industrial organization psychology

7/29/2019 Industrial Organization Psychology

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DigitalVision/GettyIm

ages

19Industrial and

OrganizationalPsychology

An Overview of Industrial and

Organizational Psychology 769

Assessing People, Jobs,

and Job Performance 770

Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other

Characteristics

Job Analysis

Measuring Employee Characteristics

Measuring Job Perormance

Methods o Perormance Appraisal

Recruiting and Selecting Employees 777

Recruitment Processes

Selection Processes

Legal Issues in Recruitment and Selection

Training Employees 780

Assessing Training Needs

Designing Training Programs

Evaluating Training Programs

Employee Motivation 783

ERG Theory

Expectancy Theory

Goal-Setting Theory

Job Satisfaction 785

Measuring Job Satisaction

Factors Afecting Job Satisaction

THINKING CRIT ICALLY:Is Job SatisfactionGenetic?

Consequences o Job Satisaction

LINKAGES:Aggression in the Workplace

Occupational Health Psychology 792

Physical Conditions Afecting Health

Work Schedules, Health, and Saety

Stress, Accidents, and Saety

Work Groups and Work Teams 795Autonomous Work Groups

Group Leadership

FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS:Can People

Learn to Be Charismatic Leaders?

LINKAGES

SUMMARY

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769

Suose tht you re the nger o dertent store. You wnt to hire soeoneto hed u the cosetics dertent, but you re not sure how to choose the besterson or the job. Should you rely on interviews with ech o the cndidtes, or

should you lso give the soe sychologicl tests? Perhs you decide to do both, butwht questions should you sk during the interviews? Wht kinds o tests should youuse? And how should you interret the results? Further, wht hens fer you keyour hiring decision? Do you hve rocedures vilble to trin, otivte, suervise,nd rewrd eloyees so tht they eror t their best nd re hy in their work?

For nswers to questions like these, ny hun resource ngers nd other co-ny executives seek the hel oindustrial and organizational(I/O)psychologists. Webriey entioned I/O sychology in the chter on introducing sychology; here wedescribe it ore detil, including sury o wht I/O sychologists do nd soeo the wys tht their work benets orgniztions nd eloyees.

An Overview o Industril ndOrgniztionl PsychologyWe hve sid tht sychology is the science o behvior nd entl rocesses. Tesubeld oindustrial and organizational (I/O) psychologyis the science o behviornd entl rocesses in the worklce. Industril nd orgniztionl sychologistsconduct scientic reserch on ll sorts o eole-oriented worklce toics, such swht ersonlity trits redict good erornce under stress nd wht socil ctorscuse conict in work grous. I/O sychologists re lso hnds-on rctitioners whohel orgniztions ly reserch ndings to robles such s tching eloyeesto jobs nd xiizing cooertion in worklce tes. Te link between scienticreserch nd roessionl rctice cn be esecilly strong in I/O sychology becusethe worklce rovides both nturl lbortory or studying sychologicl questions

nd setting in which reserch-bsed nswers cn be lied nd evluted.Industril nd orgniztionl sychologists ddress two in gols in their

reserch nd rctice. Te rst is promoting effective job performance by eloyees,which ultitely leds to enhnced erornce by the orgniztion s whole. Tesecond gol is to contribute to hun welre byimproving the health, safety, and well-being of employees. Tis second gol is iortnt in itsel but is lso relted to the rstone. In eective orgniztions, eloyees re not only cble o eroring theirjobs well but re lso helthy nd well djusted in the worklce.

Industril nd orgniztionl sychology eerged erly in the 1900s s sycholo-gists begn to ly lbortory-bsed rinciles o lerning, eory, nd otivtion

to solve rcticl robles in the worklce. Over the yers, reserch nd lictionsin I/O sychology hve continued to be inuenced by lbortory reserch in ny

If you have a full-time or part-timejob, you know that workdays blend demands, challenges,

diffi culties, and rewardsall of which can affect job

satisfaction. Understanding the causes and effects of

job satisfaction is just one aspect of industrial and

organizational (I/O) psychology, the topic of this chapter.

We will describe how I/O psychologists conduct their

research and how they apply that research to improve the

performance and welfare of workers and of the organizations

that employ them.

industrial and organizational (I/O)

psychology The science o behaviorand mental processes in the workplace.

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770 chapter Indusil nd Ognizionl Psyology

Teaching I/O Psychology

Some graduates pursue careers in I/O

psychology ater completing a mastersdegree, but salaries and opportunities

are better or those with a Ph.D. For

example, virtually all I/O psychologists

who are hired as college or university

proessors have completed a doctoral

degree. Masters or doctoral training in I/O

psychology is available at more than one

hundred universities in the United States,

ten in Canada, and more than eighty in

other countries (Society or Industrial and

Organizational Psychology, 2007; or more

inormation on these programs, visit www.

siop.org).

o sychologys subelds, including cognitive sychology, ersonlity, otivtion ndeotion, helth sychology, nd esecilly socil sychology. Te work o I/O sy-chologists is lso shed by ndings in other elds, including business ngeent,

engineering, nd edicine.Like sychologists in other subelds, I/O sychologists hold grdute degrees in

their secilty. Te oulrity o the I/O secilty hs grown ridly in recent decdes,both in North Aeric nd throughout the industrilized world (Sector, 2003).According to survey by the Society or Industril nd Orgniztionl Psychology,bout 41 ercent o I/O sychologists re eloyed s roessors in college or uni-versity dertents o sychology, business, or relted elds. Another 24 ercent ownor work in consulting rs tht rovide services to rivte nd ublic orgniztionson ee-bsed reelnce bsis. About 24 ercent re hired s technicl secilists byrivte corortions, nd bout 7 ercent ct s reserch scientists in the ublic sector,including in governent gencies (Khnn & Medsker, 2007). Lets consider soe othe secic kinds o work tht I/O sychologists do in these vrious settings.

Assessing Peole, Jobs, nd Job PerornceI you ly or job with lrge corortion or governent gency, you will rob-bly be sked to tke one or ore stndrdized tests o ersonlity or entl bilitynd to rticite in other ssessents whose results will hel deterine whetheryou will t well into the orgniztion nd hve the right stu or the job you seek.Orgniztions coonly turn to I/O sychologists to design or conduct these ssess-

ent rogrs, so one o the in res o scientic reserch in I/O sychology is thedeveloent nd evlution o new nd better ssessent devices.

Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other Characteristics

Industril nd orgniztionl ssessents re ofen used to identiy the hun ttri-butes necessry or doing jobs successully. Tose ttributes re reerred to collectivelys KSAOs, which stnds or knowledge, skill, bility, nd other ersonl chrcteristics.Knowledge reers to wht the erson lredy knows. Skillreers to how well erson does rticulr tsk.Abilityis dened s the ersons reltively enduring ccities in res

such s thinking, hysicl coordintion, nd the like. Skills nd bilities re closely relted;soe reserchers consider skills to be the roducts o inherent bilities (Muchinsky,

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Assssing Pol, Jobs, nd Job Pfomn 771

2003). Other personal characteristics cn be lost nything else bout erson, includ-ing ttitudes, ersonlity trits, hysicl chrcteristics, reerences, nd vlues.

Job Analysis

How do orgniztions know which KSAOs re iortnt or which jobs? Te nswerlies in job analysis, in which I/O sychologists collect inortion bout rticulrjobs nd job requireents. Tis job nlysis inortion is then used to guide deci-sions bout who to hire nd wht kind o trining is needed to succeed t rticulrjob (Brnnick & Levine, 2002; Kruse & Tornton, 2009).

Tere re three jor roches to job nlysis. Te job-oriented approachocuses on the tsks involved in doing job, such s wiring circuit bords, creting couter dtbse, or driving truck. Te person-oriented approach ocuses on theKSAOs needed to do those job tsks (see ble 19.1). Te personality-or iented approachocuses on the secic ersonlity chrcteristics ssocited with success in job.Most job nlyses tke either the job-oriented or erson-oriented roch, but theersonlity-oriented roch is ofen used by orgniztions in which high-qulitycustoer service is o gret iortnce (Aguinis, Mzurkiewicz, & Heggestd, 2009).A job nlysis reort cn be reltively suercil descrition, icroscoicllydetiled exintion, or nything in between. Te roch tken nd the level odetil included in job nlysis deend inly on how the reort will be used. Whenthe nlysis will guide the hiring o eloyees, it should contin enough detil to keit cler wht rticulr job requires nd to showin court o lw, i necessryhow

the selection rocess is relted to the requireents estblished by the job nlysis. Teerson-oriented roch is the ost useul one or this urose becuse it describesthe KSAOs tht the eloyer should be looking or in the new eloyee.

Job nlysis cn lso hel orgniztions recognize the need to trin eloyees, ndit cn even outline the kind o trining required. Suose tht you hve ve job oen-ings, but when you test cndidtes or hiring or rootion, too ew o the ossess theKSAOs tht job nlysis sys re necessry or success in these ositions. Obviously,soe trining will be needed, nd becuse the job nlysis lists secic KSAOs, you cnuse tht nlysis to deterine exctly wht the trining should include. Suose tht job nlysis revels tht eole in couter sles osition ust be ilir with theLinux oerting syste. As result, you would rovide Linux trining or ll individu-ls hired or tht osition unless they lredy knew tht oerting syste.

Te ost coon ethod o job nlysis is to sk current eloyees (known sjobincumbents) to ll out questionnires bout wht they do in the worklce. However, soewht ore relible icture y eerge when secilly trined job nlystsobserve eole s they do their jobs or even eror those jobs theselves (Dierdor &Wilson, 2003). I the gols o job nlysis include coring one job to nother, I/Osychologists ight use n instruent such s the Position Anlysis Questionnire,or PAQ (McCorick, Jenneret, & Mech, 1972). Te 189 ites on the PAQ cndescribe lost ny job in ters o rticulr set o chrcteristics, or diensions,such s the degree to which job involves counicting with eole, lifing hevy

objects, or doing entl rithetic. Te results o thousnds o job nlyses hve been

job analysis The process o collecting

inormation about jobs and job

requirements that is used to guide hiring

and training decisions.

