYPE I OK
ERRORINSANE -----------------------------------------------------------
41 Ringers spotted by staff
23 by psychiatrists
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Learning in Organizations
Definition: A relatively permanentchange in knowledge or behavior thatresults from practice or experience.
Two types of learning:
Operant conditioning
Social learning
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Operant Conditioning
Learning that takes place when the learner recognizes theconnection between a behavior and its consequences.
Individuals learn to operateon their environment, to behave incertain ways to achieve desirable consequences or avoidundesirable consequences.
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Reinforcement
Reinforcement: Increasing the probability that adesired behavior will occur again in the future byapplying consequences that depend on the behavior inquestion.
Positive Reinforcement: The administration of positiveconsequences to workers who perform desiredbehaviors.
Pay, promotions, interesting work, praise, awards
Negative Reinforcement: The removal of negativeconsequences when workers perform desired behaviors.
Nagging, complaining
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Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement: Occurs after everyoccurrence of a behavior.
Partial Reinforcement: Occurs only a portion of thetime that behavior occurs.
Differences: Continuous reinforcement can result in faster learning
of desired behaviors.
Behaviors learned using partial reinforcement are
likely to last longer.
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Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed-Interval Schedule: The period of time betweenthe occurrence of each instance of reinforcement is fixedor set.
Variable-Interval Schedule: The amount of time
between reinforcements varies around a constantaverage.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A certain number of desiredbehaviors must occur before reinforcement is provided.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: The number of desiredbehaviors that must occur before reinforcement variesaround a constant average.
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Advice to Managers: Reinforcement
Administer rewards only when workers perform desired behaviorsor close approximations of them.
When using reinforcement, make sure you identify the rightbehaviors to reinforce (those that help the organization achieve itsgoals).
Because job performance is likely to vary across workers,administer rewards so that high-performing workers receive morerewards than low-performing workers.
Do not assume that a given reward will function as a positive
reinforcer to all workers. Take individual preferences into account.Make sure the consequences of a behavior are equal to thebehavior
Make sure that workers know what reinforcers are available fordesired behaviors. Dont just assume that they know.
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Extinction and Punishment
Extinction: Removing a consequence that is currentlyreinforcing an undesirable behavior in an effort todecrease the probability that the behavior will occuragain in the future.
Punishment: Administering negative consequences toworkers who perform undesirable behaviors in an effortto decrease the probability that the behavior will occuragain in the future.
Verbal reprimands, docking pay, loss of privileges
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Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment
These two concepts are often confused; however, theydiffer from each other in two important ways.
First difference:
Punishment reducesthe probability of an undesired
behavior. Negative reinforcement increasesthe probability of a
desiredbehavior.
Second difference:
Punishment involves administeringa negativeconsequencewhen an undesiredbehavior occurs.
Negative reinforcement entails removinga negativeconsequencewhen a desiredbehavior occurs.
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Advice to Managers: Punishment
Remember that all behaviors, good and bad, are performed because
they are reinforced in some way. Undesired behaviors can be
eliminated by determining how the behavior is being reinforced and
removing the reinforcer.
When feasible, use extinction rather than punishment to eliminate
undesired behaviors.
When you use punishment, make sure workers know exactly why
they are being punished.
Make sure the chosen negative consequence is indeed a punishment
for the individual in question.Downplay the emotional element in punishment, punish immediately
after the undesired behavior, and do not punish in front of others.
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What is personality?
Defn: The relatively stable set of psychologicalcharacteristics influencing the way an individual interactswith his or her environment
Personality and OB
Dispositional Approach Focus on individual dispositions and personality
Individuals are predisposed to behave in certain ways
Significant focus on personality testing (eg., selection
of military personnel).
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Personality and OB
Situational Approach
Other factors in the work environment thatcan predict and explain behaviour
Characteristics of org setting and work tasks:rewards and punishments, etc.
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Personality and OB
Interactionist Approach (interactionism) Org behaviour is a function of both situation and
disposition To predict org. behaviour, one must know something
about both personality and situation Weak vs. strong situations
Weak: Not always clear how to behave (therefore personalityhas more influence). Eg., newly formed orgsStrong: More defined rules, roles and contingencies(personality has less impact) Eg., routine military ops
FIT: some personality characteristics are useful insome situations (fit the right person with right job)
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Five Factor Model
Five basic, general dimensions: Extraversion (vs intraversion)
Emotional stability (vs. neuroticism)
Agreeableness Conscientiousness
Openness to experience
Cross-cultural correspondence; somegenetic basis
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Five Factor Model
Link to job performance Strongest predictor of job performance =
conscientiousness
Big Five related to other work behaviour Conscientiousness -> retention, attendance;
antidote to absenteeism, discipline probs
Extraversion -> promotes managerialperformance (when high consc.), elsepromotes absenteeism (more than introverts)
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Five Factor Model
Relation to motivation
Relation to job satisfaction
Relation to job search behaviour andcareer success
Relation to vocational orientation
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Stress What is it?
Stress physiological and psychologicalresponses to events in the environment
Eustress: good stress Distress: bad stress
Physiological Effects Alarm: preparation of body for fight or flight
Resistance: maintain state of elevatedpreparation
Exhaustion: when demands exceed bodys
capabilities
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Stress More Background
Where does stress come from?