TABLE . Knowledge, Skill, Ability, nd Other Chrcteristics (KSAOs)

Job Title Knowledge Skill Ability Other

Secretary Knowledge o

o ce proce dures

Skill in using a

word-processing

program

Ability to

communicate with

others

Willingness to

ollow instructions

Plumber Knowledge o

county buildingcodes

Skill in using a

wrench

Good hand-eye

coordination

Willingness to

work in dirtyenvironments

Here are examples o the kinds o KSAOs

required or successul perormance by

people working in two diferent jobs.

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collected in the U.S. Dertent o Lbors Occutionl Inortion Network, orO*NE (Peterson et l., 2001). Tis electronic dtbse contins nlyses o rox-

itely eleven hundred job ctegories, including the KSAOs nd tsks involvedin ech nd how ech job ts into its orgniztionl context. Accessible online tonline.onetcenter.org, O*NE is n excellent source o inortion bout occutionsor nyone who is in the rocess o choosing creer. You ight wnt to visit the siteyoursel; you y nd descritions o jobs you hve never beore considered ursuing.

Measuring Employee Characteristics

I/O sychologists use wide vriety o instruents to esure ersons knowl-edge, skill, bility, nd other chrcteristics. Tese instruents rnge ro sileer-nd-encil testserhs n rithetic test or sles clerkto severl dyso hnds-on ctivities tht siulte the tsks required o idlevel nger. Soessessents re used to select new eloyees, others re designed to choose eloyeesor rootion, nd still others re ent to deterine how well eloyees re doingtheir jobs t the oent. Te three in ethods to esure eloyee chrcteris-tics re sychologicl tests, job licnt interviews, nd ssessent center exercises.

Psychological Tests A psychological test is systetic rocedure or observingbehvior in stndrd sitution nd describing it on nuber scle or syste octegories (Anstsi & Urbin, 1997). Soe tests resent stndrdized series o rob-les or questions, ech o which hs one correct nswer, uch like the ultile-choice

exs used in soe college clssroos. Others re ore like essy exs in whichthe resondent is sked to, sy, describe n idel sles orgniztion. Tese essy-tyeexs re not scored by couter but by exerts who use job nlysis inortionnd their own job exerience to judge the correctness or qulity o the resonses. Stillother tests require the resondent to deonstrte skill by eroring tsk such stying letter, debugging couter rogr, reiring cr, or giving sles tlk.

Te tests I/O sychologists ost ofen use to esure generl entl bil-ity nd skill re the stndrd intelligence tests described in the cognitive bilitieschter. Tese tests re reltively inexensive nd esy to dinister, nd they do resonbly good job o redicting how well eole will do on wide vriety ooccutionl tsks (Bertu, Anderson, & Slgdo, 2005; Jnsen & Vinkenburg, 2006;Rooy et l., 2006). In ddition, job licnts ight be sked to rticite in sit-uational judgment tests (SJs) in which they red bout or view videos o vriousworklce situtions, such s conict bet ween coworkers. Te licnts re t hensked to rte which o severl resonses to tht sitution would be best or to describewht they would do i conronted with tht se sitution (Sckett & Lievens, 2008).Te inortion rovided by SJs suleents cognitive nd ersonlity tests ndrovides n dditionl ersective ro which to redict n licnts eventuljob erornce (Lievens, Peeters, & Schollert, 2008; Slter & Highhouse, 2009).ests o job-relevnt knowledgesuch s bsic ccounting rinciles or stock-trding rules nd regultionsy lso be used to conr tht n individul hs

the inortion necessry to succeed t rticulr job. Finlly, ersonlity testsre used to ssess wide vriety o other eloyee chrcteristics. As described inthe ersonlity chter, soe o these tests rovide inortion bout ersonlitydiensions tht y be relevnt to hiring decisions. For exle, ersons scoreon conscientiousness (i.e., relibility nd industriousness) hs been linked to job er-ornce in ny occutions (Dudley et l., 2006; Meyer, Dll, & Bonccio, 2009;Toresen et l., 2003). Personlity-relted integrity tests re soeties used to iden-tiy eole who hve tendencies tht ight led the to stel or engge in dngerousor disrutive cts (Berry, Sckett, & Wienn, 2007; Csills et l., 2009; Ones &Viswesvrn, 2001). Tese re usully er-nd-encil tests tht sk resondents

bout their thoughts or tettions regrding thef, their ercetions o norsregrding dishonesty, their own socil conority, nd their history o ssocitingwith delinquents (Wnek, Sckett, & Ones, 2003).

TRY THIS

LINKAGES What methods are used to

select good employees? (a link to Personality,

p. 588)

A Matter o Degree

When hiring employees or some jobs,

organizations oten rely on credentials

rather than knowledge tests. For example,

an undergraduate degree in any majormay be enough to qualiy or some white-

collar jobs because it is assumed that

college graduates have enough general

knowledge and mental horsepower

to succeed. For jobs in medicine, law,

accounting, engineering, and other

specialty felds, candidates knowledge

is assumed i they have completed a

particular degree program or earned a

particular license. These assumptions areusually correct, but credentials alone do

not always guarantee competence.

NorbertvonderGroeben/TheImageWorks

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Job Applicant Interviews Job applicant interviews re designed to deterine nlicnts suitbility or job. Interviews usully tke lce in erson, though soere conducted by telehone, videoconerencing, or even e-il. As entioned in theersonlity chter, interviews cn be structured or unstructured (oen-ended). In structured interview, the interviewer hs rered list o secic toics or evenseciclly worded questions to be covered in rticulr order (Chn & Zweig,2005). In unstructured interviews, the course o the converstion is ore sontneousnd vrible. Following soe interviews, esecilly structured interviews, the cn-didtes resonses will be rted on set o diensions such s roduct knowledge,clrity o exression, nd oise. Afer other interviews, the interviewers subjectiveiression o the cndidte is used to ke yes-or-no judgent bout the cndi-dtes suitbility or the job.

Reserch consistently shows tht structured interviews re r ore eective thnunstructured interviews in leding to good hiring decisions (e.g., Hucutt & Arthur,1994). Te dierence is due lrgely to the ct tht structured interviews ocus se-ciclly on job-relted knowledge nd skills, esecilly interersonl skills, wheresunstructured interviews do not (Hucutt et l., 2001). Further, lck o structure kes itesier or ersonl bis to enter the hiring icture. Rtings ro n unstructured inter-view ight hve ore to do with the interviewers ersonl bis bout the cndidtesernce nd resenttion style thn with the cndidtes objective qulictions(Brrick, Sher, & DeGrssi, 2009). Tere is soe evidence tht job cndidtes tend toreer interview-bsed ssessents over test-bsed ssessents. Tis reerence is ointerest, esecilly when coeting or to cndidtes, becuse those who hve ositiveviews o the selection rocess re ore likely to like the orgniztion nd to ccet joboer (Husknecht, Dy, & Tos, 2004).

Assessment Centers An assessment center is n extensive set o exercises de-signed to deterine n individuls suitbility or rticulr job. Assessent cen-ters re ofen used to hire or roote ngers, but they cn be eloyed in reltionto other ositions s well. A tyicl ssessent center consists o two to three dyso exercises tht siulte vrious sects o job nd tht re rted by te ojudges, usul ly sychologists or secilly trined ngers (e.g., Gibbons & Ru,2009; Sychlski et l., 1997). Becuse ssessent centers llow live observtion o

licnts rections in vriety o relistic work situtions, they rovide inortionbout secic sects o behvior tht ight not eerge ro test or n interview(Gibbons & Ru, 2009).

Te in-basketis tyicl ssessent center exercise or ngers. Cndidtes reseted t desk nd sked to igine tht they hve just tken over new nge-ent job. On the desk is the revious ngers overowing in-bsket, continingcorresondence, eos, hone essges, nd other ites. Te cndidtes tsk is togo through ll this teril nd write on the bck o ech ite wht ction should betken to del with it nd when. Lter, exerts red wht the cndidte hs written ndssign n roriteness score to ech ction. For exle, cndidtes who rioritize

tsks welltking iedite ction on criticl tters nd delying ction on lessiortnt oneswould receive higher scores thn those who, sy, del with ech tskin the order in which it is encountered regrdless o its iortnce.

assessment center An extensive seto exercises designed to determine an

individuals suitability or a particular job.

Conducting structured interviews ensures

that each prospective employee will be

asked about the things that are most

important to the employer when flling a

job. It is easy to see what kind o workers

this boss is seeking.

DILBERT:ScottAdams/Dist.byUnited

FeatureSyndicate,Inc.

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Other ssessent center exercises t interersonl skills. Te job cndidte ightbe sked to ly the role o nger who is working with others to solve roble

or who ust disciline roble eloyee. As in the in-bsket tsk, ech cndidteis given score by ech judge on the knowledge, skills, bilities, nd other job-reltedchrcteristics dislyed during ech exercise. Lter, the evlution te eets to rrivet grou evlution, using totl scores ro ll ssessent center exercises to clssiyindividuls in ters o their suitbility or rticulr osition.

Tere is considerble evidence to suort the vlue o ssessent centers (Arthuret l., 2003; Jnsen & Vinkenburg, 2006; Meric et l., 2008). For exle, the ssess-ent center scores erned by rst-yer college students redicted their erornces techers severl yers fer grdution (Shechtn, 1992). Assessent centershve lso successully redicted the erornce o olice o cers, ilots, nd n-gers, ong others (Dyn, Ksten, & Fox, 2002; Lievens et l., 2003; McEvoy &

Betty, 1989). Assessent centers cn be exensive nd tie-consuing, though,nd their results soeties dd little beyond wht cn be deterined ro n li-cnts erornce on interviews nd cognitive tests. With these ctors in indsoe reserchers suggest using ssessent centers only s second ste in the selec-tion rocess nd only or licnts whose interview nd test scores re neither highenough nor low enough to guide nl hiring decision (Dyn, Fox, & Ksten, 2008).

Measuring Job Perormance

Alost ll eloyees o ediu to lrge orgniztions receive n nnul job

performance risl, which, uch like students reort crd, rovides n evlu-tion o how well they re doing in vrious sects o their work. Orgniztionsuse job erornce risls to guide decisions bout eloyee slry risesnd bonuses nd bout retention, rootion, nd ring. Te risls re lsoused to give eloyees eedbck on the qulity nd quntity o their work (Rynes,Gerhrt, & Prks, 2005). Te eedbck unction o job erornce risls isiortnt becuse it hels eloyees recognize wht they re doing right nd whtthey need to do dierently to rech their own gols nd to roote the gols o theorgniztion.

Establishing Perormance Criteria One o the ost iortnt roles or I/O sy-chologists in designing job erornce risl systes is to estblish criteria, orbenchrks, tht dene wht the orgniztion ens by good or oor eror-nce (see ble 19.2). Tese criteri cn be theoreticl or ctul. A theoretical crite-rion is stteent o wht we en by good or oor erornce in theory. A theo-reticl criterion or good teching, or exle, ight be rootes student lerning.Tis criterion certinly sounds resonble, but notice tht it does not seciy howwe would esure it in order to decide i rticulr techer is ctully rootingstudent lerning. So we lso need n actual criterion, which secies wht we shouldesure to deterine i the theoreticl criterion hs been et. An ctul criterion orgood teching ight be dened in ters o students erornce on stndrdized

test o wht their techer hs tught the. I, on verge, the students rech or exceedsoe rticulr score, the techer will hve stised one o the school districts criterior good teching.

Kee in ind, though, tht the tch between theoreticl criteri nd ctul cri-teri is never erect. Te ctul criterion chosen should rovide sensible wy tossess the theoreticl criterion, but the ctul criterion y be wed. For one thing,ctul criteri re usully incolete. Tere is robbly ore to good teching, orexle, thn just ensuring tht students ttin rticulr score on rticulrtest. Te techer y hve done gret (or oor) job t teching teril tht did nothen to be covered on tht test. Second, ctors other thn the eloyees eror-nce cn ect the ctul criterion. Perhs students scores on stndrdized testwere ected rtly by the work o good (or oor) techer they encountered beore

job perormance A measure o how

well employees are doing in various

aspects o their work, usually recorded

annually.

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their current techer ws hired. I/O sychologists re sensitive to these robles, ndthey usully recoend tht job erornce risls be bsed on severl ctulcriteri, not just one.

Methods o Perormance Appraisal

Te inortion used in job erornce risls cn coe ro objective e-sures nd subjective esures.

Objective Measures Objective measures o job erornce include counting the

requency o rticulr behviors or the results o those behviors. Te nuber o cllsde by telerketer, the nuber o couters shied out by ctory worker,nd the totl vlue o ites sold er onth by shoe store eloyee re just threeexles o objective esures o job erornce. Other objective esures ightinclude records bout the nuber o dys eloyees re bsent ro work, how ofenthey re lte or work, or the nuber o colints tht hve been led ginst the(Roth, Hucutt, & Bobko, 2003). Objective risl esures re esecilly vlublebecuse they rovide close link between theoreticl nd ctul erornce criteri.I the theoreticl criterion or good erornce s sleserson is to sell conysroducts, the ost closely linked ctul criterion would be n objective count o thenuber o those roducts sold er onth.

Objective ethods o job erornce re not right or ll jobs, however, becusesoe erornce criteri cnnot be evluted by counting things. For exle, itwould ke no sense to evlute techers job erornce by counting the nu-ber o students tught er yer. echers usully hve no control over their clsssize, nd in ny cse, n enrollent count tells us nothing bout wht the studentslerned. In other words, excet or the silest jobs, objective esures y ilto ssess ll the sects o erornce tht re o interest to n orgniztion. Asleserson y hve sold twenty crs lst onth, but it would lso be iortntto know how this ws ccolished. I the erson used high-ressure tctics ththred the orgniztions reuttion, the sles count tells only rt o the story o

this eloyees erornce. Siilrly, this onths to sleserson y hve donewell only fer inheriting territory ull o loyl custoers who buy the conysroducts no tter wht.

Subjective Measures No wonder, then, tht I/O sychologists soeties rec-oend tht objective erornce esures be suleented, or soeties evenrelced, by subjective esures (Rynes, Gerhrt, & Prks, 2005). Subjective measureso job erornce tke the or o suervisors judgents bout vrious sectso n eloyees work, including overll level o erornce, consistency o er-ornce ro dy to dy, nd longer-ter ositive or negtive erornce trends(Reb & Gregurs , 2010). yicl ly, the suervisor records these judgents on grhicrting or or behvior-ocused rting or.

TABLE . Exles o Teoreticl nd Actul Criteri

Job Theoretical Criterion Actual Criterion

Architect Design buildings Number o buildings designed

Car salesperson Sell cars Number o cars sold per month

Police o cer Fight crime Number o arrests made per month

Rooer Install roos Square eet o shingles installed per month

Scientist Make scientic

discoveries

Number o articles published in scholarly

journals

Here are some theoretical and actual

criteria or several kinds o jobs. Notice

that theoretical criteria tend to be rather

vague, so or purposes o job perormance

appraisals, they must be backed up by

actual criteria. By evaluating employees on

how well they have reached actual criteria,

organizations can decide whether the

theoretical criteria have been met and can

act accordingly.

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Graphic rating forms list severl criterion-relted diensions o job erorncend rovide sce or the suervisor to rte ech eloyees erornce on echdiension, using scle rnging ro, sy, 1 to 10 or ro oor to outstnding (see

Figure 19.1). Tese grhic rtings cn be vluble, but they do reect the suervi-sors subjective judgent. And s in unstructured interviews, ctors other thnthe eloyees erornce cn inuence the results (Wong & Kwong, 2005). Forexle, ost grhic rtings re ected byleniency error, ening tht suervi-sors tend to use only the to o the scle. As result, lost ll eloyees in ostorgniztions receive rtings tht re stisctory or better. Mny suervisors lsoshow errors bsed on the halo effect, ening tht they tend to give the se rtingon every diension o job erornce. So i sh receives n outstnding rtingon one diension, she will robbly be rted t or ner outstnding on ll the oth-ers. Siilrly, i Jck is rted s only stisctory on one scle, he will robbly get

stisctory rtings on the rest o the.o soe extent, these errors reect relity. Afer ll, ost eole try to do theirjobs well, nd they y do bout eqully well (or eqully oorly) in vrious sects otheir work (Blzer & Sulsky, 1992; Soloonson & Lnce, 1997). However, when usinggrhic rting ors, suervisors y not creully discriinte sects o job er-ornce tht re stisctory ro those tht need iroveent. Further, ny tendto go esy on their eloyees, esecilly i they like the eloyees (Ferris et l., 1994)or i other ctors such s oliticl correctness re oerting in the sitution (ziner,Murhy, & Clevelnd, 2005). Tis kind o bis cn result in voritis in which suer-visors intentionlly inte rtings beyond wht n eloyees erornce deserves(Fried & iegs, 1995; Rynes, Gerhrt, & Prks, 2005). Suervisors who re bised ginstcertin eloyees on ethnic or other grounds y give those eloyees undeservedlylow rtings (Heiln & Hynes, 2008; Stuer & Buckley, 2005). Te oertion o suchbises cn led to eloyee disstisction with the entire erornce risl ro-cess (Ferris & redwy, 2008).

o hel iniize the errors nd bis ssocited with grhic rting ors, I/Osychologists develoed behavior-focused rating forms, which sk suervisors to rteeloyees on secic behviors rther thn generl diensions o erornce(Sith & Kendll, 1963). Tese ors contin lists ocritical incidents tht illustrtedierent levels o erorncero extreely eective to extreely ineectiveoniortnt job diensions (Flngn, 1954). A criticl incident list relting to custoer

reltions, or exle, ight include l istens tiently, tries to rech coroise,coldly sttes store olicy, nd ngrily dends tht colining custoers leve.

Rate employee on each dimension on the left by checking the appropriate boxcorresponding to the level of performance for the past year.

Dimension Poor Fair SatisfactoryAbove

satisfactory Outstanding

Customerservice

Managementof time

Professionalappearance

Work quality

Workquantity

Teamwork

FIGURE 19.1

A Graphic Rating Form Used

in Subjective Job PerormanceAppraisal

Supervisors oten use graphic rating

orms such as this one in subjec tive job

perormance appraisals. The ratings

are based on the supervisors personal

experience with the employee and on

subjective impressions o that employees

work.

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Ruiing nd Sling Emloys 777

Once these behvior-ocused ors re constructed, suervisors choose which inci-dents re ost tyicl o ech eloyee.

Behvior-bsed rting ors hel suervisors nd their eloyees coe to better understnding o wht constitutes good nd oor erornce. Soewht sur-risingly, however, these ors do not er to eliinte suervisor bis nd error(Bernrdin & Betty, 1984; Lth et l., 1993). Accordingly, soe eloyers ssesseloyees job erornce on the bsis o rtings by eers nd subordintes s wells suervisors. Tese 360-degree rtings re designed to rovide broder ndotentilly less bised icture o n eloyees erornce (Oh & Berry, 2009). (InReview: Assessing Peole, Jobs, nd Job Perornce surizes our discussion othese toics.)