Major life events?
Daily hassles: frequency, intensity, duration
Job satisfaction and stress those whoenjoy work suffer less impact fromstressful events
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Individual Differences in Coping
Social Support
Job Skill the more skilled at job, the lessstress
Physical Health good health leads toreduced impact of stress
Type A/Type B Personality Type A
personality reflected by competitiveness,inflated sense of time urgency, hostility
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Type A Personality
Hostility component of Type A personalityis linked to heart disease
Type A individuals, in essence, createmore stress for themselves
Type B individuals rarely have heartattacks before the age of 70
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More Individual Differences
Job Complexity increased complexityleads to heart disease in Type Aindividuals. But, complexity also is
linked to job satisfaction!!Locus of Control internal locus ofcontrol is linked to reduced impact ofstress
Negative Affectivity linked toneuroticism from the Big 5. A tendencyto focus on the negative aspects of life.
Linked to high levels of stress
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Individual Differences:Hardiness
Reflects a resistance to stress: elementsinclude :
Sense of commitment to family and work A perceived sense of control
A view of change as normal and challenging
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Even More Individual
DifferencesOrganization-based Self Esteem ourassessment of our adequacy and worthwith regard to our place in the employing
organization (job specific self esteem)Gender Differences female managersface more stressors than do male
managers (e.g., role conflict,discrimination, harassment)
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Stress and Type of Occupation
Clerical and blue collar workers suffer themost stress due to a relative lack of control
Most stressful professions include: laborer,
secretary, clinical lab. technician, nurse,first-line supervisor, restaurant server,machine operator, farm worker, miner
One of the least stressful professions iscollege professor yeah!!
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Work-Family Conflicts
Greater role conflict for women primaryresponsibility for family life falls on woman
Family with 3 kids, average work week forfemales is 90 hours, for males it is 70 hours
Bad work days tend to carry over into
family life tendency is stronger forwomen.
Sadly, positive states do not carry over
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Work-Family Conflict,
ContinuedWorkers report that jobs interfere withfamily life more than vice versa
Companies can help reduce stress withflexible schedules and supportivesupervisors more helpful than childcare facilities
Despite these problems, women withpaying jobs are psychological andphysically healthier than full-time
homemakers
C f St i th
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Causes of Stress in theWorkplace
Work overload Quantitative: too much to do in too short a
time
Qualitative: work that is too difficult Quantitative has increased in recent years
due to downsizing
Work underload work that is toosimple or insufficient to fill ones timeBoth of these impact stress and health,appears that a moderate amount of
stress is optimal
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Causes of Stress - Continued
Organizational Change if not hardy,change causes stress in individuals. Canbe reduced by including employees in
planningRole Ambiguity unstructured or poorlydefined job responsibilities (expectedstandards, methods, schedules)
Role Conflict conflict between jobdemands and employees personalstandards
Procrastination
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ProcrastinationDelay action for no good reason
Suggestions for controlling: Calculate the cost of procrastination: e.g.,
reduce chance of promotion
Worst in, first out principle: tackle worst task first
Break task into manageable chunks Make a commitment to other people: Ill give it
to you on Friday/by lunch
Remove mind clutter: eliminate trivial items fromto do list
Fill your schedule provides stimulation youhad been receiving by working up to deadlines
Effects of Stress in the Workplace
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Effects of Stress in the Workplace
Mass psychogenic illness also known
as assembly line hysteria. Isolation andsuggestibility
Burn out results from overwork.
Includes, Emotional Exhaustion
Depersonalization
Reduced sense of personalaccomplishment
Quantity of work may stay the same, butthe quality declines, depression, apathy,
irritability, and boredom may occur
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Workaholism
Addiction to work because of anxiety andinsecurity or because of a genuine liking
for the jobHealthy, work enthusiasts usually havejobs with autonomy and variety,appropriate skills for job, and supportive
familiesUnhealthy, workaholics Compulsive,driven to perform job tasks. Often
negatively impact co-workers
T ti St i th
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Treating Stress in theWorkplace
Organizational Techniques
Provide sufficient support for change
Provide sense of control through participation Clearly define employee roles
Eliminate work over and under load
EAPs for stress reduction (teach copingstrategies)
Provide opportunity for social support (formalor informal)
I di id l T h i f St
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Individual Techniques for StressReduction
Exercise
Relaxation Training
Biofeedback
Behavior Modification
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What Are Emotions?
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MoodsFeelings that tend to beless intense than emotionsand that lack a contextualstimulus.
EmotionsIntense feelings that aredirected at someone orsomething.
AffectA broad range of emotions that
people experience.
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Emotional Labor
A situation in which an employee expressesorganizationally desired emotions during
interpersonal transactions.
Emotional Dissonance
A situation in which an employeemust project one emotion while simultaneouslyfeeling another.
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Felt versus Displayed Emotions
Felt Emotions
An individuals actual emotions.
Displayed Emotions
Emotions that are organizationallyrequired and considered appropriate in a
given job.
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Emotion Continuum
The closer any two emotions are to eachother on the continuum, the more likelypeople are to confuse them.
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Emotion Dimensions
Variety of emotions
Positive
Negative
Intensity of emotions Personality
Job Requirements
Frequency and duration of emotions
How often emotions are exhibited. How long emotions are displayed.