IN REVIEW Assessing Peole, Jobs, nd Job PerornceTarget o

Assessment Typical Purpose

What Is

Assessed Examples

Employees Employee selection Knowledge,

skill, ability, and

other personal

characteristics

(KSAOs)

Tests o ability, achievement,

or personality; structured

or unstructured interviews;

assessment centers requiring

simulated job tasks

Jobs Matching employees

to jobs; identiying

training needs

Job tasks

and personal

attributesneeded or the

job

Job-oriented analysis

(identies required tasks);

person-oriented analysis(identies KSAOs required or

success); personality-oriented

analysis (ocuses on specic

personality characteristics

associated with success)

Job perormance Feedback on

perormance;

decisions about

retention, salary

adjustments, or

promotion

Work activities

or products;

supervisors

reports

Evaluating employees work

in relation to theoretical and

actual criteria as measured

by objective (counting) or

subjective (rating) methods

1. Lists o critical incidents are contained in ____________ -ocused employee rating orms.

2. An employer might use a two-day ____________ to measure your skill at the job you want.

3. In general, ____________ interviews are more useul in employee selection than ____________

interviews.

Recruiting nd Selecting EloyeesWe hve described nuber o ssessent ethods develoed by I/O sychologists

to hel orgniztions hire, trin, nd evlute eloyees. Lets now consider the roleo I/O sychology in nding cndidtes or eloyent nd in selecting the righteole or ech job.

Recruitment Processes

It is generlly greed tht eole re n orgniztions ost vluble ssets, becuse it iseole who re ultitely resonsible or success in chieving n orgniztions gols.Accordingly, there is ofen intense coetition ong orgniztions to recruit the bestnd brightest eloyees. It is discilined coetition, however. Tere is no oint inhiring this yers to ten ccounting grdutes i your orgniztion only needs two new

ccountnts. So the rst ste in eective recruiting is to deterine wht eloyees reneeded nd then to go fer licnts to eet those needs.

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Deterining eloyent needs ens ore thn just counting ety chirs.Anlyses by I/O sychologists hel orgniztions deterine how ny eole in echosition re needed t the oent nd how ny will be needed in the uture. Suosetht couter cony nticites 20 ercent growth in business over the next veyers. Tt growth will require 20 ercent increse in the nuber o custoer ser-vice reresenttives, but how ny new reresenttives should be hired ech onth?An I/O sychologists nlysis would hel nswer this question. Te nlysis wouldtke into ccount the growth rojections s well s estites o how ny reresent-tives quit ech yer nd whether the existing rtio o custoer service eloyees tocustoers is too high, too low, or bout right or e cient oertion. In king reco-endtions bout recruitent lns, I/O sychologists ust lso consider the intensityo dend or eloyees in vrious occutions. More ctive recruitent lns will benecessry to ttrct the best eole in high-dend res (see ble 19.3).

Once eloyent needs re estblished nd the coetitive lndsce hs beenexlored, the next ste in recruitent is to ersude eole with the right kinds oknowledge, skill, bility, nd other chrcteristics to ly or the jobs to be lled. Tesix ost coon ethods or identiying nd ttrcting cndidtes re (1) news-er dvertising; (2) osting jobs on hotjobs.co, Monster.co, or other recruitent

TABLE . Fst-Growing Occutions

Here are the twenty astest-growing occupations according to the U.S. Bureau o Labor Statistics

(2008a). Industrial and organizational psychologists must take such trends into account when makingrecommendations about where to make the strongest eforts at recruiting new employees. (For more

inormation about these job categories, see U.S. Bureau o Labor Statistics, 2006, 2008b, available

online at w ww.bls.gov/emp/optd).

Occupation

Projected Employment Change,

(%)

Network systems and data communications analysts 53.4

Personal and home care aides 50.6

Home health aides 48.7

Computer sotware engineers, applications developers 44.6Veterinary technologists and technicians 41.0

Personal nancial advisers 41.0

Makeup artists, theatrical and perormance artists 39.8

Medical assistants 35.4

Veterinarians 35.0

Substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors 34.3

Skin care specialists 34.3

Financial analysts 33.8

Social and human service assistants 33.6

Gaming surveillance o cers and gaming investigators 33.6

Physical therapist assistants 32.4

Pharmacy technicians 32.0

Forensic science technicians 30.7

Dental hygienists 30.1

Mental health counselors 30.0

Mental health and substance abuse social workers 29.9

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Ruiing nd Sling Emloys 779

Web sites; (3) interviewing grduting seniors on college cuses; (4) collectinginortion ro current eloyees bout otentil cndidtes; (5) working witheloyent gencies, recruiting consultnts, nd rivte hedhunting rs; nd (6)cceting wlk-in lictions ro job seekers who er on their own. Te recruit-ent ethods used or ny rticulr job will deend on how esy or di cult it is tottrct high-qulity licnts nd on the iortnce o the osition in the orgniz-tion. For reltively low-level ositions requiring ew skills, it y be ossible to rely onwlk-in licnts to ll vilble ositions. Much ore eort nd vriety o recruit-ent ethods y be required to ttrct to-notch cndidtes or higher-level jobstht dend extensive exerience nd skill.

Selection Processes

Selecting the right eloyee or rticulr job is generlly tter o using tests,interviews, nd ssessent centers to nd the best t between ech cndidtes chr-cteristics nd the tsks nd chrcteristics tht job nlysis identied s necessryor successul erornce. Tis tching strtegy would suggest tht cndidtewho is better t written couniction thn t couter skills would do better in,sy, the rketing dertent thn t the couter hel desk.

Is this strtegy the best wy to select eloyees? Usully it is, but I/O sychologistshel ensure tht the chrcteristics identied s redicting success t rticulr jobsre in ct ssocited with success. o do this, they conduct validation studies, whichre reserch rojects designed to deterine how well rticulr test, interview, or

other ssessent ethod redicts n eloyees job erornce (Chn, 2005). Forexle, on the bsis o job nlysis conducted ny yers go, dertent storeight require licnts or sles clerk ositions to ss test o entl rithetic.A vlidtion study could deterine whether scores on tht test re ctully reltedto sles clerks erornce. Te esiest wy to conduct this study would be to sk reresenttive sle o the stores current sles clerks to tke the rithetic test.A correltion coe cient would then be couted tht describes the reltionshibetween their test scores nd soe objective or subjective erornce criterion, suchs onthly sles gures or suervisors rtings. I those who score highest on theentl rithetic test lso do best t their jobs, the test cn be considered vlid orredicting job erornce. I not, it y be tht or clerks using todys couter-

ized sles terinls, entl rithetic is no longer s iortnt to job success s itws in the st.

A lrge body o results ro I/O sychology reserch is vilble to tell orgniz-tions which tyes o tests nd other ssessents re vlid in redicting erorncein which tyes o jobs. Tis dtbse sves orgniztions gret del o tie ndoney becuse it eliintes the need to conduct their own vlidtion studies orech ssessent device they use in selecting eloyees or every job they wnt to ll.

Legal Issues in Recruitment and Selection

Te United Sttes nd ny other industrilized countries hve estblished the rin-cile tht hiring, ring, nd rootion rocesses should not discriinte ginstnyone on the bsis o chrcteristics tht hve nothing to do with job erornce.Tis rincile hs been trnslted into lws designed to rotect ll eloyees ndjob cndidtes ginst unir discriintion. U.S. lws hve lso identied ndcreted secil segurds or severl protected classesincluding woen, Asins,blcks, Hisnics, Aericn Indins, nd other grous whose ebers hve beendiscriinted ginst in the st. ogether, these lws ke it il legl or eloyersin the United Sttes to discriinte in hiring or rootion on the bsis o cndi-dtes ge, ethnicity, gender, ntionl origin, disbility, or religion. In soe sttesnd in soe other countries, discriintion on the bsis o sexul orienttion is lsorohibited.

validation In I/O psychology, the eort

to determine how well a test, interview,

or other assessment method predicts jobperormance.

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In 1978, I/O sychologists heled the U.S. governent crete its UniformGuidelines on Employee Selection Procedures, docuent tht outlines the stes org-niztions ust tke to ensure irness in hiring nd rootion. (You cn review thisdocuent t www.uniorguidelines.co/uniorguidelines.htl.)

Te ost iortnt eleent o these guidelines is the requireent tht erson-nel decisions be bsed solely on job-relted criteri. Tis ens tht in choosing neweloyees, or exle, orgniztions should hire those whose knowledge, skill, bil-ity, nd other chrcteristics tch the KSAO requireents reviously estblished bythe job nlysis rocess described erlier. Te guidelines lso stte tht orgniztionsshould use only test scores nd other ssessent dt tht vlidtion studies hve

estblished s good redictors o job erornce.

rining EloyeesEvery yer, orgniztions in the industrilized world send billions on trining theireloyees (Toson et l., 2002); the gure is ore thn $126 billion ech yer inthe United Sttes lone (Prdise, 2007). I/O sychologists re ofen directly involvedin identiying the need or trining, in designing trining ethods nd content, ndin evluting the outcoe o trining eorts. Soe I/O sychologists ctully conduct

trining rogrs, but in ost cses, these rogrs re delivered by roessionltriners.

Assessing Training Needs

o hel orgniztions identiy which eloyees need wht kind o trining, I/O sy-chologists tyiclly crry out training needs assessmenttht tkes into ccount theorgniztions job ctegories, workorce, nd gols (Goldstein, 1993). One sect othis ssessent is to look t job nlysis reorts. As entioned erlier, the need ortrining is indicted when job nlyses revel tht certin jobs require KSAOs thteloyees do not hve or tht could be strengthened. A second sect o triningneeds ssessent is to give eloyees chnce to describe the trining they would

Ensuring Equal Opportunity

Af rmative action (AA) is an important

element o the U.S. governmentsUniorm Guidelines on Employee Selection

Procedures. A major goal o AA was to

encourage organizations to actively seek

job applicants rom underrepresented

minority groups and in the process ensure

that qualifed minority candidates are not

overlooked. Critics claim, though, that AA

establishes quota systems in which certain

percentages o people rom particular

groups must be hired or promoted, even

i they are not all well qualifed. AA has

thus become an increasingly controversial

aspect o employment law.

Comstock/Jupiterimages

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Tining Emloys 781

like to hve. Tis inortion ofen eerges ro personal development plans thteloyees nd their suervisors crete. Tese lns usully include n evlution othe ersons strengths nd weknesses. Te weknesses suggest where trining ightbe useul, esecilly or eloyees who re otivted to irove their skills (Klein,Noe, & Wng, 2006). For exle, i the suervisor notes tht n individul is wk-wrd when king resenttions, course in ublic seking ight be worthwhile.Finlly, the I/O sychologist will look t the gols o the orgniztion. I those golsinclude reducing worklce ccidents or iroving couniction with intern-tionl custoers, trining in sety rocedures or oreign lnguge skills would be inorder.

Designing Training Programs

In designing trining rogrs or use by orgniztions, I/O sychologists re lwysindul o the bsic rinciles tht govern the lerning nd reebering o newinortion nd skills. Tese rinciles, which re described in the lerning ndeory chters, guide eorts to roote transfer of training, feedback, training ingeneral principles, overlearning, nd sequencing.

Transer o Training Te ost vluble trining rogrs re those tht techknowledge nd skills tht will generlize, or trnser, to the worklce. I eloyeesdont see how to ly wht they hve lerned so s to irove their job erornce,the trining eort will hve been wsted. Becuse rooting transfer of trainingis not

lwys esy, I/O sychologists develo written terils nd ctive-lerning exercisestht not only clriy the link between trining nd liction but lso give eloyees chnce to ly new knowledge nd skills in siulted work situtions. So trineesight rst colete reding ssignents, ttend lectures, nd wtch videos illustrt-ing eect ive roches to deling with custoer colints or deusing n o ceconict. Ten they ight or grous to role-ly using these roches in vri-ety o tyicl worklce scenrios. Tese exeriences enhnce trnser o trining,esecilly when the trinees newly lerned skills re suorted nd rewrded by theircoworkers nd suervisors (Kontoghiorghes, 2004).

Feedback Peole lern new skills quicker when they receivefeedback on their er-

ornce (Sither, London, & Reilly, 2005). In orgniztionl trining, this eedbckusully coes ro the triner or other trinees. It tkes the or o ositive rein-orceent ollowing rogress, constructive suggestions ollowing errors or ilure,nd constnt encourgeent to continue the eort to lern. For exle, fer onetrinee hs rticited in videoted role-ly o new wy to del with n ngrycustoer or disgruntled eloyee, the triner ight ly the video or the entiretrinee grou so tht everyone cn oer coents, colients, nd suggestions oriroveent.

Training in General Principles Peole tend to lern better nd reeber ore o

wht they lern when they cn ut new inortion into broder contextin otherwords, when they get soe insight into how the inortion or skill they re lern-ing ts into bigger icture (Linou & Kontoginnis, 2004). Te Linkges sections inthis book re designed seciclly to roote this kind o lerning. In orgniztionlsettings, the big icture roch tkes the or otraining in general principles,which teches not only how to do things in rticulr wys but lso why it is ior-tnt to do so. When trining new custoer service gents t hotel, bnk, or n ir-line, or exle, triners ofen include n orienttion to the bsic chrcteristics othese businesses, including how coetitive they re. Understnding their conysneed to survive intense coetition will hel eloyees recognize the iortnceo courtesy trining in deterining whether custoer reins custoer or goes

elsewhere.

Staying Gooy

APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY Training

programs or employees who portray

cartoon characters at major theme parksemphasize the general principle that the

organizations goal is to create a antasy

world or customers. This aspect o training

helps the employees understand why

it is important to ollow the rule about

remaining in character at all times. The

careully cultivated antasy world would be

disrupted i children were to see Mickey

Mouse or Bugs Bunny holding his

headgear under his arm while smoking a

cigarette!

JohnNeubauer/PhotoEdit

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Overlearning Prctice kes erect in ll kinds o teching nd trining, so I/Osychologists ehsize the need or eloyees to rctice using the in ortion ndskills lerned in trining rogr until they rech high level o erornce. Inct, ny trining rogrs encourge eloyees to continue rcticing until theyre not only highly coetent but re lso ble to eror the skill or use the in-ortion utoticlly without hving to think uch bout it. Tis overlearning isseen in ny everydy situtions, ost notbly ong exerienced drivers, who cnesily get ro one lce to nother without ying uch ttention to the echn-ics o steering, brking, nd turning. Athletes nd usicins, too, rctice until theirskills see to unold on their own. In the worklce, overlerning cn sve tie ndirove e ciency. For exle, ebers o n exerienced edicl te cn er-or surgery using skills nd inortion tht, through overlerning, hve becoesecond nture to the. Tey do not hve to sto to think bout how criticl tsks ust

be done; they sily do the.

Sequencing Is it better to cr orgniztionl trining into one or two long,intense sessions over single weekend or to schedule it in severl shorter sessions over longer eriod? Obviously, n intense, massed trainingroch is less exensive ndless disrutive to eloyees work schedules thn distributed training. However, I/Osychologists know tht, s described in the lerning chter, eole do not retin such fer ssed trining s they do fer distributed trining (Rohrer & Pshier,2007). Aong other robles, ssed trining cn led to boredo, inttention, ndtigue, ll o which interere with the lerning nd retention o new teril. As oststudents cn recite, n eloyee y rein otivted nd interested during one-hour trining session but will robbly be exhusted nd inttentive by the endo n eight-hour trining rthon. With this in ind, orgniztionl trining ro-grs re ofen set u on distributed schedule whenever ossible.

Evaluating Training Programs

Did trining rogr roduce enough benets to the orgniztion to ke it worththe tie nd oney it cost? Should it be reeted? I so, should it be rened in soewy? I/O sychologists re rered to conduct reserch on these iortnt evlu-tion questions. As described in the chter on reserch in sychology, controlled

exerients oer wy to drw resonbly strong cuse-nd-eect conclusions boutthe ict o trining rogr. A reresenttive sle o eloyees who needtrining would be selected nd then rndoly ssigned either to receive trining or tosend n equivlent ount o tie wy ro their jobs ursuing soe lterntivectivity. Te vlue o the trining rogr could then be esured in ters o the sizeo the dierence in job erornce between the trined (exerientl) grou ndthe untrined (control) grou. However, orgniztions rrely request exerientlreserch on their tr ining rogrs. Most o the erely hoe tht wht seeed to bevluble trining did, in ct, deliver inortion nd build skills tht wil l be retinedby eloyees nd will irove their job erornce. Accordingly, evlution tends

to ocus on nonexerientl designs using criteri such s eloyees rections totrining, wht they reeber bout it, nd the chnges in behvior tht ollow it.

Evaluation Criteria Te rst kind o evlution criteri, clled training-level crite-ria, includes dt collected ieditely fer trining session. rinees re tyicllysked to ll out questionnires bout how uch they liked the trining nd how vlu-ble they elt it ws. rining sessions tht receive low rtings on enjoyent, vlue,nd eectiveness re not likely to be reeted in the se ort, esecilly i thesessions re lso low on other criteri.

A second clss o criteri, clled trainee learning criteria, includes inor-tion bout wht trinees ctully lerned ro the trining rogr. Tese criteri

re usully esured by test, siilr to college nl ex, tht is designed to

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Emloy Moivion 783

Eloyee MotivtionIn the chter on otivtion nd eotion, we dene motivation s the reson eolebehve s they do. It includes biologicl, eotionl, cognitive, nd socil ctors thtinuence the direction, intensity, nd ersistence o behvior (Reeve, 1996; Sector,2003). Tese ctors re s iortnt in the worklce s they re nywhere else. Wecn see otivtion ecting the direction o work-relted behvior in eoles deci-

sions bout whether to work nd wht kind o job to seek. Te eect o otivtion

deterine ech trinees knowledge nd skills in the res covered by the trining. Insoe cses, lterntive ors o this test re given to the trinees both beore nd fertrining to ssess how uch iroveent hs tken lce.

Finlly, performance-level criteria esure the degree to which the knowledgend skills lerned in trining trnserred to the eloyees worklce behvior. Ieloyees now know how to do better job on the ssebly line or t the hotels rontdesk but do not ly this knowledge to irove their erornce, the trining ro-gr hs not been successul. So orgniztions ofen evlute trining on the bsiso criteri such s nuber or qulity o roducts roduced or requency o custoercolints. Signicnt iroveents ollowing trining y be result o tht trin-ing, but becuse so ew orgniztions conduct controlled exerientl evlutionso trining, drwing this conclusion is usully risky. Te iroveent y hve hdless to do with the trining thn with soe uncontrolled ctor, such s downturn in

the econoy tht otivted eloyees to work hrder in n eort to kee their jobs.I/O sychologists recoend evluting trining rogrs on s ny crite-

ri s ossible becuse the rent vlue o trining cn deend on which criteriyou consider (Sitznn et l., 2008). A rogr tht looks gret on one criterionight be disl on nother. In rticulr, ny rogrs tht get high eloyeertings on enjoyent, vlue, nd other trining-level criteri il to show eective-ness in ters o incresed roductiv ity, e ciency, or other erornce-level criteri(Alvrez, Sls, & Grono, 2004; My & Khnweiler, 2000). For exle, one trin-ing rogr tht ws designed to irove eloyees interviewing skills receivedhigh rtings ro the trinees, who showed iroved interviewing during trining.Unortuntely, these skills did not trnser to rel interview situtions (Cion &Cion, 1987). (In Review: Recruiting, Selecting, nd rining Eloyees su-rizes our discussion o these toics.)

IN REVIEW Recruiting, Selecting, nd rining Eloyees

Process Methods

Recruitment Perorm hiring needs assessment; place ads in newspapers and on Web

sites; contact employment agencies; conduct campus interviews; solicit

nominations rom current employees; accept walk-in applications

Selection Measure ca ndidate s knowledge, ski ll , abil ity, and other personal

characteristics using interviews, tests, and assessment centers; conduct

validation studies to ensure that these KSAO criteria predict job success

Training Conduct training needs assessment; design training to promote transer o

training, eedback, understanding o general principles, overlearning, and

distributed practice sequencing; evaluate training in terms o employee

ratings o the experience and improvement in employee perormance

1. Employees tend to remember more rom a training program when it is set up on a ____________

rather than a ____________ schedule.

2. Depending on walk-in applications is usually acceptable when hiring ____________ level

employees.

3. Ensuring that your hiring criteria actually predict employees job perormance requires a____________.

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on the intensityo work cn be seen in how ofen n eloyee isses work, shows ulte, works overtie, or goes beyond the cll o duty. Motivtion is lso reected in workerspersistence t tsk. Soe eloyees give u s soon s di culties rise,

erhs not bothering to ursue inortion i it is hrd to nd. Others kee trying,using every strtegy ossible until their eorts re successul.

Lets consider three theories tht I/O sychologists hve used to increse ourunderstnding o eloyee otivtion. One theory ocuses on generl ctorstht cn ect behvior in the worklce nd l l other res o lie, too. he oth-ers highlight ctors tht re ore seciiclly ssocited with otivtion in theworklce.

ERG Theory

In the chter on otivtion nd eotion, we describe Abrh Mslows theory inwhich hun behvior is seen s bsed on hierrchy o needs or otives (Mslow,1943, 1970). Tese otives rnge ro such bsic hysiologicl needs s ood ndwter to higher needs, such s those or estee nd sel-ctuliztion (see Figure 11.6).Mslow believed tht eole hve to t lest rtilly stisy needs t the lower levelso the hierrchy beore they will be otivted by higher-level gols. As discussed inthe otivtion nd eotion chter, though, this is not lwys true. Hunger strikers,or exle, ignore their need or ood in order to ursue rotest tht brings thecloser to sel-ctuliztion.

o ddress soe o the robles in Mslows theory, Clyton Alderer (1969) ro-

osed existence, relatedness, growth (ERG) theory, which lces hun needs intothree rther thn ve ctegories: Existence needs re things, such s ood nd wter,tht re necessry or survivl. Relatedness needs involve the need or socil contct,esecilly hving stisying interctions with nd ttchents to others. Growthneeds re those involving the develoent nd use o ersons cbilities. Tesethree ctegories o needs or continuu ro the ost concrete (existence) to theost bstrct (growth), but ERG theory does not suggest tht they ust be stisedin rticulr order. Insted, the strength o eoles needs in ech ctegory is seens rising nd lling ro tie to tie nd ro one sitution to the next. I needin one re is ullled or rustrted, erson y be otivted to ursue soe otherneeds. For exle, fer reltionshi breku rustrtes reltedness needs, erson

ight ocus on existence or growth needs by eting ore or volunteering to work lte.Siilrly, losing job rustrtes growth needs, so lid-o eloyee ight ocus onreltedness needs by seeking the socil suort o riends. Finlly, erson obsessedwith work-relted growth needs ight ignore riends until fer big roject is co-leted nd it is tie to rty.

I/O sychologists ly ERG theory in the worklce by heling orgniztionsrecognize tht eloyees y not be s otivted to ursue job-relted growth needsi other need ctegories re rustrted or unullled. We will see lter, or exle,tht ny orgniztions now llow exible working hours in the hoe tht eloyeeswill be ore otivted on the job once they cn ore esily stisy ily-oriented

reltedness needs. Orgniztions lso encourge eloyeesesecilly those in olderge grousto lern new skills nd try out new job roles tht hel stisy growthneeds (Kner, Chen, & Pritchrd, 2008).

Expectancy Theory

A second roch to eloyee otivtion is siilr in ny wys to Julin Rottersexectncy theory (Rotter, 1954, 1982), which is discussed in the ersonlity chter.It seeks to exlin how cognitive rocesses ect the ict o slry, bonuses, ndother rewrds on eloyees behvior (Vroo, 1964). Te in ssution oexpect-

ancy theoryin the worklce is tht eloyees behve in ccordnce with the resultsthey exect their ctions to bring nd how uch they vlue those results. For exle,

existence, relatedness, growth

(ERG) theory A theory o motivation

that ocuses on employees needs at

the level o existence, relatedness, and

growth.

expectancy theory A theory

o workplace motivation in which

employees act in accordance with

expected results and how much theyvalue those results.

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Job Sisfion 785

workers otivtion to ut out extr eort will increse i they exect bonus or doingso nd i they consider the bonus lrge enough to be worth the eort. Both exectncynd vlue re tter o individul ercetion, though, so it is di cult to use exec-

tncy theory to redict eloyee otivtion by considering outcoes lone. I soeworkers dont believe tht suervisor will ctully rovide bonus or extr work or icertin individuls re not strongly inuenced by oney, the rosect o bonus ynot be eqully otivting or ll eloyees.

Worklce tests o exectncy theory rovide strong suort or it. One reviewo seventy-seven studies showed tht how hrd eloyees work nd the qulity otheir work re strongly relted to their exectncies bout rewrds nd to the vluethey lce on those rewrds (Vn Eerde & Tierry, 1996). In short, eole tend towork hrd when they believe it will be worth the eort. Prt o the tsk ced by I/Osychologists is to hel orgniztions ke eloyees eel tht high erornce is

worthwhile.

Goal-Setting Theory

A third roch to eloyee otivtion, clled goal-setting theory, ocuses on theide tht behvior t work is ected not only by generl needs nd execttions butlso by workers intention to chieve secic gols. Tese gols cn be short-ter,such s nishing reort by the end o the week, or long-ter, such s erning rootion within the next two yers. A bsic rediction o gol-setting theory is thteloyees will be otivted to choose, engge in, nd ersist t behviors tht tke

the closer to their gols.Gol-setting theory hs roved quite useul in otivting eloyees. Tere is evi-dence tht rrnging or eloyees to send soe tie setting secic gols cn ledto better job erornce (Locke & Lth, 1990). Mny orgniztions tody encour-ge their eloyees to engge in gol-setting ctivities, but I/O sychologists reindngers tht soe gols re ore useul thn others. As described in the otivtionnd eotion chter, the ost otivting gols re those tht re chosen, or t lestcceted, by the eloyees; di cult enough to be chllenging but not so di cult sto be iossible; nd secic enough (e.g., incresing sles by 10 ercent) to lloweloyees to kee trck o their rogress nd know when they hve succeeded (Lth,2004; Lord et l., 2010). Tese chrcteristics ly not only to individul gols but to

grou gols s well (Arts, Dijksterhuis, & Dik, 2008; Wegge & Hsl, 2005).

Job StisctionSuccess in chieving worklce gols is one o ny ctors tht cn ect jobsatisfaction, the degree to which eole like or dislike their jobs. Like other tti-tudes described in the chter on socil cognition, job stisction is de u ocognitive, eotionl, nd behviorl coonents (Schleicher, Wtt, & Gregurs,2004). Te cognitive coonent o job stisction includes beliefs bout the job,

such s this job is too dending or this job lwys resents new chllenges.Te eotionl coonent includes ositive or negtivefeelings bout the job, suchs boredo, exciteent, nxiety, or ride. Finlly, the behviorl coonent ojob stisct ion is seen in how eole act in reltion to their work, erhs show-ing u erly nd stying lte or ybe tking every oortunity to void work byclling in sick.

Measuring Job Satisaction

o esure job stisction ccurtely, I/O sychologists exlore ll three o these

ttitude coonents. Tey lso ssess eloyees ttitudes bout their jobs in generl(global approach) nd bout vrious sects o it (facet approach; see ble 19.4).

goal-setting theory A theory o

workplace motivation ocused on the idea

that employees behavior is shaped by

their intention to achieve specifc goals.

job satisaction The degree to whichpeople like or dislike their jobs.

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In ost cses, job stisction is esured using questionnires. Soe question-nires, such s the Job in Generl Scle (Ironson et l., 1989), tke globl roch.Others, such s the Job Stisction Survey (Sector, 1985), re de u o subsclesdesigned to ssess ttitudes bout severl job cets, including y, rootion, ben-ets, coworkers, nd suervision (see Figure 19.2).

Factors Afecting Job Satisaction

Stisction with job in generl or with its vrious cets cn vry widely ro oneerson to the next, even ong eole doing the se job in the se orgnizt ion(Bond & Bunce, 2003; Schleicher, Wtt, & Gregurs, 2004; Stw & Cohen-Chrsh,2005). In other words, soe eloyees like jobs or sects o jobs tht other eloy-ees hte. I/O sychologists hve studied severl environentl nd ersonl ctorstht cn inuence eoles job stisction. Aong the environentl ctors rethe requireents o the job, how uch it ys, nd how it ects workers livesoutside o the worklce. Aong the ersonl ctors re workers gender, ge, nd

ethnicity.

Job Requirements Soe jobs, such s those o ssebly line workers, involveeroring the se reltively sile tsks gin nd gin throughout the work-dy. Other jobs, such s t hose in ngeent, re ore colex, requiring work-ers to eror dierent set o tsks ech dy, ofen in resonse to unredictblerequests or dends. Is t he colexity o job relted to workers job stisction?

TABLE . Fcets o Job Stisction

Facet

Satisaction

Rating (%)

Relationships with coworkers 94

Physical saety conditions

o work

91

Supervisor 82

Job security 81

Health insurance 73

Salary 70

Promotion opportunities 64

Retirement plan 61

Source: Gallup (1999).

TRY THIS Here are the results

o a Gallup poll in which workers inthe United States reported on their

attitudes toward eight acets o their

jobs. Notice that workers tend to have

difering attitudes about diferent

acets. For example, workers can be

satised with their coworkers and

supervisors but not satised with their

salaries. How do you eel about your

own job as student? Try listing the

aspects o studenting that give you

the most satisaction; then take a poll

among your student riends to see

which aspects o their studentship give

them the most satisaction.

1. I feel I am being paid a fair amountfor the work I do.

2. Raises are too few and far between.

1

1

1

1

6

6

6

63. I feel unappreciated by the organization

when I think about what they pay me.

4. I feel satisfied with my chances for

salary increases.

Disagree

verymuch

Disagree

moderat

ely

Disagree

slightly

Agree

slightly

Agree

moderat

ely

Agree

verymuch

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

3

4

4

4

4

5

5

5

5

Please circle the one number

for each question that comesclosest to reflecting youropinion about it.

FIGURE 19.2

Pay Satisaction Subscale rom

the Job Satisaction Survey

TRY THIS Here are just our items

rom the pay satisaction subscale o the

Job Satisaction Survey (Spector, 1985).As its name implies, this subscale ocuses

on employees attitudes about the pay

they receive in their jobs. Other subscales

assess attitudes toward other job acets,

such as promotion opportunities, benefts,

coworkers, and supervisors. I you have

a job, rate it on all these acets, and then

compare your ratings with those o a riend

or coworker. What acets would you add

to make rating orms like this one give abetter picture o job satisaction?

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Job Sisfion 787

In generl, yes; eole tend to be ore stised with jobs tht re ore colex(Chung-Yn, 2010; Meled, Fried, & Froo, 2001). As described in the chteron otivtion nd eotion, this higher stisction y relte to the ct t ht ore

colex jobs tend to be ore interesting, ore chllenging, nd ore likely to cre-te sense o resonsibility nd control in setting nd chieving gols (Mynrd,Joseh, & Mynrd, 2006). However, not everyone resonds to colex jobs in these wy (Jex et l., 2002). A colex job y generte disstisction ong eo-le who do not hve the KSAOs to do it successully. Even individuls who hve thenecessry knowledge nd skills y be disstised with colex job i their er-sonlity chrcteristics led the to reer siler, less intellectully dendingwork (Loher et l., 1985).

Salary Mny workers eel underid, but s discussed in the otivtion nd eo-

tion chter, higher slries lone do not necessrily led to higher levels o jobstisction (ng, ng, & Hoir., 2006). One study o recent college grdutesound correltion o only +.17 between strting slry nd overll job stisction(Brsher & Chen, 1999). A in reson or such low correltion is tht good sl-ry y not coenste or unstisctory sects o job, such s oor workingconditions or lck o resect ro suervisors. In ct, knowing tht slry nd yrise decisions re de in ir wy cn be ore iortnt to job stisction thnthe ount o oney eloyees receive (Cloutier & Vilhuber, 2008; DeCreer et l.,2010; Lio & Ru, 2005). As result, students working t low-ying jobs y beore stised thn executives who ern six-gure slries. Te students stisctiony coe ro knowing tht everyone doing the se job is getting the se y,wheres the executives y exerience sense orelative deprivation, the ercetiontht others re unirly receiving ore benets or the se or lesser eort (see thesocil cognition chter).

Work-Family Conict Te nuber o two-creer coules nd single-rent i-lies is on the increse in the industrilized world (e.g., Deo, Allen, & Fine, 2000;Weinrub, Horvth, & Gringls, 2002), ening tht ore nd ore eole exeri-ence conict between the dends o job nd the dends o ily lie (Eby et l.,2005; ODriscoll, Brough, & Kllith, 2006). One coon exle is the conict thtoccurs when the need to cre or sick child or ttend school ly intereres with

rents work resonsibilities. Work-ily conict ers highest ong olice o-cers, reghters, hysicins, nd others whose jobs require the to be resonsible

Minimizing Work-Family Confict

TRY THIS To help working couples

deal with both job demands and amily

obligations, many organizations have

adopted amily-riendly programs and

policies, including workplace day care

services and exible work schedules

(extime). These programs and policies

have been associated with higher levels

o job satisaction and less absenteeism

among employees with children (Baltes

et al., 1999; Scandura & Lankau, 1997).

Fortune magazine publishes an annual

issue listing the best U.S. companies to

work or. Look through this years issue and

the companies Web sites to see what kinds

o amily-riendly policies these companies

have established.

Surveys o job satisaction usually fnd that

some employees are more satisfed than

others, and these dierences can aect

how various employees do their jobs.

CLOSETOHOME2004JohnMcPherson.

ReprintedwithpermissionofUniversalUclick.Allrightsreserve

d

Br

uceEsbinPhotography/TheImageWorks

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or others (Dierdor & Ellington, 2008). Greter work-ily conict is stronglynd consistently ssocited with lower job stisction s well s with elevted bloodcholesterol levels nd lower hysicl energy (Berkn et l., 2010; Ford, Heinen, &

Lngker, 2007; vn Steenbergen & Elleers, 2009). Tese reltionshis er inboth en nd woen, lthough the ict o conict ers to lst longer or woen(Bltes & Heydens-Ghir, 2003; Grndey, Cordeiro, & Crouter, 2005; Lierre & Allen,2006). Prtly becuse o inut ro I/O sychologists, ny orgniztions re delingwith this source o job disstisction by estblishingfamily-friendly work policies ththel eloyees blnce work nd ily resonsibilities. One o these olicies, clledflextime, llows rents to work n eight-hour dy but rees the ro the stndrd9:00 a.m.to5:00 p.m. schedule. One rent cn coe to work t, sy, 9:30 a.m. fertking the children to school nd then sty on the job until, sy, 5:30 p.m. to coleten eight-hour dy. Te other rent cn strt work t, sy, 7:30 a.m. nd then leve erly

to ick u the children ro school.

Gender, Age, and Ethnicity Few, i ny, gender dierences hve been ound in overlljob stisction, even when the en nd woen being cored were doing quite di-erent jobs (e.g., Greenhus, Prsurn, & Worley, 1990; Moncrie et l., 2000). Jobstisction is relted to ge, though, with older workers tending to be ore stised thnyounger ones (Brush, Moch, & Pooyn, 1987). However, soe studies suggest tht the ic-ture is bit ore colicted thn tht (Andreoli & Leowitz, 2009; Hedge, Born, &Llein, 2006). For exle, ong eole who enter the world o work ieditelyfer high school or junior college, job stisction y t rst be quite high but y soonbegin to decline, esecilly ong les. Stisction rtings then tend to increse slowly

but stedily ro bout ge 30 to retireent. Tis ttern y occur becuse young work-ers with reltively little eduction y nd theselves in jobs tht re not only oorlyid but lso oer ew o the etures ssocited with job stisction, such s colexity,control over tie, nd reedo to select gols nd tsks (White & Sector, 1987).

Soe studies o workers in the United Sttes hve ound slightly higher job stis-ction ong whites thn ong nonwhites (e.g., Jones & Schubroeck, 2004; uch &Mrtin, 1991), but others hve ound no dierences (e.g., Brush, Moch, & Pooyn,1987). In ct, when corisons re de cross grous doing the se jobs, ethnic-ity does not er to be jor ctor in job stisction.

Is Job Stisction Genetic?

In the chter on otivtion nd eotion, we describe evidence tht eoles over-ll level o hiness, or well-being, y be deterined rtly by genetics. Couldgenetic inuences lso be oerting in the worklce in reltion to job stisction?

What am I being asked to believe or accept?Richrd Arvey nd his collegues (1989) hve suggested tht dierences in jobstisction reect genetic redisositions towrd liking or not liking job.

What evidence is available to support the assertion?As described in the chters on hun develoent nd ersonlity, eolesteerent nd ersonlity re inuenced by genetics. Reserch in I/Osychology shows tht these geneticlly inuenced ersonlity chrcteristics rerelted to eoles job stisction. In one study, or exle, hostility nd otherersonlity trits tht were esured in dolescence were ound to be signicntlyrelted to job stisction u to fy yers lter (Stw, Bell, & Clusen, 1986).Tese dt suggest tht job stisction is t lest indirectly shed by inheritedredisositions.

However, Arvey nd his collegues conducted wht y be the only study to

directly investigte the role o genetics in job stisction. Tey selected sle o

THINKING CRITICALLY

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Job Sisfion 789

thirty-our irs o geneticlly identicl twins who hd been serted nd rised indierent environents. Tey then rrnged or these eole to colete job stisc-tion questionnires. Te questionnire resonses showed strong ositive correltion

between the twins job stisction; i one twin ws stised, the other one tendedto be stised too. I one ws disstised, the other twin tended to be disstised swell. Te reserchers suggested tht becuse the ebers o ech twin ir hd beenrised in dierent environents, genetic ctors were t lest rtly resonsible or theobserved siilrity in job stisction rtings.

Are there alternative ways o interpreting the evidence?Tese results suggest strong genetic inuence, but they could hve been ected byctors other thn genetic redisosition to be stised or disstised with job.For exle, lthough the twins grew u in dierent hoe environents, their work

environents y hve been quite siilr. I so, these siilr work environentsy hve roduced siilr stisction rtings. Why would serted twins hvesiilr kinds o working environents? For one thing, the innte bilities, interests,behviorl tendencies, or ernce tht identicl twins shre could hve led theinto siilr kinds o jobs. Soe irs y hve selected jobs tht tend to be stisying,wheres other irs entered jobs tht tend to be less stisying. A ir o bright, thletic,or usiclly tlented twins y hve ound it ossible to hve colex, interesting,nd chllenging jobs nd to enjoy high level o stisction. A less ortunte set otwins, hving been unble to quliy or the kind o job they ight wnt, y hvesettled or ore routine work tht leves the eeling unstised. In other words, ity be tht genes dont she job stisction itsel but do she chrcteristics tht

inuence eoles ccess to stisying work.

What additional evidence would help evaluate the alternatives?One wy to ssess the ict o job chrcteristics on the high correltion in twinsjob stisction rtings is to look t the nture o the twins jobs. When Arvey nd hiscollegues did this, they ound tht the twins did tend to hold jobs tht were siilr inseverl wys, including overll job colexity nd soe o the skills required. A orecolete ssessent o the jobs nd job environents would be required, however, todeterine the strength o these nongenetic ctors in roducing ositively correltedjob stisction rtings.

Together Again

The notion that the inherited

characteristics shared by identical twins

might lead them into similar jobs was

dramatically illustrated in the case o Gary

Nisbet and Randy Joubert. Separated as

babies thirty-fve years earlier, these twins

were accidentally reunited when Randy

was hired as a urniture mover by the sameWaldoboro, Maine, company where Gary

already workedas a urniture mover!

GaborDegre/BangorDailyNews

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What conclusions are most reasonable?Reserch in I/O sychology suggests tht individul dierences in job stisction rerobbly relted to workers chrcteristics, soe o which re inuenced by genetics.

However, the recise echniss through which genetics ight ect job st isctionre not yet cler (Ilies & Judge, 2003). It is ost likely tht job stisction, like sony other sects o behvior nd entl rocesses, is shed by both genetic ndenvironentl inuences. Tere is no single reson why eole dier in ters o jobstisction. How stised we re with our work cn be redicted to soe extent byjob chrcteristics nd to soe extent by ersonl chrcteristics (Gerhrt, 2005),but the outcoe in given cse is ultitely tter o who does wht job in whtorgniztion.

Consequences o Job Satisaction

Orgniztions send lot o tie, oney, nd eort trying to intin resonblelevel o job stisction ong their eloyees. Tey do so, i or no other reson,becuse job stisction is linked to vriety o ositive consequences or individuls,their coworkers, nd their orgniztions. Disstisction with job cn led to nuer-ous negtive consequences.

Job Perormance Reserch shows tht eole who re stised with their jobs tendto be ore otivted, to work hrder, nd to eror better thn eloyees who redisstised (e.g., Fisher, 2003; Judge et l., 2001; Whitn, vn Rooy, & Viswesvrn,2010). Te ositive correltion between job stisct ion nd erornce kes sense,nd lthough correltion cnnot by itsel conr tht stisction is behind gooderornce, it is certinly consistent with tht conclusion. In ct, one et-nlysissuorts the view tht job stisction nd coitent to the orgniztion sheerornce rther thn the other wy round (Hrrison, Newn, & Roth, 2006).

Organizational Citizenship Behavior Job stisction is lso ssocited withorganizational citizenship behavior (OCB), willingness to go beyond orl jobrequireents in order to hel coworkers or the orgniztion s whole (Ilies, Scott, &Judge, 2006; Orgn, Podsko, & McKenzie, 2006). OCB tends to occur in return orir tretent eloyees hve received ro others or in n eort to suort grou

to which eloyees eel connected (Dll et l., 2009; Kdr, McAllister, & urbn,2006; Nishii, Lek & Schneider, 2008). As in the cse o job erornce, though,it is di cult to deterine whether job stisction increses OCB or whether engg-ing in OCB increses job stisction. Further, orgniztionl citizenshi behvioright reect ctors other thn job stisction. One such ctor is ersonlity; OCBis rticulrly likely ong eole who re high on greebleness nd conscientious-ness (Ilies et l., 2009). Other cses o OCB y occur s rt o strtegy designedto ttin y rise, rootion, or other ersonl gol. In one study, or exle,eloyees who believed it would hel their rootion chnces engged in high levelso OCB beore being rooted nd then reduced their OCB ferwrd (Hui, L, &

Lw, 2000). Another study ound tht techers on teorry contrcts elt less securebout their jobs nd lso engged in ore orgniztionl citizenshi behviors thntechers who held ernent ositions (Fether & Ruter, 2004).

Turnover Every orgniztion ust del with certin ount oturnover, or loss oeloyees. Soe turnover is involuntry, s in cses o disbility or disissl, but ucho it is voluntry (Hrn et l., 2007). Soe eloyees sily quit, nd they tend tobe eloyees whose job stisction is low (e.g., Grieth, Ho, & Gertner, 2000). How-ever, in order to void uneloyent, ew disstised workers quit until nd unless theyhve ound nother job (Keyer-Mueller et l., 2005). So job disstisction is reltedore strongly to turnover when eole re ble to nd other jobs (revor, 2001). When

lterntive eloyent is unvilble, even disstised workers tend to sty ut.

organizational citizenship behavior

(OCB) A willingness to go beyond

ormal job requirements in order to help

coworkers or the organization as a whole.

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Job Sisfion 791

Eorts to reduce turnover include estblishing suortive reltionshis betweennew eloyees, clledprotgs, nd ore exerienced eloyees, known s mentors.Such entoring rogrs cn be eective, esecilly when they involve structured

rther thn in orl eetings nd when cre is tken to tch rotgs with entorswho re ost likely to hel the (Allen, Eby, & Lentz, 2006; Ortiz-Wlters & Gilson,2005; Pyne & Hun, 2005).

Absenteeism You ight exect tht bsenteeis, like voluntry turnover, wouldbe strongly relted to job stisction. However, the correltion between job stisc-tion nd ttendnce is surrisingly wek. rue, there is tendency or disstisedeloyees to be bsent ore requently thn those who re stised. But other ctors,including ersonl or ily illness, work-ily conicts, nd the nncil conse-quences o issing work re r ore iortnt in deterining who shows u nd

who doesnt (Dlton & Mesch, 1991; Erickson, Nichols, & Ritter, 2000).

Aggression and Counterproductive Work Behavior Job disstisction is onecuse o worklce ggression, s well s o thef nd other ors ocounterproductivework behavior (CWB). Assults or urders involving coworkers or suervisors rerre (Brling, Dur, & Kellowy, 2009; LeBlnc, Dur, & Brling, 2006), but thef,couter hcking, nd other ors o CWB by eloyees nd orer eloyees recoonlce. Eloyee thef in the United Sttes lone costs orgniztions billionso dollrs ech yer (Gtewood & Feild, 2001). In ct, eloyees stel ore ro theireloyers thn sholifers stel ro retilers (Hollinger et l., 1996). Te direct ndindirect costs o other ors o CWB, such s sbotge, working slowly, or doing jobs

incorrectly, re stggering. But the true cost o CWB cn be hrd to deterine becuseso uch o it goes unnoticed (Bennett & Robinson, 2000).

As illustrted in Figure 19.3, it is ofen stress in the worklce tht leds to job dis-stisction nd negtive eotions such s nger nd nxiety (Rodell & Judge, 2009;Sector, Fox, & Dolgski, 2006). Tese eotions cn in turn result in CWB, ese-cilly ong eloyees who eel tht they hve been treted unirly or hve littleor no control over worklce stressors (Aquino, ri, & Bies, 2006; Fox, Sector, &Miles, 2001; Greenberg, 2002; Penney & Sector, 2005). Why does lck o control t-ter? As described in the chter on helth, stress, nd coing, when eole eel thtthey hve control over the work sitution, they re ore likely to erceive stressors

s chllenges to be overcoe nd to try constructive ens o eeting those chl-lenges. Suose tht suervisor suddenly ssigns di cult tsk to n eloyeewho ust colete it by the next dy or ce serious consequences. I the eloyeeeels su ciently in control o the sitution to colete the tsk on tie, this stress-ul ssignent is likely to be erceived s chllenge to be stered. I the eloyeedoesnt hve tht sense o control nd believes it is iossible to eet the dedline,this ssignent will robbly led to disstisction nd negtive eotions such sngry resentent. Tis erson is t elevted risk or engging in CWB directed t thesuervisor, the orgniztion, or other eloyees.

LINKAGES How do stressors affect job

performance? (a link to Health, Stress, and

Coping, p. 536)

StressorsJob dissatisfactionand negativeemotions

Counterproductivework behavior

Lowcontrol

Highcontrol

Productivework behavior

FIGURE 19.3

Job Satisaction and

Counterproductive Work Behavior

Workplace stressors can lead to job

dissatisaction, which leads to negative

emotions and counterproductive work

behavior, especially among employees

who eel mistreated and unable to control

stressors.

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LINKAGES What causes workplace

aggression? (a link to Social Influence, p. 743)

Aggression in the Worklce

In the chter on socil inuence, we describe nuber o biologicl, sychologicl,

nd environentl ctors tht er resonsible or triggering hun ggres-sion nd violence. Tese ctors oerte in the worklce, too, though incidents oggression between or ginst workers dier in soe wys ro violence outside theworklce (Hershcovis et l., 2007).

For exle, wheres nerly hl o urder victis in the United Sttes knowtheir ssilnts (Cssell & Bernstein, 2007), bout 85 ercent o worklce hoicidesre coitted ginst eloyees by strngers (LeBlnc & Brling, 2004). In otherwords, desite well-ublicized cses o disgruntled eloyees killing coworkers orsuervisors, eloyees ctully coit only bout 15 ercent o worklce hoicidesnd less thn10 ercent o worklce ssults (LeBlnc & Brling, 2004). Convenience

store clerks, txi drivers, nd other eloyees who del directly with the ublic, hn-dle oney, nd work lone t night re t rticulr risk to be victis o worklceggression (LeBlnc, Dur, & Brling, 2006). Most ggression ginst these eole isinstrumental aggression, ening tht the ggressors intent is not necessrily to injurebut to ttin gol such s getting oney or other vlubles (Merchnt & Lundell,2001). Tough the eretrtor ofen uses weon to intiidte the eloyee, theseggressive incidents do not usully result in hysicl injury.

Most cses o injury in the worklce occur in the course o ggressive ssults bytients or custoers on doctors, nurses, nd other helth workers, sles clerks, nd oodservers (Bssing & Hge, 2004; LeBlnc & Brling, 2004). Ofen these injuries occur understressul circustncessuch s during eergency roo tretentin which in, nger,

tigue, nd rustrtion led to n iulsive, eotionl, ggressive outburst. In contrst toinstruentl ggression, the eretrtors intent in these cses is to injure the victi.

When ggression does occur between or ong eloyees, the ssult is usu-lly verbl, not hysicl, nd the result is usully resentent nd bruised eelings, notbruised bodies (Brling, Dur, & Kellowy, 2009; Grubb et l., 2005). Like rod rgeincidents, eloyee-to-eloyee ggression is ofen the by-roduct o n iulsive,eotionl outburst under tie ressure or other stressul conditions, including work-lce injustices or busive suervision (Berry, Ones, & Sckett, 2007; Inness, Brling, &urner, 2005). Soeties, though, this or o ggression y reect n ttetby one eloyee to control others through bullying or intiidtion (Grubb

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